,,american ,,hero-,,myths4 ,a ,,study ,,in ,,the ,,native ,,religions ,,of ,,the ,,western ,,continent4 ,,by ,,daniel ,g4 ,,brinton1 ,m4,d41 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,philosophical ,,society2 ,,the ,,american ,,antiquarian ,,society2 ,,the ,,numismatic ,,and ,,antiquarian ,,society ,,of ,,phila41 ,,etc42 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,myths ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world2 ,,the ,,religious ,,sentiment4 ,,etc4 #ahhb4 ,,to ,,eli ,k4 ,,price1 ,,esq41 ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,numismatic ,,and ,,antiquarian ,,society ,,of ,,philadelphia1 ,,whose ,,enlightened ,,interest ,,has ,,for ,,many ,,years1 ,,and ,,in ,,many ,,ways1 ,,furthered ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,knowledge1 ,,this ,,volume ,,is ,,respectfully ,,dedicated ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,,preface4 ,this little volume is a contribution to the comparative study of religions4 ,it is an endeavor to present in a critically correct light some of the fundamental conceptions which are found in the native beliefs of the tribes of ,america4 ,so little has heretofore been done in this field that it has yielded a very scanty harvest for purposes of general study4 ,it has not yet even passed the stage where the distinction between myth and tradition has been recognized4 ,nearly all historians continue to write about some of the ,american hero-gods as if they had been chiefs of tribes at some undetermined epoch1 and the effort to trace the migrations and affiliations of nations by similarities in such stories is of almost daily occurrence4 ,how baseless and misleading all such arguments must be1 it is one of my objects to set forth4 ,at the same time ,i have endeavored to be temperate in applying the interpretations of mythologists4 ,i am aware of the risk one runs in looking at every legend as a light or storm myth4 ,my guiding principle has been that when the same1 and that a very extraordinary1 story is told by several tribes wholly apart in language and location1 then the probabilities are enormous that it is not a legend but a myth1 and must be explained as such4 ,it is a spontaneous production of the mind1 not a reminiscence of an historic event4 ,the importance of the study of myths has been abundantly shown of recent years1 and the methods of analyzing them have been established with satisfactory clearness4 ,the time has long since passed1 at least among thinking men1 when the religious legends of the lower races were looked upon as trivial fables1 or as the inventions of the ,father of ,lies4 ,they are neither the one nor the other4 ,they express1 in image and incident1 the opinions of these races on the mightiest topics of human thought1 on the origin and destiny of man1 his motives for duty and his grounds of hope1 and the source1 history and fate of all external nature4 ,certainly the sincere expressions on these subjects of even humble members of the human race deserve our most respectful heed1 and it may be that we shall discover in their crude or coarse narrations gleams of a mental light which their proud ,aryan brothers have been long in coming to1 or have not yet reached4 ,the prejudice against all the lower faiths inspired by the claim of ,christianity to a monopoly of religious truth--a claim nowise set up by its founder--has led to extreme injustice toward the so-called heathen religions4 ,little effort has been made to distinguish between their good and evil tendencies1 or even to understand them4 ,i do not know of a single instance on this continent of a thorough and intelligent study of a native religion made by a ,protestant missionary4 ,so little real work has been done in ,american mythology that very diverse opinions as to its interpretation prevail among writers4 ,too many of them apply to it facile generalizations1 such as heliolatry1 animism1 ancestral worship1 primitive philosophizing1 and think that such a sesame will unloose all its mysteries4 ,the result has been that while each satisfies himself1 he convinces no one else4 ,i have tried to avoid any such bias1 and have sought to discover the source of the myths ,i have selected1 by close attention to two points3 first1 that ,i should obtain the precise original form of the myth by a rigid scrutiny of authorities2 and1 secondly1 that ,i should bring to bear upon it modern methods of mythological and linguistic analysis4 ,the first of these requirements has given me no small trouble4 ,the sources of ,american history not only differ vastly in merit1 but many of them are almost inaccessible4 ,i still have by me a list of books of the first order of importance for these studies1 which ,i have not been able to find in any public or private library in the ,united ,states4 ,i have been free in giving references for the statements in the text4 ,the growing custom among historians of omitting to do this must be deplored in the interests of sound learning4 ,it is better to risk the charge of pedantry than to leave at fault those who wish to test an author's accuracy or follow up the line of investigation he indicates4 ,on the other hand1 ,i have exercised moderation in drawing comparisons with ,aryan1 ,semitic1 ,egyptian and other ,old ,world mythologies4 ,it would have been easy to have noted apparent similarities to a much greater extent4 ,but ,i have preferred to leave this for those who write upon general comparative mythology4 ,such parallelisms1 to reach satisfactory results1 should be attempted only by those who have studied the ,oriental religions in their original sources1 and thus are not to be deceived by superficial resemblances4 ,the term comparative mythology reaches hardly far enough to cover all that ,i have aimed at4 ,the professional mythologist thinks he has completed his task when he has traced a myth through its transformations in story and language back to the natural phenomena of which it was the expression4 ,this external history is essential4 ,but deeper than that lies the study of the influence of the myth on the individual and national mind1 on the progress and destiny of those who believed it1 in other words1 its true religious import4 ,i have endeavored1 also1 to take some account of this4 ,the usual statement is that tribes in the intellectual condition of those ,i am dealing with rest their religion on a worship of external phenomena4 ,in contradiction to this1 ,i advance various arguments to show that their chief god was not identified with any objective natural process1 but was human in nature1 benignant in character1 loved rather than feared1 and that his worship carried with it the germs of the development of benevolent emotions and sound ethical principles4 ,media1 ,pa41 ,oct41 #ahhb4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,some ,kind of ,religion ,found among all ,men--,classifications of ,religions--,the ,purpose of ,religions--,religions of ,rite and of ,creed--,the ,myth ,grows in the ,first of these--,intent and ,meaning of the ,myth4 ,processes of ,myth ,building in ,america--,personification1 ,paronyms and ,homonyms--,otosis--,polyonomy--,henothe ism--,borrowing--,rhetorical ,figures--,abstract ,expressions--,esoteric ,teachings4 ,outlines of the ,fundamental ,american ,myth--,the ,white ,culture-hero and the ,four ,brothers--,interpretation of the ,myth--,comparison with the ,aryan ,hermes ,myth--,with the ,aryo-,semitic ,cadmus ,myth--,with ,osirian ,myths--,the ,myth of the ,virgin ,mother--,the ,interpretation thus ,supported4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,hero-,,gods ,,of ,,the ,,algonkins ,,and ,,iroquois4 #a4 ,the ,algonkin ,myth of ,michabo4 ,the ,myth of the ,giant ,rabbit--,the ,rabbit ,creates the ,world--,he ,marries the ,muskrat--,becomes the ,all-,father--,derivation of ,michabo--of ,wajashk1 the ,musk-rat--,the ,myth ,explained--,the ,light-,god as ,god of the ,east--,the ,four ,divine ,brothers--,myth of the ,huarochiris--,the ,day-,makers--,michabo's ,contests with ,his ,father and ,brother--,explanation of ,these--,the ,symbolic ,flint ,stone--,michabo ,destroys the ,serpent ,king--,meaning of this ,myth--,relations of the ,light-,god and ,wind-,god--,michabo as ,god of ,waters and ,fertility--,represented as a ,bearded ,man4 #b4 ,the ,iroquois ,myth of ,ioskeha4 ,the ,creation of the ,earth--,the ,miraculous ,birth of ,ioskeha--,he ,overcomes his ,brother ,tawiscara--,creates and ,teaches ,mankind--,visits his ,people--,his ,grandmother ,ataensic--,ioskeha as ,father of his ,mother--,similar ,conceptions in ,egyptian ,myths--,derivation of ,ioskeha and ,ataensic--,ioskeha as ,tharonhiawakon1 the ,sky ,supporter--,his ,brother ,tawiscara or ,tehotennhiaron ,identified--,similarity to ,algonkin ,myths4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,hero-,,god ,,op ,,the ,,aztec ,,tribes4 #a4 ,the ,two ,antagonists4 ,the ,contest of ,quetzalcoatl and ,tezcatlipoca--,quetzalcoatl the ,light-,god--,derivation of ,his ,name--,titles of ,tezcatlipoca--,identified with ,darkness1 ,night and ,gloom4 #b4 ,quetzalcoatl the ,god4 ,myth of the ,four ,brothers--,the ,four ,suns and the ,elemental ,conflict--,names of the ,four ,brothers4 #c4 ,quetzalcoatl the ,hero of ,tula4 ,tula1 the ,city of the ,sun--,who were the ,toltecs8--,tlapallan and ,xalac--,the ,birth of the ,hero ,god--,his ,virgin ,mother ,chimalmatl--,his ,miraculous ,conception--,aztlan1 the ,land of ,seven ,caves1 and ,colhuacan1 the ,bended ,mount--,the ,maid ,xochitl and the ,rose ,garden of the ,gods--,quetzalcoatl as the ,white and ,bearded ,stranger4 ,the ,glory of the ,lord of ,tula--,the ,subtlety of the ,sorcerer ,tezcatlipoca--,the ,magic ,mirror and the ,mystic ,draught--,the ,myth ,explained--,the ,promise of ,rejuvenation--,the ,toveyo and the ,maiden--,the ,juggleries of ,tezcatlipoca--,departure of ,quetzalcoatl from ,tula--,quetzalcoatl at ,cholula--,his ,death or ,departure--,the ,celestial ,game of ,ball and ,tiger ,skin--,quetzalcoatl as the ,planet ,venus4 #d4 ,quetzalcoatl as ,lord of the ,winds4 ,the ,lord of the ,four ,winds--,his ,symbols1 the ,wheel of the ,winds1 the ,pentagon and the ,cross--,close ,relation to the ,gods of ,rain and ,waters--,inventor of the ,calendar--,god of ,fertility and ,conception--,recommends ,sexual ,austerity--,phallic ,symbols--,god of ,merchants--,the ,patron of ,thieves--,his ,pictographic ,representations4 #e4 ,the ,return of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,his ,expected ,re-appearance--,the ,anxiety of ,montezuma--,his ,address to ,cortes--,the ,general ,expectation--,explanation of his ,predicted ,return4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,hero-,,gods ,,of ,,the ,,mayas4 ,civilization of the ,mayas--,whence it ,originated--,duplicate ,traditions #a4 ,the ,culture ,hero ,itzamna4 ,itzamna as ,ruler1 ,priest and ,teacher--,as ,chief ,god and ,creator of the ,world--,las ,casas' ,supposed ,christ ,myth--,the ,four ,bacabs--,itzamna as ,lord of the ,winds and ,rains--,the ,symbol of the ,cross--,as ,lord of the ,light and ,day--,derivation of his ,various ,names4 #b4 ,the ,culture ,hero ,kukulcan4 ,kukulcan as ,connected with the ,calendar--,meaning of the ,name--,the ,myth of the ,four ,brothers--,kukulcan's ,happy ,rule and ,miraculous ,disappearance--,relation to ,quetzalcoatl--,aztec and ,maya ,mythology--,kukulcan a ,maya ,divinity--,the ,expected ,return of the ,hero-god--,the ,maya ,prophecies--,their ,explanation4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,qqichua ,,hero-,,god ,,viracocha4 ,viracocha as the ,first ,cause--,his name ,illa ,ticci--,qquichua ,prayers--,other ,names and ,titles of ,viracocha--,his ,worship a ,true ,monotheism--,the ,myth of the ,four ,brothers--,myth of the ,twin ,brothers4 ,viracocha as ,tunapa1 ,he who ,perfects--,various ,incidents in ,his ,life--,relation to ,manco ,capac--,he ,disappears in the ,west4 ,viracocha ,rises from ,lake ,titicaca and ,journeys to the ,west--,derivation of ,his ,name--,he was ,represented as ,white and ,bearded--,the ,myth of ,con and ,pachacamac--,contice ,viracocha--,prophecies of the ,peruvian ,seers ,the ,white ,men ,called ,viracochas--,similarities to ,aztec ,myths4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,extension ,,and ,,influence ,,op ,,the ,,typical ,,hero-,,myth4 ,the ,typical ,myth found in many parts of the ,continent--,difficulties in ,tracing it--,religious ,evolution in ,america ,similar to that in the ,old ,world--,failure of ,christianity in the ,red ,race4 ,the ,culture ,myth of the ,tarascos of ,mechoacan--,that of the ,kiches of ,guatemala4--,the ,votan ,myth of the ,tzendals of ,chiapas--,a ,fragment of a ,mixe ,myth--,the ,hero-,god of the ,muyscas of ,new ,granada--,of the ,tupi-,guaranay ,stem of ,paraguay and ,brazil--,myths of the ,dn of ,british ,america4 ,sun ,worship in ,america--,germs of ,progress in ,american ,religions--,relation of ,religion and ,morality--,the ,light-,god ,a ,moral and ,beneficent ,creation--,his ,worship was ,elevating--,moral ,condition of ,native ,societies before the ,conquest--,progress in the ,definition of the ,idea of ,god in ,peru1 ,mexico and ,yucatan--,erroneous ,statements about the ,morals of the ,natives--,evolution of their ,ethical ,principles4 ,,index4 ,,american ,,hero-,,myths4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,,some ,,kind ,,of ,,religion ,,found ,,among ,,all ,,men--,,classifications ,,of ,,religions--,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,religions--,,religions ,,of ,,rite ,,and ,,of ,,creed--,,the ,,myth ,,grows ,,in ,,the ,,first ,,of ,,these--,,intent ,,and ,,meaning ,,of ,,the ,,myth4 ,,processes ,,of ,,myth-,,building ,,in ,,america--,,personification4 ,,paronyms ,,and ,,homonyms--,,otosis--,,polyonomy--,,hen otheism--,,borrowing--,,rhetorical ,,figures--,,abstract ,,expressions4 ,,esoteric ,,teachings4 ,,outlines ,,of ,,the ,,fundamental ,,american ,,myth--,,the ,,white ,,culture-,,hero ,,and ,,the ,,four ,,brothers--,,interpretation ,,of ,,the ,,myth--,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,aryan ,,hermes ,,myth--,,with ,,the ,,aryo-,,semitic ,,cadmus ,,myth--,,with ,,osirian ,,myths--,,the ,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,virgin ,,mother--,,the ,,interpretation ,,thus ,,supported4 ,the time was1 and that not so very long ago1 when it was contended by some that there are tribes of men without any sort of religion2 nowadays the effort is to show that the feeling which prompts to it is common1 even among brutes4 ,this change of opinion has come about partly through an extension of the definition of religion4 ,it is now held to mean any kind of belief in spiritual or extra-natural agencies4 ,some learned men say that we had better drop the word religion1 lest we be misunderstood4 ,they would rather use daimonism1 or supernaturalism1 or other such new term2 but none of these seems to me so wide and so exactly significant of what ,i mean as religion4 ,all now agree that in this very broad sense some kind of religion exists in every human community4#a ,footnote #a3 ,i suppose ,i am not going too far in saying all agree2 for ,i think that the latest study of this subject1 by ,gustav ,roskoff1 disposes of ,sir ,john ,lubbock's doubts1 as well as the crude statements of the author of ,kraft und ,stoff1 and such like compilations4 ,gustav ,roskoff1 ,das ,religionswesen der ,rohesten ,naturvlker1 ,leipzig1 #ahhj4 ,the attempt has often been made to classify these various faiths under some few general headings4 ,the scheme of ,auguste ,comte still has supporters4 ,he taught that man begins with fetichism1 advances to polytheism1 and at last rises to monotheism4 ,more in vogue at present is the theory that the simplest and lowest form of religion is individual2 above it are the national religions2 and at the summit the universal or world religions4 ,comte's scheme has not borne examination4 ,it is artificial and sterile4 ,look at ,christianity4 ,it is the highest of all religions1 but it is not monotheism4 ,look at ,buddhism4 ,in its pure form it is not even theism4 ,the second classification is more fruitful for historical purposes4 ,the psychologist1 however1 inquires as to the essence1 the real purpose of religions4 ,this has been differently defined by the two great schools of thought4 ,all religions1 says the idealist1 are the efforts1 poor or noble1 conscious or blind1 to develop the ,idea of ,god in the soul of man4 ,no1 replies the rationalist1 it is simply the effort of the human mind to frame a ,theory of ,things2 at first1 religion is an early system of natural philosophy2 later it becomes moral philosophy4 ,explain the ,universe by physical laws1 point out that the origin and aim of ethics are the relations of men1 and we shall have no more religions1 nor need any4 ,the first answer is too intangible1 the second too narrow4 ,the rude savage does not philosophize on phenomena2 the enlightened student sees in them but interacting forces3 yet both may be profoundly religious4 ,nor can morality be accepted as a criterion of religions4 ,the bloody scenes in the ,mexican teocalli were merciful compared with those in the torture rooms of the ,inquisition4 ,yet the religion of ,jesus was far above that of ,huitzilopochtli4 ,what ,i think is the essence1 the principle of vitality1 in religion1 and in all religions1 is their supposed control over the destiny of the individual1 his weal or woe1 his good or bad hap1 here or hereafter1 as it may be4 ,rooted infinitely deep in the sense of personality1 religion was recognized at the beginning1 it will be recognized at the end1 as the one indestructible ally in the struggle for individual existence4 ,at heart1 all prayers are for preservation1 the burden of all litanies is a begging for ,life4 ,this end1 these benefits1 have been sought by the cults of the world through one of two theories4 ,the one1 that which characterizes the earliest and the crudest religions1 teaches that man escapes dangers and secures safety by the performance or avoidance of certain actions4 ,he may credit this or that myth1 he may hold to one or many gods2 this is unimportant2 but he must not fail in the penance or the sacred dance1 he must not touch that which is taboo1 or he is in peril4 ,the life of these cults is the ,deed1 their expression is the ,rite4 ,higher religions discern the inefficacy of the mere ,act4 ,they rest their claim on ,belief4 ,they establish dogmas1 the mental acceptance of which is the one thing needful4 ,in them mythology passes into theology2 the act is measured by its motive1 the formula by the faith back of it4 ,their life is the ,creed4 ,the ,myth finds vigorous and congenial growth only in the first of these forms4 ,there alone the imagination of the votary is free1 there alone it is not fettered by a symbol already defined4 ,to the student of religions the interest of the ,myth is not that of an infantile attempt to philosophize1 but as it illustrates the intimate and immediate relations which the religion in which it grew bore to the individual life4 ,thus examined1 it reveals the inevitable destinies of men and of nations as bound up with their forms of worship4 ,these general considerations appear to me to be needed for the proper understanding of the study ,i am about to make4 ,it concerns itself with some of the religions which were developed on the ,american continent before its discovery4 ,my object is to present from them a series of myths curiously similar in features1 and to see if one simple and general explanation of them can be found4 ,the processes of myth-building among ,american tribes were much the same as elsewhere4 ,these are now too generally familiar to need specification here1 beyond a few which ,i have found particularly noticeable4 ,at the foundation of all myths lies the mental process of personification1 which finds expression in the rhetorical figure of prosopopeia4 ,the definition of this1 however1 must be extended from the mere representation of inanimate things as animate1 to include also the representation of irrational beings as rational1 as in the animal myths1 a most common form of religious story among primitive people4 ,some languages favor these forms of personification much more than others1 and most of the ,american languages do so in a marked manner1 by the broad grammatical distinctions they draw between animate and inanimate objects1 which distinctions must invariably be observed4 ,they cannot say the boat moves without specifying whether the boat is an animate object or not1 or whether it is to be considered animate1 for rhetorical purposes1 at the time of speaking4 ,the sounds of words have aided greatly in myth building4 ,names and words which are somewhat alike in sound1 paronyms1 as they are called by grammarians1 may be taken or mistaken one for the other4 ,again1 many myths spring from homonymy1 that is1 the sameness in sound of words with difference in signification4 ,thus coatl1 in the ,aztec tongue1 is a word frequently appearing in the names of divinities4 ,it has three entirely different meanings1 to wit1 a serpent1 a guest and twins4 ,now1 whichever one of these was originally meant1 it would be quite certain to be misunderstood1 more or less1 by later generations1 and myths would arise to explain the several possible interpretations of the word--as1 in fact1 we find was the case4 ,closely allied to this is what has been called otosis4 ,this is the substitution of a familiar word for an archaic or foreign one of similar sound but wholly diverse meaning4 ,this is a very common occurrence and easily leads to myth making4 ,for example1 there is a cave1 near ,chattanooga1 which has the ,cherokee name ,nik-a-jak4 ,this the white settlers have transformed into ,nigger ,jack1 and are prepared with a narrative of some runaway slave to explain the cognomen4 ,it may also occur in the same language4 ,in an ,algonkin dialect missi wabu means the great light of the dawn2 and a common large rabbit was called missabo2 at some period the precise meaning of the former words was lost1 and a variety of interesting myths of the daybreak were transferred to a supposed huge rabbit6 ,rarely does there occur a more striking example of how the deteriorations of language affect mythology4 ,aztlan1 the mythical land whence the ,aztec speaking tribes were said to have come1 and from which they derived their name1 means the place of whiteness2 but the word was similar to ,aztatlan1 which would mean the place of herons1 some spot where these birds would love to congregate1 from aztatl1 the heron1 and in after ages1 this latter1 as the plainer and more concrete signification1 came to prevail1 and was adopted by the myth-makers4 ,polyonomy is another procedure often seen in these myths4 ,a divinity has several or many titles2 one or another of these becomes prominent1 and at last obscures in a particular myth or locality the original personality of the hero of the tale4 ,in ,america this is most obvious in ,peru4 ,akin to this is what ,prof4 ,max ,mller has termed henotheism4 ,in this mental process one god or one form of a god is exalted beyond all others1 and even addressed as the one1 only1 absolute and supreme deity4 ,such expressions are not to be construed literally as evidences of a monotheism1 but simply that at that particular time the worshiper's mind was so filled with the power and majesty of the divinity to whom he appealed1 that he applied to him these superlatives1 very much as he would to a great ruler4 ,the next day he might apply them to another deity1 without any hypocrisy or sense of logical contradiction4 ,instances of this are common in the ,aztec prayers which have been preserved4 ,one difficulty encountered in ,aryan mythology is extremely rare in ,america1 and that is1 the adoption of foreign names4 ,a proper name without a definite concrete significance in the tongue of the people who used it is almost unexampled in the red race4 ,a word without a meaning was something quite foreign to their mode of thought4 ,one of our most eminent students#a has justly said3 ,every ,indian synthesis--names of persons and places not excepted--must preserve the consciousness of its roots1 and must not only have a meaning1 but be so framed as to convey that meaning with precision1 to all who speak the language to which it belongs4 ,hence1 the names of their divinities can nearly always be interpreted1 though for the reasons above given the most obvious and current interpretation is not in every case the correct one4 ,footnote #a3 ,j4 ,hammond ,trumbull1 ,on the ,composition of ,indian ,geographical ,names1 p4 #c 7,hartford1 #ahgj74 ,as foreign names were not adopted1 so the mythology of one tribe very rarely influenced that of another4 ,as a rule1 all the religions were tribal or national1 and their votaries had no desire to extend them4 ,there was little of the proselytizing spirit among the red race4 ,some exceptions can be pointed out to this statement1 in the ,aztec and ,peruvian monarchies4 ,some borrowing seems to have been done either by or from the ,mayas2 and the hero-myth of the ,iroquois has so many of the lineaments of that of the ,algonkins that it is difficult to believe that it was wholly independent of it4 ,but1 on the whole1 the identities often found in ,american myths are more justly attributable to a similarity of surroundings and impressions than to any other cause4 ,the diversity and intricacy of ,american mythology have been greatly fostered by the delight the more developed nations took in rhetorical figures1 in metaphor and simile1 and in expressions of amplification and hyperbole4 ,those who imagine that there was a poverty of resources in these languages1 or that their concrete form hemmed in the mind from the study of the abstract1 speak without knowledge4 ,one has but to look at the inexhaustible synonymy of the ,aztec1 as it is set forth by ,olmos or ,sahagun1 or at its power to render correctly the refinements of scholastic theology1 to see how wide of the fact is any such opinion4 ,and what is true of the ,aztec1 is not less so of the ,qquichua and other tongues4 ,i will give an example1 where the ,english language itself falls short of the nicety of the ,qquichua in handling a metaphysical tenet4 ,cay in ,qquichua expresses the real being of things1 the essentia2 as1 runap caynin1 the being of the human race1 humanity in the abstract2 but to convey the idea of actual being1 the existentia as united to the essentia1 we must add the prefix cascan1 and thus have runap-cascan-caynin1 which strictly means the essence of being in general1 as existent in humanity4#a ,i doubt if the dialect of ,german metaphysics itself1 after all its elaboration1 could produce in equal compass a term for this conception4 ,in ,qquichua1 moreover1 there is nothing strained and nothing foreign in this example2 it is perfectly pure1 and in thorough accord with the genius of the tongue4 ,footnote #a3 ,el ser existente de hombre1 que es el modo de estar el primer ser que es la essentia que en ,dios y los ,angeles y el hombre es modo personal4 ,diego ,gonzalez ,holguin1 ,vocabvlario de la ,lengva ,qqichua1 o del ,inca2 sub voce1 ,cay4 7,ciudad de los ,reyes1 #afjh47 ,i take some pains to impress this fact1 for it is an important one in estimating the religious ideas of the race4 ,we must not think we have grounds for skepticism if we occasionally come across some that astonish us by their subtlety4 ,such are quite in keeping with the psychology and languages of the race we are studying4 ,yet1 throughout ,america1 as in most other parts of the world1 the teaching of religious tenets was twofold1 the one popular1 the other for the initiated1 an esoteric and an exoteric doctrine4 ,a difference in dialect was assiduously cultivated1 a sort of sacred language being employed to conceal while it conveyed the mysteries of faith4 ,some linguists think that these dialects are archaic forms of the language1 the memory of which was retained in ceremonial observances2 others maintain that they were simply affectations of expression1 and form a sort of slang1 based on the every day language1 and current among the initiated4 ,i am inclined to the latter as the correct opinion1 in many cases4 ,whichever it was1 such a sacred dialect is found in almost all tribes4 ,there are fragments of it from the cultivated races of ,mexico1 ,yucatan and ,peru2 and at the other end of the scale we may instance the ,guaymis1 of ,darien1 naked savages1 but whose chiefs of the law1 we are told1 taught the doctrines of their religion in a peculiar idiom1 invented for the purpose1 and very different from the common language4#a ,footnote #a3 ,franco1 ,noticia de los ,indios ,guaymies y de sus ,costumbres1 p4 #bj1 in ,pinart1 ,coleccion de ,linguistica y ,etnografia ,americana4 ,tom4 iv4 ,this becomes an added difficulty in the analysis of myths1 as not only were the names of the divinities and of localities expressed in terms in the highest degree metaphorical1 but they were at times obscured by an affected pronunciation1 devised to conceal their exact derivation4 ,the native tribes of this ,continent had many myths1 and among them there was one which was so prominent1 and recurred with such strangely similar features in localities widely asunder1 that it has for years attracted my attention1 and ,i have been led to present it as it occurs among several nations far apart1 both geographically and in point of culture4 ,this myth is that of the national hero1 their mythical civilizer and teacher of the tribe1 who1 at the same time1 was often identified with the supreme deity and the creator of the world4 ,it is the fundamental myth of a very large number of ,american tribes1 and on its recognition and interpretation depends the correct understanding of most of their mythology and religious life4 ,the outlines of this legend are to the effect that in some exceedingly remote time this divinity took an active part in creating the world and in fitting it to be the abode of man1 and may himself have formed or called forth the race4 ,at any rate1 his interest in its advancement was such that he personally appeared among the ancestors of the nation1 and taught them the useful arts1 gave them the maize or other food plants1 initiated them into the mysteries of their religious rites1 framed the laws which governed their social relations1 and having thus started them on the road to self development1 he left them1 not suffering death1 but disappearing in some way from their view4 ,hence it was nigh universally expected that at some time he would return4 ,the circumstances attending the birth of these hero-gods have great similarity4 ,as a rule1 each is a twin or one of four brothers born at one birth2 very generally at the cost of their mother's life1 who is a virgin1 or at least had never been impregnated by mortal man4 ,the hero is apt to come into conflict with his brother1 or one of his brothers1 and the long and desperate struggle resulting1 which often involved the universe in repeated destructions1 constitutes one of the leading topics of the myth-makers4 ,the duel is not generally--not at all1 ,i believe1 when we can get at the genuine native form of the myth--between a morally good and an evil spirit1 though1 undoubtedly1 the one is more friendly and favorable to the welfare of man than the other4 ,the better of the two1 the true hero-god1 is in the end triumphant1 though the national temperament represented this variously4 ,at any rate1 his people are not deserted by him1 and though absent1 and perhaps for a while driven away by his potent adversary1 he is sure to come back some time or other4 ,the place of his birth is nearly always located in the ,east2 from that quarter he first came when he appeared as a man among men2 toward that point he returned when he disappeared2 and there he still lives1 awaiting the appointed time for his reappearance4 ,whenever the personal appearance of this hero-god is described1 it is1 strangely enough1 represented to be that of one of the white race1 a man of fair complexion1 with long1 flowing beard1 with abundant hair1 and clothed in ample and loose robes4 ,this extraordinary fact naturally suggests the gravest suspicion that these stories were made up after the whites had reached the ,american shores1 and nearly all historians have summarily rejected their authenticity1 on this account4 ,but a most careful scrutiny of their sources positively refutes this opinion4 ,there is irrefragable evidence that these myths and this ideal of the hero-god1 were intimately known and widely current in ,america long before any one of its millions of inhabitants had ever seen a white man4 ,nor is there any difficulty in explaining this1 when we divest these figures of the fanciful garbs in which they have been clothed by the religious imagination1 and recognize what are the phenomena on which they are based1 and the physical processes whose histories they embody4 ,to show this ,i will offer1 in the most concise terms1 my interpretation of their main details4 ,the most important of all things to life is ,light4 ,this the primitive savage felt1 and1 personifying it1 he made ,light his chief god4 ,the beginning of the day served1 by analogy1 for the beginning of the world4 ,light comes before the sun1 brings it forth1 creates it1 as it were4 ,hence the ,light-,god is not the ,sun-,god1 but his ,antecedent and ,creator4 ,the light appears in the ,east1 and thus defines that cardinal point1 and by it the others are located4 ,these points1 as indispensable guides to the wandering hordes1 became1 from earliest times1 personified as important deities1 and were identified with the winds that blew from them1 as wind and rain gods4 ,this explains the four brothers1 who were nothing else than the four cardinal points1 and their mother1 who dies in producing them1 is the eastern light1 which is soon lost in the growing day4 ,the ,east1 as their leader1 was also the supposed ruler of the winds1 and thus god of the air and rain4 ,as more immediately connected with the advent and departure of light1 the ,east and ,west are twins1 the one of which sends forth the glorious day-orb1 which the other lies in wait to conquer4 ,yet the light-god is not slain4 ,the sun shall rise again in undiminished glory1 and he lives1 though absent4 ,by sight and light we see and learn4 ,nothing1 therefore1 is more natural than to attribute to the light-god the early progress in the arts of domestic and social life4 ,thus light came to be personified as the embodiment of culture and knowledge1 of wisdom1 and of the peace and prosperity which are necessary for the growth of learning4 ,the fair complexion of these heroes is nothing but a reference to the white light of the dawn4 ,their ample hair and beard are the rays of the sun that flow from his radiant visage4 ,their loose and large robes typify the enfolding of the firmament by the light and the winds4 ,this interpretation is nowise strained1 but is simply that which1 in ,aryan mythology1 is now universally accepted for similar mythological creations4 ,thus1 in the ,greek ,phoebus and ,perseus1 in the ,teutonic ,lif1 and in the ,norse ,baldur1 we have also beneficent hero-gods1 distinguished by their fair complexion and ample golden locks4 ,amongst the dark as well as amongst the fair races1 amongst those who are marked by black hair and dark eyes1 they exhibit the same unfailing type of blue-eyed heroes whose golden locks flow over their shoulders1 and whose faces gleam as with the light of the new risen sun4#a ,footnote #a3 ,sir ,george ,w4 ,cox1 ,an ,introduction to the ,science of ,comparative ,mythology and ,folk-,lore1 p4 #ag4 ,everywhere1 too1 the history of these heroes is that of a struggle against some potent enemy1 some dark demon or dragon1 but as often against some member of their own household1 a brother or a father4 ,the identification of the ,light-,god with the deity of the winds is also seen in ,aryan mythology4 ,hermes1 to the ,greek1 was the inventor of the alphabet1 music1 the cultivation of the olive1 weights and measures1 and such humane arts4 ,he was also the messenger of the gods1 in other words1 the breezes1 the winds1 the air in motion4 ,his name ,hermes1 ,hermeias1 is but a transliteration of the ,sanscrit ,sarameyas1 under which he appears in the ,vedic songs1 as the son of ,sarama1 the ,dawn4 ,even his character as the master thief and patron saint of the light-fingered gentry1 drawn from the way the winds and breezes penetrate every crack and cranny of the house1 is absolutely repeated in the ,mexican hero-god ,quetzalcoatl1 who was also the patron of thieves4 ,i might carry the comparison yet further1 for as ,sarameyas is derived from the root sar1 to creep1 whence serpo1 serpent1 the creeper1 so the name ,quetzalcoatl can be accurately translated1 the wonderful serpent4 ,in name1 history and functions the parallelism is maintained throughout4 ,or we can find another familiar myth1 partly ,aryan1 partly ,semitic1 where many of the same outlines present themselves4 ,the ,argive ,thebans attributed the founding of their city and state to ,cadmus4 ,he collected their ancestors into a community1 gave them laws1 invented the alphabet of sixteen letters1 taught them the art of smelting metals1 established oracles1 and introduced the ,dyonisiac worship1 or that of the reproductive principle4 ,he subsequently left them and lived for a time with other nations1 and at last did not die1 but was changed into a dragon and carried by ,zeus to ,elysion4 ,the birthplace of this culture hero was somewhere far to the eastward of ,greece1 somewhere in the purple land 7,phoenicia72 his mother was the far gleaming one 7,telephassa72 he was one of four children1 and his sister was ,europe1 the ,dawn1 who was seized and carried westward by ,zeus1 in the shape of a white bull4 ,cadmus seeks to recover her1 and sets out1 following the westward course of the sun4 ,there can be no rest until the lost one is found again4 ,the sun must journey westward until he sees again the beautiful tints which greeted his eyes in the morning4#a ,therefore ,cadmus leaves the purple land to pursue his quest4 ,it is one of toil and struggle4 ,he has to fight the dragon offspring of ,ares and the bands of armed men who spring from the dragon's teeth which were sown1 that is1 the clouds and gloom of the overcast sky4 ,he conquers1 and is rewarded1 but does not recover his sister4 ,footnote #a3 ,sir ,george ,w4 ,cox1 ,ibid41 p4 #gf4 ,when we find that the name ,cadmus is simply the ,semitic word kedem1 the east1 and notice all this mythical entourage1 we see that this legend is but a lightly veiled account of the local source and progress of the light of day1 and of the advantages men derive from it4 ,cadmus brings the letters of the alphabet from the east to ,greece1 for the same reason that in ancient ,maya myth ,itzamna1 son of the mother of the morning1 brought the hieroglyphs of the ,maya script also from the east to ,yucatan--because both represent the light by which we see and learn4 ,egyptian mythology offers quite as many analogies to support this interpretation of ,american myths as do the ,aryan god-stories4 ,the heavenly light impregnates the virgin from whom is born the sun-god1 whose life is a long contest with his twin brother4 ,the latter wins1 but his victory is transient1 for the light1 though conquered and banished by the darkness1 cannot be slain1 and is sure to return with the dawn1 to the great joy of the sons of men4 ,this story the ,egyptians delighted to repeat under numberless disguises4 ,the groundwork and meaning are the same1 whether the actors are ,osiris1 ,isis and ,set1 ,ptah1 ,hapi and the ,virgin ,cow1 or the many other actors of this drama4 ,there1 too1 among a brown race of men1 the light-god was deemed to be not of their own hue1 but light colored1 white or yellow1 of comely countenance1 bright eyes and golden hair4 ,again1 he is the one who invented the calendar1 taught the arts1 established the rituals1 revealed the medical virtues of plants1 recommended peace1 and again was identified as one of the brothers of the cardinal points4#a ,footnote #a3 ,see ,dr4 ,c4,p4 ,tiele1 ,history of the ,egyptian ,religion1 pp4 #ic1 #ie1 #ii1 et al4 ,the story of the virgin-mother points1 in ,america as it did in the old world1 to the notion of the dawn bringing forth the sun4 ,it was one of the commonest myths in both continents1 and in a period of human thought when miracles were supposed to be part of the order of things had in it nothing difficult of credence4 ,the ,peruvians1 for instance1 had large establishments where were kept in rigid seclusion the virgins of the sun4 ,did one of these violate her vow of chastity1 she and her fellow criminal were at once put to death2 but did she claim that the child she bore was of divine parentage1 and the contrary could not be shown1 then she was feted as a queen1 and the product of her womb was classed among princes1 as a son of the sun4 ,so1 in the inscription at ,thebes1 in the temple of the virgin goddess ,mat1 we read where she says of herself3 ,my garment no man has lifted up2 the fruit that ,i have borne was begotten of the sun4#a ,footnote #a3 ,greek3 ,ton emon chitona oudeis apechaluphen on ego charpon etechan1 aelios egeneto4 ,proclus1 quoted by ,tiele1 ubi supr1 p4 #bjd1 note4 ,i do not venture too much in saying that it were easy to parallel every event in these ,american hero-myths1 every phase of character of the personages they represent1 with others drawn from ,aryan and ,egyptian legends long familiar to students1 and which now are fully recognized as having in them nothing of the substance of history1 but as pure creations of the religious imagination working on the processes of nature brought into relation to the hopes and fears of men4 ,if this is so1 is it not time that we dismiss1 once for all1 these ,american myths from the domain of historical traditions8 ,why should we try to make a king of ,itzamna1 an enlightened ruler of ,quetzalcoatl1 a cultured nation of the ,toltecs1 when the proof is of the strongest1 that every one of these is an absolutely baseless fiction of mythology8 ,let it be understood1 hereafter1 that whoever uses these names in an historical sense betrays an ignorance of the subject he handles1 which1 were it in the better known field of ,aryan or ,egyptian lore1 would at once convict him of not meriting the name of scholar4 ,in ,european history the day has passed when it was allowable to construct primitive chronicles out of fairy tales and nature myths4 ,the science of comparative mythology has assigned to these venerable stories a different1 though not less noble1 interpretation4 ,how much longer must we wait to see the same canons of criticism applied to the products of the religious fancy of the red race8 ,furthermore1 if the myths of the ,american nations are shown to be capable of a consistent interpretation by the principles of comparative mythology1 let it be recognized that they are neither to be discarded because they resemble some familiar to their ,european conquerors1 nor does that similarity mean that they are historically derived1 the one from the other4 ,each is an independent growth1 but as each is the reflex in a common psychical nature of the same phenomena1 the same forms of expression were adopted to convey them4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,hero-,,gods ,,of ,,the ,,algonkins ,,and ,,iroquois4 #a4 ,the ,algonkin ,myth of ,michabo4 ,,the ,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,giant ,,rabbit--,,the ,,rabbit ,,creates ,,the ,,world--,,he ,,marries ,,the ,,muskrat--,,becomes ,,the ,,all-,,father--,,derivation ,,of ,,michabo--,,of ,,wajashk1 ,,the ,,muskrat--,,the ,,myth ,,explained--,,the ,,light-,,god ,,as ,,god ,,of ,,the ,,east--,,the ,,four ,,divine ,,brothers--,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,huarochiris--,,the ,,day-,,makers--,,michabo',s ,,contests ,,with ,,his ,,father ,,and ,,brother--,,explanation ,,of ,,these--,,the ,,symbolic ,,flint ,,stone--,,michabo ,,destroys ,,the ,,serpent ,,king--,,meaning ,,of ,,this ,,myth--,,relations ,,of ,,the ,,light-,,god ,,and ,,wind-,,god--,,michabo ,,as ,,god ,,of ,,waters ,,and ,,fertility--,,represented ,,as ,a ,,bearded ,,man4 #b4 ,the ,iroquois ,myth of ,ioskeha4 ,,the ,,creation ,,of ,,the ,,earth--,,the ,,miraculous ,,birth ,,of ,,ioskeha--,,he ,,overcomes ,,his ,,brother1 ,,tawiscara--,,creates ,,and ,,teaches ,,mankind--,,visits ,,his ,,people--,,his ,,grandmother1 ,,ataensic--,,ioskeha ,,as ,,father ,,of ,,his ,,mother--,,similar ,,conceptions ,,in ,,egyptian ,,myths--,,derivation ,,of ,,ioskeha ,,and ,,ataensic--,,ioskeha ,,as ,,tharonhiawakon1 ,,the ,,sky ,,supporter--,,his ,,brother ,,tawiscara ,,or ,,tehotennhiaron ,,identified--,,similarity ,,to ,,algonkin ,,myths4 ,nearly all that vast area which lies between ,hudson ,bay and the ,savannah river1 and the ,mississippi river and the ,atlantic coast1 was peopled at the epoch of the discovery by the members of two linguistic families--the ,algonkins and the ,iroquois4 ,they were on about the same plane of culture1 but differed much in temperament and radically in language4 ,yet their religious notions were not dissimilar4 #a4 ,the ,algonkin ,myth of ,michabo4 ,among all the ,algonkin tribes whose myths have been preserved we find much is said about a certain ,giant ,rabbit1 to whom all sorts of powers were attributed4 ,he was the master of all animals2 he was the teacher who first instructed men in the arts of fishing and hunting2 he imparted to the ,algonkins the mysteries of their religious rites2 he taught them picture writing and the interpretation of dreams2 nay1 far more than that1 he was the original ancestor1 not only of their nation1 but of the whole race of man1 and1 in fact1 was none other than the primal ,creator himself1 who fashioned the earth and gave life to all that thereon is4 ,hearing all this said about such an ignoble and weak animal as the rabbit1 no wonder that the early missionaries and travelers spoke of such fables with undisguised contempt1 and never mentioned them without excuses for putting on record trivialities so utter4 ,yet it appears to me that under these seemingly weak stories lay a profound truth1 the appreciation of which was lost in great measure to the natives themselves1 but which can be shown to have been in its origin a noble myth1 setting forth in not unworthy images the ceaseless and mighty rhythm of nature in the alternations of day and night1 summer and winter1 storm and sunshine4 ,i shall quote a few of these stories as told by early authorities1 not adding anything to relieve their crude simplicity1 and then ,i will see whether1 when submitted to the test of linguistic analysis1 this unpromising ore does not yield the pure gold of genuine mythology4 ,the beginning of things1 according to the ,ottawas and other northern ,algonkins1 was at a period when boundless waters covered the face of the earth4 ,on this infinite ocean floated a raft1 upon which were many species of animals1 the captain and chief of whom was ,michabo1 the ,giant ,rabbit4 ,they ardently desired land on which to live1 so this mighty rabbit ordered the beaver to dive and bring him up ever so little a piece of mud4 ,the beaver obeyed1 and remained down long1 even so that he came up utterly exhausted1 but reported that he had not reached bottom4 ,then the ,rabbit sent down the otter1 but he also returned nearly dead and without success4 ,great was the disappointment of the company on the raft1 for what better divers had they than the beaver and the otter8 ,in the midst of their distress the 7female7 muskrat came forward and announced her willingness to make the attempt4 ,her proposal was received with derision1 but as poor help is better than none in an emergency1 the ,rabbit gave her permission1 and down she dived4 ,she too remained long1 very long1 a whole day and night1 and they gave her up for lost4 ,but at length she floated to the surface1 unconscious1 her belly up1 as if dead4 ,they hastily hauled her on the raft and examined her paws one by one4 ,in the last one of the four they found a small speck of mud4 ,victory6 ,that was all that was needed4 ,the muskrat was soon restored1 and the ,giant ,rabbit1 exerting his creative power1 moulded the little fragment of soil1 and as he moulded it1 it grew and grew1 into an island1 into a mountain1 into a country1 into this great earth that we all dwell upon4 ,as it grew the ,rabbit walked round and round it1 to see how big it was2 and the story added that he is not yet satisfied2 still he continues his journey and his labor1 walking forever around and around the earth and ever increasing it more and more4 ,the animals on the raft soon found homes on the new earth4 ,but it had yet to be covered with forests1 and men were not born4 ,the ,giant ,rabbit formed the trees by shooting his arrows into the soil1 which became tree trunks1 and1 transfixing them with other arrows1 these became branches2 and as for men1 some said he formed them from the dead bodies of certain animals1 which in time became the totems of the ,algonkin tribes2 but another and probably an older and truer story was that he married the muskrat which had been of such service to him1 and from this union were born the ancestors of the various races of mankind which people the earth4 ,nor did he neglect the children he had thus brought into the world of his creation4 ,having closely studied how the spider spreads her web to catch flies1 he invented the art of knitting nets for fish1 and taught it to his descendants2 the pieces of native copper found along the shores of ,lake ,superior he took from his treasure house inside the earth1 where he sometimes lives4 ,it is he who is the ,master of ,life1 and if he appears in a dream to a person in danger1 it is a certain sign of a lucky escape4 ,he confers fortune in the chase1 and therefore the hunters invoke him1 and offer him tobacco and other dainties1 placing them in the clefts of rocks or on isolated boulders4 ,though called the ,giant ,rabbit1 he is always referred to as a man1 a giant or demigod perhaps1 but distinctly as of human nature1 the mighty father or elder brother of the race4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the writers from whom ,i have taken this myth are ,nicolas ,perrot1 ,mmoire sur les ,meurs1 ,coustumes et ,relligion des ,sauvages de l',amrique ,septentrionale1 written by an intelligent layman who lived among the natives from #affe to #afii2 and the various ,relations des ,jesuites1 especially for the years #affg and #afgj4 ,such is the national myth of creation of the ,algonkin tribes1 as it has been handed down to us in fragments by those who first heard it4 ,has it any meaning8 ,is it more than the puerile fable of savages8 ,let us see whether some of those unconscious tricks of speech to which ,i referred in the introductory chapter have not disfigured a true nature myth4 ,perhaps those common processes of language1 personification and otosis1 duly taken into account1 will enable us to restore this narrative to its original sense4 ,in the ,algonkin tongue the word for ,giant ,rabbit is ,missabos1 compounded from mitchi or missi1 great1 large1 and wabos1 a rabbit4 ,but there is a whole class of related words1 referring to widely different perceptions1 which sound very much like wabos4 ,they are from a general root wab1 which goes to form such words of related signification as wabi1 he sees1 waban1 the east1 the ,orient1 wabish1 white1 bidaban 7bid-waban71 the dawn1 wban1 daylight1 wasseia1 the light1 and many others4 ,here is where we are to look for the real meaning of the name ,missabos4 ,it originally meant the ,great ,light1 the ,mighty ,seer1 the ,orient1 the ,dawn--which you please1 as all distinctly refer to the one original idea1 the ,bringer of ,light and ,sight1 of knowledge and life4 ,in time this meaning became obscured1 and the idea of the rabbit1 whose name was drawn probably from the same root1 as in the northern winters its fur becomes white1 was substituted1 and so the myth of light degenerated into an animal fable4 ,i believe that a similar analysis will explain the part which the muskrat plays in the story4 ,she it is who brings up the speck of mud from the bottom of the primal ocean1 and from this speck the world is formed by him whom we now see was the ,lord of the ,light and the ,day1 and subsequently she becomes the mother of his sons4 ,the word for muskrat in ,algonkin is wajashk1 the first letter of which often suffers elision1 as in nin nod-ajashkwe1 ,i hunt muskrats4 ,but this is almost the word for mud1 wet earth1 soil1 ajishki4 ,there is no reasonable doubt but that here again otosis and personification came in and gave the form and name of an animal to the original simple statement4 ,that statement was that from wet mud dried by the sunlight1 the solid earth was formed2 and again1 that this damp soil was warmed and fertilized by the sunlight1 so that from it sprang organic life1 even man himself1 who in so many mythologies is the earth born1 homo ab humo1 homo chamaigenes4#a ,footnote #a3 ,mr4 ,j4 ,hammond ,trumbull has pointed out that in ,algonkin the words for father1 osh1 mother1 okas1 and earth1 ohke 7,narraganset dialect71 can all be derived1 according to the regular rules of ,algonkin grammar1 from the same verbal root1 signifying to come out of1 or from4 7,note to ,roger ,williams' ,key into the ,language of ,america1 p4 #ef74 ,thus the earth was1 in their language1 the parent of the race1 and what more natural than that it should become so in the myth also8 ,this1 then1 is the interpretation ,i have to offer of the cosmogonical myth of the ,algonkins4 ,does some one object that it is too refined for those rude savages1 or that it smacks too much of reminiscences of old-world teachings8 ,my answer is that neither the early travelers who wrote it down1 nor probably the natives who told them1 understood its meaning1 and that not until it is here approached by modern methods of analysis1 has it ever been explained4 ,therefore it is impossible to assign to it other than an indigenous and spontaneous origin in some remote period of ,algonkin tribal history4 ,after the darkness of the night1 man first learns his whereabouts by the light kindling in the ,orient2 wandering1 as did the primitive man1 through pathless forests1 without a guide1 the ,east became to him the first and most important of the fixed points in space2 by it were located the ,west1 the ,north1 the ,south2 from it spread the welcome dawn2 in it was born the glorious sun2 it was full of promise and of instruction2 hence it became to him the home of the gods of life and light and wisdom4 ,as the four cardinal points are determined by fixed physical relations1 common to man everywhere1 and are closely associated with his daily motions and well being1 they became prominent figures in almost all early myths1 and were personified as divinities4 ,the winds were classified as coming from them1 and in many tongues the names of the cardinal points are the same as those of the winds that blow from them4 ,the ,east1 however1 has1 in regard to the others1 a pre-eminence1 for it is not merely the home of the east wind1 but of the light and the dawn as well4 ,hence it attained a marked preponderance in the myths2 it was either the greatest1 wisest and oldest of the four brothers1 who1 by personification1 represented the cardinal points and the four winds1 or else the ,light-,god was separated from the quadruplet and appears as a fifth personage governing the other four1 and being1 in fact1 the supreme ruler of both the spiritual and human worlds4 ,such was the mental processes which took place in the ,algonkin mind1 and gave rise to two cycles of myths1 the one representing ,wabun or ,michabo as one of four brothers1 whose names are those of the cardinal points1 the second placing him above them all4 ,the four brothers are prominent characters in ,algonkin legend1 and we shall find that they recur with extraordinary frequency in the mythology of all ,american nations4 ,indeed1 ,i could easily point them out also in the early religious conceptions of ,egypt and ,india1 ,greece and ,china1 and many other old-world lands1 but ,i leave these comparisons to those who wish to treat of the principles of general mythology4 ,according to the most generally received legend these four brothers were quadruplets--born at one birth--and their mother died in bringing them into life4 ,their names are given differently by the various tribes1 but are usually identical with the four points of the compass1 or something relating to them4 ,wabun the ,east1 ,kabun the ,west1 ,kabibonokka the ,north1 and ,shawano the ,south1 are1 in the ordinary language of the interpreters1 the names applied to them4 ,wabun was the chief and leader1 and assigned to his brothers their various duties1 especially to blow the winds4 ,these were the primitive and chief divinities of the ,algonkin race in all parts of the territory they inhabited4 ,when1 as early as #afaj1 ,captain ,argoll visited the tribes who then possessed the banks of the river ,potomac1 and inquired concerning their religion1 they replied1 ,we have five gods in all2 our chief god often appears to us in the form of a mighty great hare2 the other four have no visible shape1 but are indeed the four winds1 which keep the four corners of the earth4#a ,footnote #a3 ,william ,strachey1 ,historie of ,travaile into ,virginia1 p4 #ih4 ,here we see that ,wabun1 the ,east1 was distinguished from ,michabo 7missi-wabun71 and by a natural and transparent process1 the eastern light being separated from the eastern wind1 the original number four was increased to five4 ,precisely the same differentiation occurred1 as ,i shall show1 in ,mexico1 in the case of ,quetzalcoatl1 as shown in his ,yoel1 or ,wheel of the ,winds1 which was his sacred pentagram4 ,or ,i will further illustrate this development by a myth of the ,huarochiri ,indians1 of the coast of ,peru4 ,they related that in the beginning of things there were five eggs on the mountain ,condorcoto4 ,in due course of time these eggs opened and from them came forth five falcons1 who were none other than the ,creator of all things1 ,pariacaca1 and his brothers1 the four winds4 ,by their magic power they transformed themselves into men and went about the world performing miracles1 and in time became the gods of that people4#a ,footnote #a3 ,doctor ,francisco de ,avila1 ,narrative of the ,errors and ,false ,gods of the ,indians of ,huarochiri 7#afjh74 ,this interesting document has been partly translated by ,mr4 ,c4,b4 ,markham1 and published in one of the volumes of the ,hackluyt ,society's series4 ,these striking similarities show with what singular uniformity the religious sense developes itself in localities the furthest asunder4 ,returning to ,michabo1 the duplicate nature thus assigned him as the ,light-,god1 and also the ,god of the ,winds and the storms and rains they bring1 led to the production of two cycles of myths which present him in these two different aspects4 ,in the one he is1 as the god of light1 the power that conquers the darkness1 who brings warmth and sunlight to the earth and knowledge to men4 ,he was the patron of hunters1 as these require the light to guide them on their way1 and must always direct their course by the cardinal points4 ,the morning star1 which at certain seasons heralds the dawn1 was sacred to him1 and its name in ,ojibway is ,wabanang1 from ,waban1 the east4 ,the rays of light are his servants and messengers4 ,seated at the extreme east1 at the place where the earth is cut off1 watching in his medicine lodge1 or passing his time fishing in the endless ocean which on every side surrounds the land1 ,michabo sends forth these messengers1 who1 in the myth1 are called ,gijigouai1 which means those who make the day1 and they light the world4 ,he is never identified with the sun1 nor was he supposed to dwell in it1 but he is distinctly the impersonation of light4#a ,footnote #a3 ,see ,h4,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 ,vol4 v1 pp4 #dah1 #dai4 ,relations des ,jesuites1 #afcd1 p4 #ad1 #afcg1 p4 #df4 ,in one form of the myth he is the grandson of the ,moon1 his father is the ,west ,wind1 and his mother1 a maiden who has been fecundated miraculously by the passing breeze1 dies at the moment of giving him birth4 ,but he did not need the fostering care of a parent1 for he was born mighty of limb and with all knowledge that it is possible to attain4#a ,immediately he attacked his father1 and a long and desperate struggle took place4 ,it began on the mountains4 ,the ,west was forced to give ground4 ,his son drove him across rivers and over mountains and lakes1 and at last1 he came to the brink of the world4 ',hold6' cried he1 'my son1 you know my power1 and that it is impossible to kill me4' ,the combat ceased1 the ,west acknowledging the ,supremacy of his mighty son4#b ,footnote #a3 ,in the ,ojibway dialect of the ,algonkins1 the word for day1 sky or heaven1 is gijig4 ,this same word as a verb means to be an adult1 to be ripe 7of fruits71 to be finished1 complete4 ,rev4 ,frederick ,baraga1 ,a ,dictionary of the ,olchipwe ,language1 ,cincinnati1 #ahec4 ,this seems to correspond with the statement in the myth4 ,footnote #b3 ,h4,e4 ,schoolcraft1 ,algic ,researches1 vol4 i1 pp4 #ace1 et seq4 ,it is scarcely possible to err in recognizing under this thin veil of imagery a description of the daily struggle between light and darkness1 day and night4 ,the maiden is the dawn from whose virgin womb rises the sun in the fullness of his glory and might1 but with his advent the dawn itself disappears and dies4 ,the battle lasts all day1 beginning when the earliest rays gild the mountain tops1 and continues until the ,west is driven to the edge of the world4 ,as the evening precedes the morning1 so the ,west1 by a figure of speech1 may be said to fertilize the ,dawn4 ,in another form of the story the ,west was typified as a flint stone1 and the twin brother of ,michabo4 ,the feud between them was bitter1 and the contest long and dreadful4 ,the face of the land was seamed and torn by the wrestling of the mighty combatants1 and the ,indians pointed out the huge boulders on the prairies as the weapons hurled at each other by the enraged brothers4 ,at length ,michabo mastered his fellow twin and broke him into pieces4 ,he scattered the fragments over the earth1 and from them grew fruitful vines4 ,a myth which1 like this1 introduces the flint stone as in some way connected with the early creative forces of nature1 recurs at other localities on the ,american continent very remote from the home of the ,algonkins4 ,in the calendar of the ,aztecs the day and god ,tecpatl1 the ,flint-,stone1 held a prominent position4 ,according to their myths such a stone fell from heaven at the beginning of things and broke into sixteen hundred pieces1 each of which became a god4 ,the ,hun-pic-tok1 ,eight ,thousand ,flints1 of the ,mayas1 and the ,toh of the ,kiches1 point to the same association4#a ,footnote #a3 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,dissertation sur les ,mythes de l',antiquite ,americaine1 vii4 ,probably the association of ideas was not with the flint as a fire-stone1 though the fact that a piece of flint struck with a nodule of pyrites will emit a spark was not unknown4 ,but the flint was everywhere employed for arrow and lance heads4 ,the flashes of light1 the lightning1 anything that darted swiftly and struck violently1 was compared to the hurtling arrow or the whizzing lance4 ,especially did this apply to the phenomenon of the lightning4 ,the belief that a stone is shot from the sky with each thunderclap is shown in our word thunderbolt1 and even yet the vulgar in many countries point out certain forms of stones as derived from this source4 ,as the refreshing rain which accompanies the thunder gust instills new life into vegetation1 and covers the ground parched by summer droughts with leaves and grass1 so the statement in the myth that the fragments of the flint-stone grew into fruitful vines is an obvious figure of speech which at first expressed the fertilizing effects of the summer showers4 ,in this myth ,michabo1 the ,light-,god1 was represented to the native mind as still fighting with the powers of ,darkness1 not now the darkness of night1 but that of the heavy and gloomy clouds which roll up the sky and blind the eye of day4 ,his weapons are the lightning and the thunderbolt1 and the victory he achieves is turned to the good of the world he has created4 ,this is still more clearly set forth in an ,ojibway myth4 ,it relates that in early days there was a mighty serpent1 king of all serpents1 whose home was in the ,great ,lakes4 ,increasing the waters by his magic powers1 he began to flood the land1 and threatened its total submergence4 ,then ,michabo rose from his couch at the sun-rising1 attacked the huge reptile and slew it by a cast of his dart4 ,he stripped it of its skin1 and clothing himself in this trophy of conquest1 drove all the other serpents to the south4#a ,as it is in the south that1 in the country of the ,ojibways1 the lightning is last seen in the autumn1 and as the ,algonkins1 both in their language and pictography1 were accustomed to assimilate the lightning in its zigzag course to the sinuous motion of the serpent1#b the meteorological character of this myth is very manifest4 ,footnote #a3 ,h4,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,algic ,researches1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #agi1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #aag4 ,the word animikig in ,ojibway means it thunders and lightnings2 in their myths this tribe says that the ,west ,wind is created by ,animiki1 the ,thunder4 7,ibid4 ,indian ,tribes1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #dbj47 ,footnote #b3 ,when ,father ,buteux was among the ,algonkins1 in #afcg1 they explained to him the lightning as a great serpent which the ,manito vomits up4 7,relation de la ,nouvelle ,france1 ,an4 #afcg1 p4 #ec47 ,according to ,john ,tanner1 the symbol for the lightning in ,ojibway pictography was a rattlesnake4 7,narrative1 p4 #cea47 ,thus we see that ,michabo1 the hero-god of the ,algonkins1 was both the god of light and day1 of the winds and rains1 and the creator1 instructor and teacher of mankind4 ,the derivation of his name shows unmistakably that the earliest form under which he was a mythological existence was as the light-god4 ,later he became more familiar as god of the winds and storms1 the hero of the celestial warfare of the air-currents4 ,this is precisely the same change which we are enabled to trace in the early transformations of ,aryan religion4 ,there1 also1 the older god of the sky and light1 ,dyus1 once common to all members of the ,indo-,european family1 gave way to the more active deities1 ,indra1 ,zeus and ,odin1 divinities of the storm and the wind1 but which1 after all1 are merely other aspects of the ancient deity1 and occupied his place to the religious sense4#a ,it is essential1 for the comprehension of early mythology1 to understand this twofold character1 and to appreciate how naturally the one merges into and springs out of the other4 ,footnote #a3 ,this transformation is well set forth in ,mr4 ,charles ,francis ,keary's ,outlines of ,primitive ,belief ,among the ,indo-,european ,races 7,london1 #ahhb71 chaps1 iv1 vii4 ,he observes3 ,the wind is a far more physical and less abstract conception than the sky or heaven2 it is also a more variable phenomenon2 and by reason of both these recommendations the wind-god superseded the older ,dyus4 99 99 99 ,just as the chief god of ,greece1 having descended to be a divinity of storm1 was not content to remain only that1 but grew again to some likeness of the older ,dyus1 so ,odhinn came to absorb almost all the qualities which belong of right to a higher god4 ,yet he did this without putting off his proper nature4 ,he was the heaven as well as the wind2 he was the ,all-father1 embracing all the earth and looking down upon mankind4 ,in almost every known religion the bird is taken as a symbol of the sky1 the clouds and the winds4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find that by the ,algonkins birds were considered1 especially singing birds1 as peculiarly sacred to ,michabo4 ,he was their father and protector4 ,he himself sent forth the east wind from his home at the sun-rising2 but he appointed an owl to create the north wind1 which blows from the realms of darkness and cold2 while that which is wafted from the sunny south is sent by the butterfly4#a ,footnote #a3 ,h4,r4 ,schoolcraft1 ,algic ,researches1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #baf4 ,indian ,tribes1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #dbj4 ,michabo was thus at times the god of light1 at others of the winds1 and as these are the rain-bringers1 he was also at times spoken of as the god of waters4 ,he was said to have scooped out the basins of the lakes and to have built the cataracts in the rivers1 so that there should be fish preserves and beaver dams4#a ,footnote #a3 ,michabou1 le ,dieu des ,eaux1 etc4 ,charlevoix1 ,journal ,historique1 p4 #bha 7,paris1 #agba74 ,in his capacity as teacher and instructor1 it was he who had pointed out to the ancestors of the ,indians the roots and plants which are fit for food1 and which are of value as medicine2 he gave them fire1 and recommended them never to allow it to become wholly extinguished in their villages2 the sacred rites of what is called the meday or ordinary religious ceremonial were defined and taught by him2 the maize was his gift1 and the pleasant art of smoking was his invention4#a ,footnote #a3 ,john ,tanner1 ,narrative of ,captivity and ,adventure1 p4 #cea4 ,schoolcraft1 ,indian ,tribes1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #dbj1 etc4 ,a curious addition to the story was told the early ,swedish settlers on the river ,delaware by the ,algonkin tribe which inhabited its shores4 ,these related that their various arts of domestic life and the chase were taught them long ago by a venerable and eloquent man who came to them from a distance1 and having instructed them in what was desirable for them to know1 he departed1 not to another region or by the natural course of death1 but by ascending into the sky4 ,they added that this ancient and beneficent teacher wore a long beard4#a ,we might suspect that this last trait was thought of after the bearded ,europeans had been seen1 did it not occur so often in myths elsewhere on the continent1 and in relics of art finished long before the discovery1 that another explanation must be found for it4 ,what this is ,i shall discuss when ,i come to speak of the more ,southern myths1 whose heroes were often white and bearded men from the ,east4 ,footnote #a3 ,thomas ,campanius 7,holm71 ,description of the ,province of ,new ,sweden1 book iii1 ch4 xi4 ,campanius does not give the name of the hero-god1 but there can be no doubt that it was the ,great ,hare4 #b4 ,the ,iroquois ,myth of ,ioskeha4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the sources from which ,i draw the elements of the ,iroquois hero-myth of ,ioskeha are mainly the following3 ,relations de la ,nouvelle ,france1 #afcf1 #afdj1 #afga1 etc4 ,sagard1 ,histoire du ,canada1 pp4 #dea1 #deb 7,paris1 #afcf72 ,david ,cusick1 ,ancient ,history of the ,six ,nations1 and manuscript material kindly furnished me by ,horatio ,hale1 ,esq41 who has made a thorough study of the ,iroquois history and dialects4 ,the most ancient myth of the ,iroquois represents this earth as covered with water1 in which dwelt aquatic animals and monsters of the deep4 ,far above it were the heavens1 peopled by supernatural beings4 ,at a certain time one of these1 a woman1 by name ,ataensic1 threw herself through a rift in the sky and fell toward the earth4 ,what led her to this act was variously recorded4 ,some said that it was to recover her dog which had fallen through while chasing a bear4 ,others related that those who dwelt in the world above lived off the fruit of a certain tree2 that the husband of ,ataensic1 being sick1 dreamed that to restore him this tree must be cut down2 and that when ,ataensic dealt it a blow with her stone axe1 the tree suddenly sank through the floor of the sky1 and she precipitated herself after it4 ,however the event occurred1 she fell from heaven down to the primeval waters4 ,there a turtle offered her his broad back as a resting-place until1 from a little mud which was brought her1 either by a frog1 a beaver or some other animal1 she1 by magic power1 formed dry land on which to reside4 ,at the time she fell from the sky she was pregnant1 and in due time was delivered of a daughter1 whose name1 unfortunately1 the legend does not record4 ,this daughter grew to womanhood and conceived without having seen a man1 for none was as yet created4 ,the product of her womb was twins1 and even before birth one of them betrayed his restless and evil nature1 by refusing to be born in the usual manner1 but insisting on breaking through his parent's side 7or armpit74 ,he did so1 but it cost his mother her life4 ,her body was buried1 and from it sprang the various vegetable productions which the new earth required to fit it for the habitation of man4 ,from her head grew the pumpkin vine2 from her breast1 the maize2 from her limbs1 the bean and other useful esculents4 ,meanwhile the two brothers grew up4 ,the one was named ,ioskeha4 ,he went about the earth1 which at that time was arid and waterless1 and called forth the springs and lakes1 and formed the sparkling brooks and broad rivers4 ,but his brother1 the troublesome ,tawiscara1 he whose obstinacy had caused their mother's death1 created an immense frog which swallowed all the water and left the earth as dry as before4 ,ioskeha was informed of this by the partridge1 and immediately set out for his brother's country1 for they had divided the earth between them4 ,soon he came to the gigantic frog1 and piercing it in the side 7or armpit71 the waters flowed out once more in their accustomed ways4 ,then it was revealed to ,ioskeha by his mother's spirit that ,tawiscara intended to slay him by treachery4 ,therefore1 when the brothers met1 as they soon did1 it was evident that a mortal combat was to begin4 ,now1 they were not men1 but gods1 whom it was impossible really to kill1 nor even could either be seemingly slain1 except by one particular substance1 a secret which each had in his own keeping4 ,as therefore a contest with ordinary weapons would have been vain and unavailing1 they agreed to tell each other what to each was the fatal implement of war4 ,ioskeha acknowledged that to him a branch of the wild rose 7or1 according to another version1 a bag filled with maize7 was more dangerous than anything else2 and ,tawiscara disclosed that the horn of a deer could alone reach his vital part4 ,they laid off the lists1 and ,tawiscara1 having the first chance1 attacked his brother violently with a branch of the wild rose1 and beat him till he lay as one dead2 but quickly reviving1 ,ioskeha assaulted ,tawiscara with the antler of a deer1 and dealing him a blow in the side1 the blood flowed from the wound in streams4 ,the unlucky combatant fled from the field1 hastening toward the west1 and as he ran the drops of his blood which fell upon the earth turned into flint stones4 ,ioskeha did not spare him1 but hastening after1 finally slew him4 ,he did not1 however1 actually kill him1 for1 as ,i have said1 these were beings who could not die2 and1 in fact1 ,tawiscara was merely driven from the earth and forced to reside in the far west1 where he became ruler of the spirits of the dead4 ,these go there to dwell when they leave the bodies behind them here4 ,ioskeha1 returning1 peaceably devoted himself to peopling the land4 ,he opened a cave which existed in the earth and allowed to come forth from it all the varieties of animals with which the woods and prairies are peopled4 ,in order that they might be more easily caught by men1 he wounded every one in the foot except the wolf1 which dodged his blow2 for that reason this beast is one of the most difficult to catch4 ,he then formed men and gave them life1 and instructed them in the art of making fire1 which he himself had learned from the great tortoise4 ,furthermore he taught them how to raise maize1 and it is1 in fact1 ,ioskeha himself who imparts fertility to the soil1 and through his bounty and kindness the grain returns a hundred fold4 ,nor did they suppose that he was a distant1 invisible1 unapproachable god4 ,no1 he was ever at hand with instruction and assistance4 ,was there to be a failure in the harvest1 he would be seen early in the season1 thin with anxiety about his people1 holding in his hand a blighted ear of corn4 ,did a hunter go out after game1 he asked the aid of ,ioskeha1 who would put fat animals in the way1 were he so minded4 ,at their village festivals he was present and partook of the cheer4 ,once1 in #afdj1 when the smallpox was desolating the villages of the ,hurons1 we are told by ,father ,lalemant that an ,indian said there had appeared to him a beautiful youth1 of imposing stature1 and addressed him with these words3 ,have no fear2 ,i am the master of the earth1 whom you ,hurons adore under the name ,ioskeha4 ,the ,french wrongly call me ,jesus1 because they do not know me4 ,it grieves me to see the pestilence that is destroying my people1 and ,i come to teach you its cause and its remedy4 ,its cause is the presence of these strangers2 and its remedy is to drive out these black robes 7the missionaries71 to drink of a certain water which ,i shall tell you of1 and to hold a festival in my honor1 which must be kept up all night1 until the dawn of day4 ,the home of ,ioskeha is in the far ,east1 at that part of the horizon where the sun rises4 ,there he has his cabin1 and there he dwells with his grandmother1 the wise ,ataensic4 ,she is a woman of marvelous magical power1 and is capable of assuming any shape she pleases4 ,in her hands is the fate of all men's lives1 and while ,ioskeha looks after the things of life1 it is she who appoints the time of death1 and concerns herself with all that relates to the close of existence4 ,hence she was feared1 not exactly as a maleficent deity1 but as one whose business is with what is most dreaded and gloomy4 ,it was said that on a certain occasion four bold young men determined to journey to the sun-rising and visit the great ,ioskeha4 ,they reached his cabin and found him there alone4 ,he received them affably and they conversed pleasantly1 but at a certain moment he bade them hide themselves for their life1 as his grandmother was coming4 ,they hastily concealed themselves1 and immediately ,ataensic entered4 ,her magic insight had warned her of the presence of guests1 and she had assumed the form of a beautiful girl1 dressed in gay raiment1 her neck and arms resplendent with collars and bracelets of wampum4 ,she inquired for the guests1 but ,ioskeha1 anxious to save them1 dissembled1 and replied that he knew not what she meant4 ,she went forth to search for them1 when he called them forth from their hiding place and bade them flee1 and thus they escaped4 ,it was said of ,ioskeha that he acted the part of husband to his grandmother4 ,in other words1 the myth presents the germ of that conception which the priests of ancient ,egypt endeavored to express when they taught that ,osiris was his own father and his own son1 that he was the self-generating one1 even that he was the father of his own mother4 ,these are grossly materialistic expressions1 but they are perfectly clear to the student of mythology4 ,they are meant to convey to the mind the self-renewing power of life in nature1 which is exemplified in the sowing and the seeding1 the winter and the summer1 the dry and the rainy seasons1 and especially the sunset and sunrise4 ,they are echoes in the soul of man of the ceaseless rhythm in the operations of nature1 and they become the only guarantors of his hopes for immortal life4#a ,footnote #a3 ,such epithets were common1 in the ,egyptian religion1 to most of the gods of fertility4 ,amun1 called in some of the inscriptions the soul of ,osiris1 derives his name from the root men1 to impregnate1 to beget4 ,in the ,karnak inscriptions he is also termed the husband of his mother4 ,this1 too1 was the favorite appellation of ,chem1 who was a form of ,horos4 ,see ,dr4 ,c4,p4 ,tiele1 ,history of the ,egyptian ,religion1 pp4 #abd1 #adf4 #adi1 #aej1 etc4 ,let us look at the names in the myth before us1 for confirmation of this4 ,ioskeha is in the ,oneida dialect of the ,iroquois an impersonal verbal form of the third person singular1 and means literally1 it is about to grow white1 that is1 to become light1 to dawn4 ,ataensic is from the root aouen1 water1 and means literally1 she who is in the water4#a ,plainly expressed1 the sense of the story is that the orb of light rises daily out of the boundless waters which are supposed to surround the land1 preceded by the dawn1 which fades away as soon as the sun has risen4 ,each day the sun disappears in these waters1 to rise again from them the succeeding morning4 ,as the approach of the sun causes the dawn1 it was merely a gross way of stating this to say that the solar god was the father of his own mother1 the husband of his grandmother4 ,footnote #a3 ,i have analyzed these words in a note to another work1 and need not repeat the matter here1 the less so1 as ,i am not aware that the etymology has been questioned4 ,see ,myths of the ,new ,world1 #b;d ,ed41 p4 #ahc1 note4 ,the position of ,ioskeha in mythology is also shown by the other name under which he was1 perhaps1 even more familiar to most of the ,iroquois4 ,this is ,tharonhiawakon1 which is also a verbal form of the third person1 with the dual sign1 and literally means1 ,he holds 7or holds up7 the sky with his two arms4#a ,in other words1 he is nearly allied to the ancient ,aryan ,dyus1 the ,sky1 the ,heavens1 especially the ,sky in the daytime4 ,footnote #a3 ,a careful analysis of this name is given by ,father ,j4,a4 ,cuoq1 probably the best living authority on the ,iroquois1 in his ,lexique de la ,langue ,iroquoise1 p4 #ahj 7,montreal1 #ahhb74 ,here also the ,iroquois followed precisely the line of thought of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,shu1 in the religion of ,heliopolis1 represented the cosmic light and warmth1 the quickening1 creative principle4 ,it is he who1 as it is stated in the inscriptions1 holds up the heavens1 and he is depicted on the monuments as a man with uplifted arms who supports the vault of heaven1 because it is the intermediate light that separates the earth from the sky4 ,shu was also god of the winds2 in a passage of the ,book of the ,dead1 he is made to say3 ,i am ,shu1 who drives the winds onward to the confines of heaven1 to the confines of the earth1 even to the confines of space4 ,again1 like ,ioskeha1 ,shu is said to have begotten himself in the womb of his mother1 ,nu or ,nun1 who was1 like ,ataensic1 the goddess of water1 the heavenly ocean1 the primal sea4 ,tiele1 ,history of the ,egyptian ,religion1 pp4 #hd-hf4 ,the signification of the conflict with his twin brother is also clearly seen in the two names which the latter likewise bears in the legends4 ,one of these is that which ,i have given1 ,tawiscara1 which1 there is little doubt1 is allied to the root1 tiokaras1 it grows dark4 ,the other is ,tehotennhiaron1 the root word of which is kannhia1 the flint stone4 ,this name he received because1 in his battle with his brother1 the drops of blood which fell from his wounds were changed into flints4#a ,here the flint had the same meaning which ,i have already pointed out in ,algonkin myth1 and we find1 therefore1 an absolute identity of mythological conception and symbolism between the two nations4 ,footnote #a3 ,cuoq1 ,lexique de la ,langue ,iroquoise1 p4 #ahj1 who gives a full analysis of the name4 ,could these myths have been historically identical8 ,it is hard to disbelieve it4 ,yet the nations were bitter enemies4 ,their languages are totally unlike4 ,these same similarities present themselves over such wide areas and between nations so remote and of such different culture1 that the theory of a parallelism of development is after all the more credible explanation4 ,the impressions which natural occurrences make on minds of equal stages of culture are very much alike4 ,the same thoughts are evoked1 and the same expressions suggest themselves as appropriate to convey these thoughts in spoken language4 ,this is often exhibited in the identity of expression between master-poets of the same generation1 and between cotemporaneous thinkers in all branches of knowledge4 ,still more likely is it to occur in primitive and uncultivated conditions1 where the most obvious forms of expression are at once adopted1 and the resources of the mind are necessarily limited4 ,this is a simple and reasonable explanation for the remarkable sameness which prevails in the mental products of the lower stages of civilization1 and does away with the necessity of supposing a historic derivation one from the other or both from a common stock4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,hero-,,god ,,of ,,the ,,aztec ,,tribes4 #a4 ,the ,two ,antagonists4 ,,the ,,contest ,,of ,,quetzalcoatl ,,and ,,tezcatlipoca--,,quetzalcoatl ,,the ,,light-,,god--,,derivation ,,of ,,his ,,name--,,titles ,,of ,,tezcatlipoca--,,identified ,,with ,,darkness1 ,,night ,,and ,,gloom4 #b4 ,quetzalcoatl the ,god4 ,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,brothers--,,the ,,four ,,suns ,,and ,,the ,,elemental ,,conflict--,,names ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,brothers4 #c4 ,quetzalcoatl the ,hero of ,tula4 ,,tula ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,the ,,sun--,,who ,,were ,,the ,,toltecs8--,,tlapallan ,,and ,,xalac--,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,the ,,hero-,,god--,,his ,,virgin ,,mother1 ,,chimalmatl--,,his ,,miraculous ,,conception--,,aztlan1 ,,the ,,land ,,of ,,seven ,,caves1 ,,and ,,colhuacan1 ,,the ,,bended ,,mount--,,the ,,maid ,,xochitl ,,and ,,the ,,rose ,,garden ,,of ,,the ,,gods--,,quetzalcoatl ,,as ,,the ,,white ,,and ,,bearded ,,stranger4 ,,the ,,glory ,,of ,,the ,,lord ,,of ,,tula--,,the ,,subtlety ,,of ,,the ,,sorcerer1 ,,tezcatlipoca--,,the ,,magic ,,mirror ,,and ,,the ,,mystic ,,draught--,,the ,,myth ,,explained--,,the ,,promise ,,of ,,rejuvenation--,,the ,,toveyo ,,and ,,the ,,maiden--,,the ,,juggleries ,,of ,,tezcatlipoca--,,departure ,,of ,,quetzalcoatl ,,from ,,tula--,,quetzalcoatl ,,at ,,cholula--,,his ,,death ,,or ,,departure--,,the ,,celestial ,,game ,,of ,,ball ,,and ,,tiger ,,skin--,,quetzalcoatl ,,as ,,the ,,planet ,,venus4 #d4 ,quetzalcoatl as ,lord of the ,winds4 ,,the ,,lord ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,winds--,,his ,,symbols ,,the ,,wheel ,,of ,,the ,,winds1 ,,the ,,pentagon ,,and ,,the ,,cross--,,close ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,rain ,,and ,,waters--,,inventor ,,of ,,the ,,calendar--,,god ,,of ,,fertility ,,and ,,conception--,,recommends ,,sexual ,,austerity--,,phallic ,,symbols--,,god ,,of ,,merchants--,,the ,,patron ,,of ,,thieves--,,his ,,pictographic ,,representations4 #e4 ,the ,return of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,,his ,,expected ,,re-,,appearance--,,the ,,anxiety ,,of ,,montezuma--,,his ,,address ,,to ,,cortes--,,the ,,general ,,expectation--,,explanation ,,of ,,his ,,predicted ,,return4 ,i now turn from the wild hunting tribes who peopled the shores of the ,great ,lakes and the fastnesses of the northern forests to that cultivated race whose capital city was in the ,valley of ,mexico1 and whose scattered colonies were found on the shores of both oceans from the mouths of the ,rio ,grande and the ,gila1 south1 almost to the ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,they are familiarly known as ,aztecs or ,mexicans1 and the language common to them all was the ,nahuatl1 a word of their own1 meaning the pleasant sounding4 ,their mythology has been preserved in greater fullness than that of any other ,american people1 and for this reason ,i am enabled to set forth in ampler detail the elements of their hero-myth1 which1 indeed1 may be taken as the most perfect type of those ,i have collected in this volume4 #a4 ,the ,two ,antagonists4 ,the culture hero of the ,aztecs was ,quetzalcoatl1 and the leading drama1 the central myth1 in all the extensive and intricate theology of the ,nahuatl speaking tribes was his long contest with ,tezcatlipoca1 a contest1 observes an eminent ,mexican antiquary1 which came to be the main element in the ,nahuatl religion and the cause of its modifications1 and which materially influenced the destinies of that race from its earliest epochs to the time of its destruction4#a ,footnote #a3 ,alfredo ,chavero1 ,la ,piedra del ,sol1 in the ,anales del ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico1 ,tom4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdg4 ,the explanations which have been offered of this struggle have varied with the theories of the writers propounding them4 ,it has been regarded as a simple historical fact2 as a figure of speech to represent the struggle for supremacy between two races2 as an astronomical statement referring to the relative positions of the planet ,venus and the ,moon2 as a conflict between ,christianity1 introduced by ,saint ,thomas1 and the native heathenism2 and as having other meanings not less unsatisfactory or absurd4 ,placing it side by side with other ,american hero-myths1 we shall see that it presents essentially the same traits1 and undoubtedly must be explained in the same manner4 ,all of them are the transparent stories of a simple people1 to express in intelligible terms the daily struggle that is ever going on between ,day and ,night1 between ,light and ,darkness1 between ,storm and ,sunshine4 ,like all the heroes of light1 ,quetzalcoatl is identified with the ,east4 ,he is born there1 and arrives from there1 and hence ,las ,casas and others speak of him as from ,yucatan1 or as landing on the shores of the ,mexican ,gulf from some unknown land4 ,his day of birth was that called ,ce ,acatl1 ,one ,reed1 and by this name he is often known4 ,but this sign is that of the ,east in ,aztec symbolism4#a ,in a myth of the formation of the sun and moon1 presented by ,sahagun1#b a voluntary victim springs into the sacrificial fire that the gods have built4 ,they know that he will rise as the sun1 but they do not know in what part of the horizon that will be4 ,some look one way1 some another1 but ,quetzalcoatl watches steadily the ,east1 and is the first to see and welcome the ,orb of ,light4 ,he is fair in complexion1 with abundant hair and a full beard1 bordering on the red1#c as are all the dawn heroes1 and like them he was an instructor in the arts1 and favored peace and mild laws4 ,footnote #a3 ,chavero1 ,anales del ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico1 ,tom4 ,,ii1 p4 #ad1 #bdc4 ,footnote #b3 ,historia de las ,cosas de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,lib4 ,,vii1 cap4 ,,ii4 ,footnote #c3 ,la barba longa entre cana y roja2 el cabello largo1 muy llano4 ,diego ,duran1 ,historia1 in ,kingsborough1 ,vol4 viii1 p4 #bfj4 ,his name is symbolic1 and is capable of several equally fair renderings4 ,the first part of it1 quetzalli1 means literally a large1 handsome green feather1 such as were very highly prized by the natives4 ,hence it came to mean1 in an adjective sense1 precious1 beautiful1 beloved1 admirable4 ,the bird from which these feathers were obtained was the quetzal-tototl 7tototl1 bird7 and is called by ornithologists ,trogon splendens4 ,the latter part of the name1 coatl1 has in ,aztec three entirely different meanings4 ,it means a guest1 also twins1 and lastly1 as a syncopated form of cohuatl1 a serpent4 ,metaphorically1 cohuatl meant something mysterious1 and hence a supernatural being1 a god4 ,thus ,montezuma1 when he built a temple in the city of ,mexico dedicated to the whole body of divinities1 a regular ,pantheon1 named it ,coatecalli1 the ,house of the ,serpent4#a ,footnote #a3 ,coatecalli1 que quiere decir el templo de la culebra1 que sin metfora quiere decir templo de diversos dioses4 ,duran1 ,historia de las ,indias de ,nueva ,espaa1 cap4 ,,lviii4 ,through these various meanings a good defence can be made of several different translations of the name1 and probably it bore even to the natives different meanings at different times4 ,i am inclined to believe that the original sense was that advocated by ,becerra in the seventeenth century1 and adopted by ,veitia in the eighteenth1 both competent ,aztec scholars4#a ,they translate ,quetzalcoatl as the admirable twin1 and though their notion that this refers to ,thomas ,didymus1 the ,apostle1 does not meet my views1 ,i believe they were right in their etymology4 ,the reference is to the duplicate nature of the ,light-,god as seen in the setting and rising sun1 the sun of to-day and yesterday1 the same yet different4 ,this has its parallels in many other mythologies4#b ,footnote #a3 ,becerra1 ,felicidad de ,mjico1 #afhe1 quoted in ,veitia1 ,historia del ,origen de las ,gentes que poblaron la ,amrica ,septentrional1 cap4 ,,xix4 ,footnote #b3 ,in the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead1 ,ra1 the ,sun-,god1 says1 ,i am a soul and its twins1 or1 ,my soul is becoming two twins4 ,this means that the soul of the sun-god is one1 but1 now that it is born again1 it divides into two principal forms4 ,ra was worshipped at ,an1 under his two prominent manifestations1 as ,tum the primal god1 or more definitely1 god of the sun at evening1 and as ,harmachis1 god of the new sun1 the sun at dawn4 ,tiele1 ,history of the ,egyptian ,religion1 p4 #hj4 ,the correctness of this supposition seems to be shown by a prevailing superstition among the ,aztecs about twins1 and which strikingly illustrates the uniformity of mythological conceptions throughout the world4 ,all readers are familiar with the twins ,romulus and ,remus in ,roman story1 one of whom was fated to destroy their grandfather ,amulius2 with ,edipus and ,telephos1 whose father ,laios1 was warned that his death would be by one of his children2 with ,theseus and ,peirithoos1 the former destined to cause the suicide of his father ,aigeus2 and with many more such myths4 ,they can be traced1 without room for doubt1 back to simple expressions of the fact that the morning and the evening of the one day can only come when the previous day is past and gone2 expressed figuratively by the statement that any one day must destroy its predecessor4 ,this led to the stories of the fatal children1 which we find so frequent in ,aryan mythology4#a ,footnote #a3 ,sir ,george ,w4 ,cox1 ,the ,science of ,comparative ,mythology and ,folk ,lore1 pp4 #ad1 #hc1 #acj1 etc4 ,the ,aztecs were a coarse and bloody race1 and carried out their superstitions without remorse4 ,based1 no doubt1 on this mythical expression of a natural occurrence1 they had the belief that if twins were allowed to live1 one or the other of them would kill and eat his father or mother2 therefore1 it was their custom when such were brought into the world to destroy one of them4#a ,footnote #a3 ,gernimo de ,mendieta1 ,historia ,eclesiastica ,indiana4 ,lib4 ,,ii1 cap4 ,,xix4 ,we shall see that1 as in ,algonkin story ,michabo strove to slay his father1 the ,west ,wind1 so ,quetzalcoatl was in constant warfare with his father1 ,tezcatlipoca-,camaxtli1 the ,spirit of ,darkness4 ,the effect of this oft-repeated myth on the minds of the superstitious natives was to lead them to the brutal child murder ,i have mentioned4 ,it was1 however1 natural that the more ordinary meaning1 the feathered or bird-serpent1 should become popular1 and in the picture writing some combination of the serpent with feathers or other part of a bird was often employed as the rebus of the name ,quetzalcoatl4 ,he was also known by other names1 as1 like all the prominent gods in early mythologies1 he had various titles according to the special attribute or function which was uppermost in the mind of the worshipper4 ,one of these was ,papachtic1 ,he of the ,flowing ,locks1 a word which the ,spaniards shortened to ,papa1 and thought was akin to their title of the ,pope4 ,it is1 however1 a pure ,nahuatl word1#a and refers to the abundant hair with which he was always credited1 and which1 like his ample beard1 was1 in fact1 the symbol of the sun's rays1 the aureole or glory of light which surrounded his face4 ,footnote #a3 ,papachtic1 guedejudo2 ,papachtli1 guedeja o vedija de capellos1 o de otra cosa assi4 ,molina1 ,vocabulario de la ,lengua ,mexicana4 sub voce4 ,juan de ,tobar1 in ,kingsborough1 ,vol4 viii1 p4 #bei1 note4 ,his fair complexion was1 as usual1 significant of light4 ,this association of ideas was so familiar among the ,mexicans that at the time of an eclipse of the sun they sought out the whitest men and women they could find1 and sacrificed them1 in order to pacify the sun4#a ,footnote #a3 ,mendieta1 ,historia ,eclesiastica ,indiana1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 xvi4 ,his opponent1 ,tezcatlipoca1 was the most sublime figure in the ,aztec ,pantheon4 ,he towered above all other gods1 as did ,jove in ,olympus4 ,he was appealed to as the creator of heaven and earth1 as present in every place1 as the sole ruler of the world1 as invisible and omniscient4 ,the numerous titles by which he was addressed illustrate the veneration in which he was held4 ,his most common name in prayers was ,titlacauan1 ,we are his ,slaves4 ,as believed to be eternally young1 he was ,telpochtli1 the ,youth2 as potent and unpersuadable1 he was ,moyocoyatzin1 the ,determined ,doer2#a as exacting in worship1 ,monenegui1 ,he who ,demands ,prayers2 as the master of the race1 ,teyocoyani1 ,creator of ,men1 and ,teimatini1 ,disposer of ,men4 ,as he was jealous and terrible1 the god who visited on men plagues1 and famines1 and loathsome diseases1 the dreadful deity who incited wars and fomented discord1 he was named ,yaotzin1 the ,arch ,enemy1 ,yaotl necoc1 the ,enemy of both ,sides1 ,moquequeloa1 the ,mocker1 ,nezaualpilli1 the ,lord who ,fasts1 ,tlamatzincatl1 ,he who ,enforces ,penitence2 and as dark1 invisible and inscrutable1 he was ,yoalli ehecatl1 the ,night ,wind4#b ,footnote #a3 ,moyocoyatzin1 is the third person singular of yocoya1 to do1 to make1 with the reverential termination tzin4 ,sahagun says this title was given him because he could do what he pleased1 on earth or in heaven1 and no one could prevent him4 7,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,lib4 ,,iii4 cap4 ,,ii47 ,it seems to me that it would rather refer to his demiurgic1 creative power4 ,footnote #b3 ,all these titles are to be found in ,sahagun1 ,historia de ,nueva ,espaa4 ,he was said to be formed of thin air and darkness2 and when he was seen of men it was as a shadow without substance4 ,he alone of all the gods defied the assaults of time1 was ever young and strong1 and grew not old with years4#a ,against such an enemy who could hope for victory8 ,footnote #a3 ,the description of ,clavigero is worth quoting3 ,,tezcatlipoca3 ,questo era il maggior ,dio1 che in que paesi si adorava1 dopo il ,dio invisible1 o ,supremo ,essere4 ,era il ,dio della ,providenza1 l' anima del ,mondo1 il ,creator del ,cielo e della ,terra1 ed il ,signor di tutle le cose4 ,rappresentavanlo tuttora giovane per significare1 che non s' invecchiava mai1 n s' indeboliva cogli anni4 ,storia ,antica di ,messico1 ,lib4 vi1 p4 #g4 ,the name ,tezcatlipoca is one of odd significance4 ,it means ,the ,smoking ,mirror4 ,this strange metaphor has received various explanations4 ,the mirrors in use among the ,aztecs were polished plates of obsidian1 trimmed to a circular form4 ,there was a variety of this black stone called tezcapoctli1 smoky mirror stone1 and from this his images were at times made4#a ,this1 however1 seems too trivial an explanation4 ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 xxxvii4 ,others have contended that ,tezcatlipoca1 as undoubtedly the spirit of darkness and the night1 refers1 in its meaning1 to the moon1 which hangs like a bright round mirror in the sky1 though partly dulled by what the natives thought a smoke4#a ,footnote #a3 ,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,tom4 ii1 p4 #beg4 ,i am inclined to believe1 however1 that the mirror referred to is that first and most familiar of all1 the surface of water3 and that the smoke is the mist which at night rises from lake and river1 as actual smoke does in the still air4 ,as presiding over the darkness and the night1 dreams and the phantoms of the gloom were supposed to be sent by ,tezcatlipoca1 and to him were sacred those animals which prowl about at night1 as the skunk and the coyote4#a ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,historia4 ,lib4 vi1 caps4 ix1 xi1 xii4 ,thus his names1 his various attributes1 his sacred animals and his myths unite in identifying this deity as a primitive personification of the ,darkness1 whether that of the storm or of the night4#a ,footnote #a3 ,seor ,alfredo ,chavero believes ,tezcatlipoca to have been originally the moon1 and there is little doubt at times this was one of his symbols1 as the ruler of the darkness4 ,m4 ,girard de ,rialle1 on the other hand1 claims him as a solar deity4 ,il est la personnification du soleil sous son aspect corrupteur et destructeur1 ennemi des hommes et de la nature4 ,la ,mythologie ,compare1 p4 #ccd 7,paris1 #ahgh74 ,a closer study of the original authorities would1 ,i am sure1 have led ,m4 de ,rialle to change this opinion4 ,he is singularly far from the conclusion reached by ,m4 ,ternaux-,compans1 who says3 ,tezcatlipoca ft la personnification du bon principe4 ,essai sur la ,thogonie ,mexicaine1 p4 #bc 7,paris1 #ahdj74 ,both opinions are equally incomplete4 ,dr4 ,schultz-,sellack considers him the ,wassergott1 and assigns him to the ,north1 in his essay1 ,die ,amerikanischen ,gtter der ,vier ,weltgegenden1 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ,bd4 xi1 #ahgi4 ,this approaches more closely to his true character4 ,this is further shown by the beliefs current as to his occasional appearance on earth4 ,this was always at night and in the gloom of the forest4 ,the hunter would hear a sound like the crash of falling trees1 which would be nothing else than the mighty breathings of the giant form of the god on his nocturnal rambles4 ,were the hunter timorous he would die outright on seeing the terrific presence of the god2 but were he of undaunted heart1 and should rush upon him and seize him around the waist1 the god was helpless and would grant him anything he wished4 ,ask what you please1 the captive deity would say1 and it is yours4 ,only fail not to release me before the sun rises4 ,for ,i must leave before it appears4#a ,footnote #a3 ,torquemada1 ,monarqua ,indiana1 ,lib4 ,,xiv1 cap4 ,,xxii4 #b4 ,quetzalcoatl the ,god4 ,in the ancient and purely mythical narrative1 ,quetzalcoatl is one of four divine brothers1 gods like himself1 born in the uttermost or thirteenth heaven to the infinite and uncreated deity1 which1 in its male manifestations1 was known as ,tonaca tecutli1 ,lord of our ,existence1 and ,tzin teotl1 ,god of the ,beginning1 and in its female expressions as ,tonaca cihuatl1 ,queen of our ,existence1 ,xochiquetzal1 ,beautiful ,rose1 ,citlallicue1 the ,star-skirted or the ,milky ,way1 ,citlalatonac1 the ,star that warms1 or ,the ,morning1 and ,chicome coatl1 the ,seven ,serpents4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the chief authorities on the birth of the god ,quetzalcoatl1 are ,ramirez de ,fuen-leal ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 ,cap4 i1 printed in the ,anales del ,museo ,nacional2 the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis1 and the ,codex ,vaticanus1 both of which are in ,kingsborough's ,mexican ,antiquities4 ,the usual translation of ,tonaca tecutli is ,god of our ,subsistence1 to1 our1 naca1 flesh1 tecutli1 chief or lord4 ,it really has a more subtle meaning4 ,naca is not applied to edible flesh--that is expressed by the word nonoac--but is the flesh of our own bodies1 our life1 existence4 ,see ,anales de ,cuauhtitlan1 p4 #ah1 note4 ,of these four brothers1 two were the black and the red ,tezcatlipoca1 and the fourth was ,huitzilopochtli1 the ,left handed1 the deity adored beyond all others in the city of ,mexico4 ,tezcatlipoca--for the two of the name blend rapidly into one as the myth progresses--was wise beyond compute2 he knew all thoughts and hearts1 could see to all places1 and was distinguished for power and forethought4 ,at a certain time the four brothers gathered together and consulted concerning the creation of things4 ,the work was left to ,quetzalcoatl and ,huitzilopochtli4 ,first they made fire1 then half a sun1 the heavens1 the waters and a certain great fish therein1 called ,cipactli1 and from its flesh the solid earth4 ,the first mortals were the man1 ,cipactonal1 and the woman1 ,oxomuco1#a and that the son born to them might have a wife1 the four gods made one for him out of a hair taken from the head of their divine mother1 ,xochiquetzal4 ,footnote #a3 ,the names ,cipactli and ,cipactonal have not been satisfactorily analyzed4 ,the derivation offered by ,seor ,chavero 7,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,tom4 ii1 p4#aaf71 is merely fanciful2 tonal is no doubt from tona1 to shine1 to warn2 and ,i think cipactli is a softened form with the personal ending from chipauac1 something beautiful or clear4 ,hence the meaning of the compound is ,the ,beautiful ,shining ,one4 ,oxomuco1 which ,chavero derives from xomitl1 foot1 is perhaps the same as ,xmukane1 the mother of the human race1 according to the ,popol ,vuh1 a name which1 ,i have elsewhere shown1 appears to be from a ,maya root1 meaning to conceal or bury in the ground4 ,the hint is of the fertilizing action of the warm light on the seed hidden in the soil4 ,see ,the ,names of the ,gods in the ,kiche ,myths1 ,trans4 of the ,amer4 ,phil4 ,soc4 #ahha4 ,now began the struggle between the two brothers1 ,tezcatlipoca and ,quetzalcoatl1 which was destined to destroy time after time the world1 with all its inhabitants1 and to plunge even the heavenly luminaries into a common ruin4 ,the half sun created by ,quetzalcoatl lighted the world but poorly1 and the four gods came together to consult about adding another half to it4 ,not waiting for their decision1 ,tezcatlipoca transformed himself into a sun1 whereupon the other gods filled the world with great giants1 who could tear up trees with their hands4 ,when an epoch of thirteen times fifty-two years had passed1 ,quetzalcoatl seized a great stick1 and with a blow of it knocked ,tezcatlipoca from the sky into the waters1 and himself became sun4 ,the fallen god transformed himself into a tiger1 and emerged from the waves to attack and devour the giants with which his brothers had enviously filled the world which he had been lighting from the sky4 ,after this1 he passed to the nocturnal heavens1 and became the constellation of the ,great ,bear4 ,for an epoch the earth flourished under ,quetzalcoatl as sun1 but ,tezcatlipoca was merely biding his time1 and the epoch ended1 he appeared as a tiger and gave ,quetzalcoatl such a blow with his paw that it hurled him from the skies4 ,the overthrown god revenged himself by sweeping the earth with so violent a tornado that it destroyed all the inhabitants but a few1 and these were changed into monkeys4 ,his victorious brother then placed in the heavens1 as sun1 ,tlaloc1 the god of darkness1 water and rains1 but after half an epoch1 ,quetzalcoatl poured a flood of fire upon the earth1 drove ,tlaloc from the sky1 and placed in his stead1 as sun1 the goddess ,chalchiutlicue1 the ,emerald ,skirted1 wife of ,tlaloc4 ,in her time the rains poured so upon the earth that all human beings were drowned or changed into fishes1 and at last the heavens themselves fell1 and sun and stars were alike quenched4 ,then the two brothers whose strife had brought this ruin1 united their efforts and raised again the sky1 resting it on two mighty trees1 the ,tree of the ,mirror 7tezcaquahuitl7 and the ,beautiful ,great ,rose ,tree 7quetzalveixochitl71 on which the concave heavens have ever since securely rested2 though we know them better1 perhaps1 if we drop the metaphor and call them the mirroring sea and the flowery earth1 on one of which reposes the horizon1 in whichever direction we may look4 ,again the four brothers met together to provide a sun for the now darkened earth4 ,they decided to make one1 indeed1 but such a one as would eat the hearts and drink the blood of victims1 and there must be wars upon the earth1 that these victims could be obtained for the sacrifice4 ,then ,quetzalcoatl builded a great fire and took his son--his son born of his own flesh1 without the aid of woman--and cast him into the flames1 whence he rose into the sky as the sun which lights the world4 ,when the ,light-,god kindles the flames of the dawn in the orient sky1 shortly the sun emerges from below the horizon and ascends the heavens4 ,tlaloc1 god of waters1 followed1 and into the glowing ashes of the pyre threw his son1 who rose as the moon4 ,tezcatlipoca had it now in mind to people the earth1 and he1 therefore1 smote a certain rock with a stick1 and from it issued four hundred barbarians 7chichimeca74#a ,certain five goddesses1 however1 whom he had already created in the eighth heaven1 descended and slew these four hundred1 all but three4 ,these goddesses likewise died before the sun appeared1 but came into being again from the garments they had left behind4 ,so also did the four hundred ,chichimecs1 and these set about to burn one of the five goddesses1 by name ,coatlicue1 the ,serpent ,skirted1 because it was discovered that she was with child1 though yet unmarried4 ,but1 in fact1 she was a spotless virgin1 and had known no man4 ,she had placed some white plumes in her bosom1 and through these the god ,huitzilopochtli entered her body to be born again4 ,when1 therefore1 the four hundred had gathered together to burn her1 the god came forth fully armed and slew them every one4 ,footnote #a3 ,the name ,chichimeca has been a puzzle4 ,the derivation appears to be from chichi1 a dog1 mecatl1 a rope4 ,according to general tradition the ,chichimecs were a barbarous people who inhabited ,mexico before the ,aztecs came4 ,yet ,sahagun says the ,toltecs were the real ,chichimecs 7,lib4 x1 cap4 xxix74 ,in the myth we are now considering1 they were plainly the stars4 ,it is not hard to guess who are these four hundred youths slain before the sun rises1 destined to be restored to life and yet again destroyed4 ,the veil of metaphor is thin which thus conceals to our mind the picture of the myriad stars quenched every morning by the growing light1 but returning every evening to their appointed places4 ,and did any doubt remain1 it is removed by the direct statement in the echo of this tradition preserved by the ,kiches of ,guatemala1 wherein it is plainly said that the four hundred youths who were put to death by ,zipacna1 and restored to life by ,hunhun ,ahpu1 rose into the sky and became the stars of heaven4#a ,footnote #a3 ,popol ,vuh1 ,le ,livre ,sacr des ,quichs1 p4 #aic4 ,indeed1 these same ancient men whose explanations ,i have been following added that the four hundred men whom ,tezcatlipoca created continued yet to live in the third heaven1 and were its guards and watchmen4 ,they were of five colors1 yellow1 black1 white1 blue and red1 which in the symbolism of their tongue meant that they were distributed around the zenith and to each of the four cardinal points4#a ,footnote #a3 ,see ,h4 de ,charencey1 ,des ,couleurs ,considres comme ,symboles des ,points de l',horizon chez les ,peuples du ,nouveau ,monde1 in the ,actes de la ,socit ,philologiques1 ,tome vi4 ,no4 #c4 ,nor did these sages suppose that the struggle of the dark ,tezcatlipoca to master the ,light-,god had ceased2 no1 they knew he was biding his time1 with set purpose and a fixed certainty of success4 ,they knew that in the second heaven there were certain frightful women1 without flesh or bones1 whose names were the ,terrible1 or the ,thin ,dart-,throwers1 who were waiting there until this world should end1 when they would descend and eat up all mankind4#a ,asked concerning the time of this destruction1 they replied that as to the day or season they knew it not1 but it would be when ,tezcatlipoca should steal the sun from heaven for himself2 in other words1 when eternal night should close in upon the ,universe4#b ,footnote #a3 ,these frightful beings were called the ,tzitzimime1 a word which ,molina in his ,vocabulary renders cosa espantosa cosa de aguero4 ,for a thorough discussion of their place in ,mexican mythology1 see ,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,tom4 ii1 pp4 #ceh-cgb4 ,footnote #b3 ,the whole of this version of the myth is from the work of ,ramirez de ,fuen-leal1 which ,i consider in some respects the most valuable authority we possess4 ,it was taken directly from the sacred books of the ,aztecs1 as explained by the most competent survivors of the ,conquest4 ,the myth which ,i have here given in brief is a prominent one in ,aztec cosmogony1 and is known as that of the ,ages of the ,world or the ,suns4 ,the opinion was widely accepted that the present is the fifth age or period of the world's history2 that it has already undergone four destructions by various causes1 and that the present period is also to terminate in another such catastrophe4 ,the agents of such universal ruin have been a great flood1 a world-wide conflagration1 frightful tornadoes and famine1 earthquakes and wild beasts1 and hence the ,ages1 ,suns or ,periods were called respectively1 from their terminations1 those of ,water1 ,fire1 ,air and ,earth4 ,as we do not know the destiny of the fifth1 the present one1 it has as yet no name4 ,i shall not attempt to go into the details of this myth1 the less so as it has recently been analyzed with much minuteness by the ,mexican antiquary ,chavero4#a ,i will merely point out that it is too closely identified with a great many similar myths for us to be allowed to seek an origin for it peculiar to ,mexican or even ,american soil4 ,we can turn to the ,tualati who live in ,oregon1 and they will tell us of the four creations and destructions of mankind2 how at the end of the first ,age all human beings were changed into stars2 at the end of the second they became stones2 at the end of the third into fishes2 and at the close of the fourth they disappeared1 to give place to the tribes that now inhabit the world4#b ,or we can read from the cuneiform inscriptions of ancient ,babylon1 and find the four destructions of the race there specified1 as by a flood1 by wild beasts1 by famine and by pestilence4#c ,footnote #a3 ,alfredo ,chavero1 ,la ,piedra del ,sol1 in the ,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,tom4 i1 p4 #cec1 et seq4 ,footnote #b3 ,a4,s4 ,gatschet1 ,the ,four ,creations of ,mankind1 a ,tualati myth1 in ,transactions of the ,anthropological ,society of ,washington1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #fj 7#ahha74 ,footnote #c3 ,paul ,haupt1 ,der ,keilinschriftliche ,sintfluthbericht1 p4 #ag 7,leipzig1 #ahha74 ,the explanation which ,i have to give of these coincidences--which could easily be increased--is that the number four was chosen as that of the four cardinal points1 and that the fifth or present age1 that in which we live1 is that which is ruled by the ruler of the four points1 by the ,spirit of ,light1 who was believed to govern them1 as1 in fact1 the early dawn does1 by defining the relations of space1 act as guide and governor of the motions of men4 ,all through ,aztec mythology1 traditions and customs1 we can discover this ancient myth of the four brothers1 the four ancestors of their race1 or the four chieftains who led their progenitors to their respective habitations4 ,the rude mountaineers of ,meztitlan1 who worshiped with particular zeal ,tezcatlipoca and ,quetzalcoatl1 and had inscribed1 in gigantic figures1 the sacred five points1 symbol of the latter1 on the side of a vast precipice in their land1 gave the symbolic titles to the primeval quadruplet2-- ,ixcuin1 ,he who has four faces4 ,hueytecpatl1 the ancient ,flint-stone4 ,tentetemic1 the ,lip-stone that slays4 ,nanacatltzatzi1 ,he who speaks when intoxicated with the poisonous mushroom1 called nanacatl4 ,these four brothers1 according to the myth1 were born of the goddess1 ,hueytonantzin1 which means our great1 ancient mother1 and1 with unfilial hands1 turned against her and slew her1 sacrificing her to the ,sun and offering her heart to that divinity4#a ,in other words1 it is the old story of the cardinal points1 defined at daybreak by the ,dawn1 the eastern ,aurora1 which is lost in or sacrificed to the ,sun on its appearance4 ,footnote #a3 ,gabriel de ,chaves1 ,relacion de la ,provincia de ,meztitlan1 #aeef1 in the ,colecion de ,documentos ,ineditos del ,archivo de ,indias1 ,tom4 iv1 pp4 #ece and #ecf4 ,the translations of the names are not given by ,chaves1 but ,i think they are correct1 except1 possibly1 the third1 which may be a compound of tentetl1 lipstone1 temictli1 dream1 instead of with temicti1 slayer4 ,of these four brothers ,i suspect the first1 ,ixcuin1 he who looks four ways1 or has four faces1 is none other than ,quetzalcoatl1#a while the ,ancient ,flint is probably ,tezcatlipoca1 thus bringing the myth into singularly close relationship with that of the ,iroquois1 given on a previous page4 ,footnote #a3 ,ixcuina was also the name of the goddess of pleasure4 ,the derivation is from ixtli1 face1 cui1 to take1 and na1 four4 ,see the note of ,,mm4 ,jourdanet and ,simeon to their translation of ,sahagun1 ,historia p4 #bb4 ,another myth of the ,aztecs gave these four brothers or primitive heroes1 as3-- ,huitzilopochtli4 ,huitznahua4 ,itztlacoliuhqui4 ,pantecatl4 ,of these ,dr4 ,schultz-,sellack advances plausible reasons for believing that ,itztlacoliuhqui1 which was the name of a certain form of head-dress1 was another title of ,quetzalcoatl2 and that ,pantecatl was one of the names of ,tezcatlipoca4#a ,if this is the case we have here another version of the same myth4 ,footnote #a3 ,dr4 ,schultz ,sellack1 ,die ,amerikanischen ,gtter der ,vier ,weltgegenden und ihre ,tempel in ,palenque1 in the ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ,bd4 xi1 7#ahgi74 #c4 ,quetzalcoatl1 the ,hero of ,tula4 ,but it was not ,quetzalcoatl the god1 the mysterious creator of the visible world1 on whom the thoughts of the ,aztec race delighted to dwell1 but on ,quetzalcoatl1 high priest in the glorious city of ,tollan 7,tula71 the teacher of the arts1 the wise lawgiver1 the virtuous prince1 the master builder and the merciful judge4 ,here1 again1 though the scene is transferred from heaven to earth and from the cycles of other worlds to a date not extremely remote1 the story continues to be of his contest with ,tezcatlipoca1 and of the wiles of this enemy1 now diminished to a potent magician and jealous rival1 to dispossess and drive him from famous ,tollan4 ,no one versed in the metaphors of mythology can be deceived by the thin veil of local color which surrounds the myth in this its terrestrial and historic form4 ,apart from its being but a repetition or continuation of the genuine ancient account of the conflict of day and night1 light and darkness1 which ,i have already given1 the name ,tollan is enough to point out the place and the powers with which the story deals4 ,for this ,tollan1 where ,quetzalcoatl reigned1 is not by any means1 as some have supposed1 the little town of ,tula1 still alive1 a dozen leagues or so northwest from the city of ,mexico2 nor was it1 as the legend usually stated1 in some undefined locality from six hundred to a thousand leagues northwest of that city2 nor yet in ,asia1 as some antiquaries have maintained2 nor1 indeed1 anywhere upon this weary world2 but it was1 as the name denotes1 and as the native historian ,tezozomoc long since translated it1 where the bright sun lives1 and where the god of light forever rules so long as that orb is in the sky4 ,tollan is but a syncopated form of ,tonatlan1 the ,place of the ,sun4#a ,footnote #a3 ,tonalan1 lugar del sol1 says ,tezozomoc 7,cronica ,mexicana1 chap4 i74 ,the full form is ,tonatlan1 from tona1 hacer sol1 and the place ending tlan4 ,the derivation from tollin1 a rush1 is of no value1 and it is nothing to the point that in the picture writing ,tollan was represented by a bundle of rushes 7,kingsborough1 vol4 vi1 p4 #agg1 note71 as that was merely in accordance with the rules of the picture writing1 which represented names by rebuses4 ,still more worthless is the derivation given by ,herrera 7,historia de las ,indias ,occidentals1 ,dec4 iii1 ,lib4 i1 cap4 xi71 that it means ,lugar de ,tuna or the place where the tuna 7the fruit of the ,opuntia7 is found2 inasmuch as the word tuna is not from the ,aztec at all1 but belongs to that dialect of the ,arawack spoken by the natives of ,cuba and ,haiti4 ,it is worth while to examine the whereabouts and character of this marvelous city of ,tollan somewhat closely1 for it is a place that we hear of in the oldest myths and legends of many and different races4 ,not only the ,aztecs1 but the ,mayas of ,yucatan and the ,kiches and ,cakchiquels of ,guatemala bewailed1 in woful songs1 the loss to them of that beautiful land1 and counted its destruction as a common starting point in their annals4#a ,well might they regret it1 for not again would they find its like4 ,in that land the crop of maize never failed1 and the ears grew as long as a man's arm2 the cotton burst its pods1 not white only1 but naturally of all beautiful colors1 scarlet1 green1 blue1 orange1 what you would2 the gourds could not be clasped in the arms2 birds of beauteous plumage filled the air with melodious song4 ,there was never any want nor poverty4 ,all the riches of the world were there1 houses built of silver and precious jade1 of rosy mother of pearl and of azure turquoises4 ,the servants of the great king ,quetzalcoatl were skilled in all manner of arts2 when he sent them forth they flew to any part of the world with infinite speed2 and his edicts were proclaimed from the summit of the mountain ,tzatzitepec1 the ,hill of ,shouting1 by criers of such mighty voice that they could be heard a hundred leagues away4#b ,his servants and disciples were called ,sons of the ,sun and ,sons of the ,clouds4#c ,footnote #a3 ,the ,books of ,chilan ,balam1 of the ,mayas1 the ,record from ,tecpan ,atitlan1 of the ,cakchiquels1 and the ,popol vuh1 ,national ,book1 of the ,kiches1 have much to say about ,tulan4 ,these works were all written at a very early date1 by natives1 and they have all been preserved in the original tongues1 though unfortunately only the last mentioned has been published4 ,footnote #b3 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 iii1 cap4 iii4 ,footnote #c3 ,duran1 ,historia de los ,indios1 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 viii1 p4 #bfg4 ,where1 then1 was this marvelous land and wondrous city8 ,where could it be but where the ,light-,god is on his throne1 where the life-giving sun is ever present1 where are the mansions of the day1 and where all nature rejoices in the splendor of its rays8 ,but this is more than in one spot4 ,it may be in the uppermost heavens1 where light is born and the fleecy clouds swim easily2 or in the west1 where the sun descends to his couch in sanguine glory2 or in the east1 beyond the purple rim of the sea1 whence he rises refreshed as a giant to run his course2 or in the underworld1 where he passes the night4 ,therefore1 in ancient ,cakchiquel legend it is said3 ,where the sun rises1 there is one ,tulan2 another is in the underworld2 yet another where the sun sets2 and there is still another1 and there dwells the ,god4 ,thus1 ,o my children1 there are four ,tulans1 as the ancient men have told us4#a ,footnote #a3 ,francisco ,ernantez ,arana ,xahila1 ,memorial de ,tecpan ,atitlan4 ,,ms4 in ,cakchiquel1 in my possession4 ,the most venerable traditions of the ,maya race claimed for them a migration from ,tollan in ,zuyva4 ,thence came we forth together1 says the ,kiche myth1 there was the common parent of our race1 thence came we1 from among the ,yaqui men1 whose god is ,yolcuat ,quetzalcoat4#a ,this ,tollan is certainly none other than the abode of ,quetzalcoatl1 named in an ,aztec manuscript as ,zivena vitzcatl1 a word of uncertain derivation1 but applied to the highest heaven4 ,footnote #a3 ,le ,popol ,vuh1 p4 #bdg4 ,the name ,yaqui means in ,kiche civilized or polished1 and was applied to the ,aztecs1 but it is1 in its origin1 from an ,aztec root yauh1 whence yaque1 travelers1 and especially merchants4 ,the ,kiches recognizing in the ,aztec merchants a superior and cultivated class of men1 adopted into their tongue the name which the merchants gave themselves1 and used the word in the above sense4 ,compare ,sahagun1 ,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,lib4 ix1 cap4 xii4 ,where ,quetzalcoatl finally retired1 and whence he was expected back1 was still a ,tollan--,tollan ,tlapallan--and ,montezuma1 when he heard of the arrival of the ,spaniards1 exclaimed1 ,it is ,quetzalcoatl1 returned from ,tula4 ,the cities which selected him as their tutelary deity were named for that which he was supposed to have ruled over4 ,thus we have ,tollan and ,tollantzinco 7behind ,tollan7 in the ,valley of ,mexico1 and the pyramid ,cholula was called ,tollan-,cholollan1 as well as many other ,tollans and ,tulas among the ,nahuatl colonies4 ,the natives of the city of ,tula were called1 from its name1 the ,tolteca1 which simply means those who dwell in ,tollan4 ,and who1 let us ask1 were these ,toltecs8 ,they have hovered about the dawn of ,american history long enough4 ,to them have been attributed not only the primitive culture of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 but of lands far to the north1 and even the earthworks of the ,ohio ,valley4 ,it is time they were assigned their proper place1 and that is among the purely fabulous creations of the imagination1 among the giants and fairies1 the gnomes and sylphs1 and other such fancied beings which in all ages and nations the popular mind has loved to create4 ,toltec1 ,toltecatl1#a which in later days came to mean a skilled craftsman or artificer1 signifies1 as ,i have said1 an inhabitant of ,tollan--of the ,city of the ,sun--in other words1 a ,child of ,light4 ,without a metaphor1 it meant at first one of the far darting1 bright shining rays of the sun4 ,not only does the tenor of the whole myth show this1 but specifically and clearly the powers attributed to the ancient ,toltecs4 ,as the immediate subjects of the ,god of ,light they were called ,those who fly the whole day without resting1#b and it was said of them that they had the power of reaching instantly even a very distant place4 ,when the ,light-,god himself departs1 they too disappear1 and their city is left uninhabited and desolate4 ,footnote #a3 ,toltecatl1 according to ,molina1 is oficial de arte mecanica maestro1 7,vocabulario de la ,lengua ,mexicana1 s4v474 ,this is a secondary meaning4 ,veitia justly says1 ,toltecatl quiere decir artifice1 porque en ,thollan comenzaron a ensear1 aunque a ,thollan llamaron ,tula1 y por decir ,toltecatl dicen ,tuloteca 7,historia1 cap4 xv74 ,footnote #b3 ,their title was ,tlanqua cemilhuique1 compounded of tlanqua1 to set the teeth1 as with strong determination1 and cemilhuitia1 to run during a whole day4 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 iii1 cap4 iii1 and ,lib4 x1 cap4 xxix2 compare also the myth of ,tezcatlipoca disguised as an old woman parching corn1 the odor of which instantly attracted the ,toltecs1 no matter how far off they were4 ,when they came she killed them4 ,id4 ,lib4 iii1 cap4 xi4 ,in some1 and these ,i consider the original versions of the myth1 they do not constitute a nation at all1 but are merely the disciples or servants of ,quetzalcoatl4#a ,they have all the traits of beings of supernatural powers4 ,they were astrologers and necromancers1 marvelous poets and philosophers1 painters as were not to be found elsewhere in the world1 and such builders that for a thousand leagues the remains of their cities1 temples and fortresses strewed the land4 ,when it has happened to me1 says ,father ,duran1 to ask an ,indian who cut this pass through the mountains1 or who opened that spring of water1 or who built that old ruin1 the answer was1 ',the ,toltecs1 the disciples of ,papa4'#b ,footnote #a3 ,discipulos1 ,duran1 ,historia1 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 vii1 p4 #bfj4 ,footnote #b3 ,ibid4 ,they were tall in stature1 beyond the common race of men1 and it was nothing uncommon for them to live hundreds of years4 ,such was their energy that they allowed no lazy person to live among them1 and like their master they were skilled in every art of life and virtuous beyond the power of mortals4 ,in complexion they are described as light in hue1 as was their leader1 and as are usually the personifications of light1 and not the less so among the dark races of men4#a ,footnote #a3 ,for the character of the ,toltecs as here portrayed1 see ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,relaciones ,historicas1 and ,veitia1 ,historia1 passion4 ,when ,quetzalcoatl left ,tollan most of the ,toltecs had already perished by the stratagems of ,tezcatlipoca1 and those that survived were said to have disappeared on his departure4 ,the city was left desolate1 and what became of its remaining inhabitants no one knew4 ,but this very uncertainty offered a favorable opportunity for various nations1 some speaking ,nahuatl and some other tongues1 to claim descent from this mysterious1 ancient and wondrous race4 ,the question seems1 indeed1 a difficult one4 ,when the ,light-,god disappears from the sky1 shorn of his beams and bereft of his glory1 where are the bright rays1 the darting gleams of light which erewhile bathed the earth in refulgence8 ,gone1 gone1 we know not whither4 ,the original home of the ,toltecs was said to have been in ,tlapallan--the very same ,red ,land to which ,quetzalcoatl was fabled to have returned2 only the former was distinguished as ,old ,tlapallan--,hue ,tlapallan--as being that from which he and they had emerged4 ,other myths called it the ,place of ,sand1 ,xalac1 an evident reference to the sandy sea strand1 the same spot where it was said that ,quetzalcoatl was last seen1 beyond which the sun rises and below which he sinks4 ,thither he returned when driven from ,tollan1 and reigned over his vassals many years in peace4#a ,footnote #a3 ,se meti 7,quetzalcoatl7 la tierra adentro hasta ,tlapallan segun otros ,huey ,xalac1 antigua patria de sus antepasados1 en donde vivi muchos aos4 ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,relaciones ,historicas1 p4 #cid1 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 ix4 ,xalac1 is from xalli1 sand1 with the locative termination4 ,in ,nahuatl xalli aquia1 to enter the sand1 means to die4 ,we cannot mistake this ,tlapallan1 new or old4 ,whether it is bathed in the purple and gold of the rising sun or in the crimson and carnation of his setting1 it always was1 as ,sahagun tells us1 with all needed distinctness1 the city of the ,sun1 the home of light and color1 whence their leader1 ,quetzalcoatl had come1 and whither he was summoned to return4#a ,footnote #a3 ,dicen que camin acia el ,oriente1 y que se fu la ciudad del ,sol1 llamada ,tlapallan1 y fu llamado del sol4 ,libro4 viii1 ,prologo4 ,the origin of the earthly ,quetzalcoatl is variously given2 one cycle of legends narrates his birth in ,tollan in some extraordinary manner2 a second cycle claims that he was not born in any country known to the ,aztecs1 but came to them as a stranger4 ,of the former cycle probably one of the oldest versions is that he was a son or descendant of ,tezcatlipoca himself1 under his name ,camaxtli4 ,this was the account given to the chancellor ,ramirez1#a and it is said by ,torquemada to have been the canonical doctrine taught in the holy city of ,cholollan1 the centre of the worship of ,quetzalcoatl4#b ,it is a transparent metaphor1 and could be paralleled by a hundred similar expressions in the myths of other nations4 ,the ,night brings forth the ,day1 the darkness leads on to the light1 and though thus standing in the relation of father and son1 the struggle between them is forever continued4 ,footnote #a3 ,ramirez de ,fuen-leal1 ,hist4 de los ,mexicanos1 cap4 viii4 ,footnote #b3 ,monarquia ,indiana1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 xxiv4 ,camaxtli is also found in the form ,yoamaxtli2 this shows that it is a compound of maxtli1 covering1 clothing1 and ca1 the substantive verb1 or in the latter instance1 yoalli1 night2 hence it is1 the ,mantle1 or1 the garb of night 7la faja nocturna1 ,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,tom4 ii1 p4 #cfc74 ,another myth represents him as the immediate son of the ,all-,father ,tonaca tecutli1 under his title ,citlallatonac1 the ,morning1 by an earth-born maiden in ,tollan4 ,in that city dwelt three sisters1 one of whom1 an unspotted virgin1 was named ,chimalman4 ,one day1 as they were together1 the god appeared to them4 ,chimalman's two sisters were struck to death by fright at his awful presence1 but upon her he breathed the breath of life1 and straightway she conceived4 ,the son she bore cost her life1 but it was the divine ,quetzalcoatl1 surnamed ,topiltcin1 ,our ,son1 and1 from the year of his birth1 ,ce ,acatl1 ,one ,reed4 ,as soon as he was born he was possessed of speech and reason and wisdom4 ,as for his mother1 having perished on earth1 she was transferred to the heavens1 where she was given the honored name ,chalchihuitzli1 the ,precious ,stone of ,sacrifice4#a ,footnote #a3 ,codex ,vaticanus1 ,tab4 x2 ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis1 ,pt4 ii1 ,lam4 ii4 ,the name is from chalchihuitl1 jade1 and vitztli1 the thorn used to pierce the tongue1 ears and penis1 in sacrifice4 ,chimalman1 more correctly1 ,chimalmatl1 is from chimalli1 shield1 and probably1 matlalin1 green4 ,this1 also1 is evidently an ancient and simple figure of speech to express that the breath of ,morning announces the dawn which brings forth the sun and disappears in the act4 ,the virgin mother ,chimalman1 in another legend1 is said to have been brought with child by swallowing a jade or precious green stone 7chalchihuitl72#a while another averred that she was not a virgin1 but the wife of ,camaxtli 7,tezcatlipoca72#b or again1 that she was the second wife of that venerable old man who was the father of the seven sons from whom all tribes speaking the ,nahuatl language1 and several who did not speak it 7,otomies1 ,tarascos71 were descended4#c ,this latter will repay analysis4 ,footnote #a3 ,mendieta1 ,historia ,eclesiastica ,indiana1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 vi4 ,footnote #b3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #c3 ,motolinia1 ,historia de los ,indios de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,epistola ,proemial1 p4 #aj4 ,the first wife was ,ilancueitl1 from ilantli1 old woman1 and cueitl1 skirt4 ,gomara1 ,conquista de ,mjico1 p4 #dcb4 ,all through ,mexico and ,central ,america this legend of the ,seven ,sons1 ,seven ,tribes1 the ,seven ,caves whence they issued1 or the ,seven ,cities where they dwelt1 constantly crops out4 ,to that land the ,aztecs referred as their former dwelling place4 ,it was located at some indefinite distance to the north or northwest--in the same direction as ,tollan4 ,the name of that land was significant4 ,it was called the ,white or ,bright ,land1 ,aztlan4#a ,in its midst was situated the mountain or hill ,colhuacan the ,divine1 ,teoculhuacan4#b ,in the base of this hill were the ,seven ,caverns1 ,chicomoztoc1 whence the seven tribes with their respective gods had issued1 those gods including ,quetzalcoatl1 ,huitzilopochtli and the ,tezcatlipocas4 ,there continued to live their mother1 awaiting their return4 ,footnote #a3 ,the derivation of ,aztlan from aztatl1 a heron1 has been rejected by ,buschmann and the best ,aztec scholars4 ,it is from the same root as izlac1 white1 with the local ending tlan1 and means the ,white or ,bright ,land4 ,see the subject discussed in ,buschmann1 ,ueber die ,atzekischen ,ortsnamen4 p4 #fab1 and recently by ,seor ,orozco y ,berra1 in ,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,tom4 ii1 p4 #ef4 ,footnote #b3 ,colhuacan1 is a locative form4 ,it is usually derived from coloa1 to curve1 to round4 ,father ,duran says it is another name for ,aztlan3 ,estas cuevas son en ,teoculacan1 que por otro nombre se llama ,aztlan4 ,historia de los ,indios de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,lib4 i1 cap4 i4 ,teo is from teotl1 god1 deity4 ,the description in the text of the relations of land and water in this mythical land1 is also from ,duran's work4 ,the lord of this land and the father of the seven sons is variously and indistinctly named4 ,one legend calls him the ,white ,serpent of the ,clouds1 or the ,white ,cloud ,twin1 ,iztac ,mixcoatl4#a ,whoever he was we can hardly mistake the mountain in which or upon which he dwelt4 ,colhuacan means the bent or curved mountain4 ,it is none other than the ,hill of ,heaven1 curving down on all sides to the horizon2 upon it in all times have dwelt the gods1 and from it they have come to aid the men they favor4 ,absolutely the same name was applied by the ,choctaws to the mythical hill from which they say their ancestors first emerged into the light of day4 ,they call it ,nane ,waiyah1 the ,bent or ,curved ,hill#b4 ,such identity of metaphorical expression leaves little room for discussion4 ,footnote #a3 ,mendieta1 ,historia ,eclesiastica ,indiana1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 xxxiii4 ,footnote #b3 ,see my work1 ,the ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #bdb4 ,if it did1 the other myths which surround the mystic mountain would seem to clear up doubt4 ,colhuacan1 we are informed1 continued to be the residence of the great ,mother of the ,gods4 ,on it she dwelt1 awaiting their return from earth4 ,no one can entirely climb the mountain1 for from its middle distance to the summit it is of fine and slippery sand2 but it has this magical virtue1 that whoever ascends it1 however old he is1 grows young again1 in proportion as he mounts1 and is thus restored to pristine vigor4 ,the happy dwellers around it have1 however1 no need of its youth restoring power2 for in that land no one grows old1 nor knows the outrage of years4#a ,footnote #a3 ,en esta tierra nunca envejecen los hombres4 99 99 99 ,este cerro tiene esta virtud1 que el que ya viejo se quiere remozar1 sube hasta donde le parece1 y vuelve de la edad que quiere4 ,duran1 in ,kingsborough1 ,vol4 viii1 p4 #bja4 ,when ,quetzalcoatl1 therefore1 was alleged to be the son of the ,lord of the ,seven ,caves1 it was nothing more than a variation of the legend that gave him out as the son of the ,lord of the ,high ,heavens4 ,they both mean the same thing4 ,chimalman1 who appears in both myths as his mother1 binds the two together1 and stamps them as identical1 while ,mixcoatl is only another name for ,tezcatlipoca4 ,such an interpretation1 if correct1 would lead to the dismissal from history of the whole story of the ,seven ,cities or ,caves1 and the pretended migration from them4 ,in fact1 the repeated endeavors of the chroniclers to assign a location to these fabulous residences1 have led to no result other than most admired disorder and confusion4 ,it is as vain to seek their whereabouts1 as it is that of the garden of ,eden or the ,isle of ,avalon4 ,they have not1 and never had a place on this sublunary sphere1 but belong in that ethereal world which the fancy creates and the imagination paints4 ,a more prosaic account than any of the above1 is given by the historian1 ,alva ,ixtlilxochitl1 so prosaic that it is possible that it has some grains of actual fact in it4#a ,he tells us that a ,king of ,tollan1 ,tecpancaltzin1 fell in love with the daughter of one of his subjects1 a maiden by name ,xochitl1 the ,rose4 ,her father was the first to collect honey from the maguey plant1 and on pretence of buying this delicacy the king often sent for ,xochitl4 ,he accomplished her seduction1 and hid her in a rose garden on a mountain1 where she gave birth to an infant son1 to the great anger of the father4 ,casting the horoscope of the infant1 the court astrologer found all the signs that he should be the last ,king of ,tollan1 and should witness the destruction of the ,toltec monarchy4 ,he was named ,meconetzin1 the ,son of the ,maguey1 and in due time became king1 and the prediction was accomplished4#b ,footnote #a3 ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,relaciones ,historicas1 p4 #ccj1 in ,kingsborough1 ,vol4 ix4 ,footnote #b3 ,in the work of ,ramirez de ,fuen-leal 7cap4 viii71 ,tezcatlipoca is said to have been the discoverer of pulque1 the intoxicating wine of the ,maguey4 ,in ,meztitlan he was associated with the gods of this beverage and of drunkenness4 ,hence it is probable that the name ,meconetzin applied to ,quetzalcoatl in this myth meant to convey that he was the son of ,tezcatlipoca4 ,in several points1 however1 this seemingly historic narrative has a suspicious resemblance to a genuine myth preserved to us in a certain ,aztec manuscript known as the ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis4 ,this document tells how ,quetzalcoatl1 ,tezcatlipoca and their brethren were at first gods1 and dwelt as stars in the heavens4 ,they passed their time in ,paradise1 in a ,rose ,garden1 ,xochitlycacan 7where the roses are lifted up72 but on a time they began plucking the roses from the great ,rose tree in the centre of the garden1 and ,tonaca-tecutli1 in his anger at their action1 hurled them to the earth1 where they lived as mortals4 ,the significance of this myth1 as applied to the daily descent of sun and stars from the zenith to the horizon1 is too obvious to need special comment2 and the coincidences of the rose garden on the mountain 7in the one instance the ,hill of ,heaven1 in the other a supposed terrestrial elevation7 from which ,quetzalcoatl issues1 and the anger of the parent1 seem to indicate that the supposed historical relation of ,ixtlilxochitl is but a myth dressed in historic garb4 ,the second cycle of legends disclaimed any miraculous parentage for the hero of ,tollan4 ,las ,casas narrates his arrival from the ,east1 from some part of ,yucatan1 he thinks1 with a few followers1#a a tradition which is also repeated with definitiveness by the native historian1 ,alva ,ixtlilxochitl1 but leaving the locality uncertain4#b ,the historian1 ,veytia1 on the other hand1 describes him as arriving from the ,north1 a full grown man1 tall of stature1 white of skin1 and full-bearded1 barefooted and bareheaded1 clothed in a long white robe strewn with red crosses1 and carrying a staff in his hand4#c ,footnote #a3 ,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 xxiv4 ,this was apparently the canonical doctrine in ,cholula4 ,mendieta says3 ,el dios idolo de ,cholula1 llamado ,quetzalcoatl1 fu el mas celebrado y tenido por mejor y mas digno sobre los otro dioses1 segun la reputacion de todos4 ,este1 segun sus historias 7aunque algunos digan que de ,tula7 vino de las partes de ,yucatan la ciudad de ,cholula4 ,historia ,eclesiastica ,indiana1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 x4 ,footnote #b3 ,historia ,chichimeca1 cap4 i4 ,footnote #c3 ,historia1 cap4 xv4 ,whatever the origin of ,quetzalcoatl1 whether the child of a miraculous conception1 or whether as an adult stranger he came from some far-off land1 all accounts agree as to the greatness and purity of his character1 and the magnificence of ,tollan under his reign4 ,his temple was divided into four apartments1 one toward the ,east1 yellow with gold2 one toward the ,west1 blue with turquoise and jade2 one toward the ,south1 white with pearls and shells1 and one toward the ,north1 red with bloodstones2 thus symbolizing the four cardinal points and four quarters of the world over which the light holds sway4#a ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,lib4 ix1 cap4 xxix4 ,through the midst of ,tollan flowed a great river1 and upon or over this river was the house of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,every night at midnight he descended into this river to bathe1 and the place of his bath was called1 ,in the ,painted ,vase1 or1 ,in the ,precious ,waters4#a ,for the ,orb of ,light dips nightly into the waters of the ,world ,stream1 and the painted clouds of the sun-setting surround the spot of his ablutions4 ,footnote #a3 ,the name of the bath of ,quetzalcoatl is variously given as ,xicpoyan1 from xicalli1 vases made from gourds1 and poyan1 to paint 7,sahagun1 ,lib4 iii1 cap4 iii72 ,chalchiuhapan1 from atl1 water pan1 in1 and chalchiuitl1 precious1 brilliant1 the jade stone 7id41 ,lib4 x1 cap4 xxix72 and ,atecpanamochco1 from atl1 water1 tecpan1 royal1 amochtli1 any shining white metal1 as tin1 and the locative co1 hence1 ,in the ,shining ,royal ,water 7,anales de ,cuauhtitlan1 p4 #ba74 ,these names are interesting as illustrating the halo of symbolism which surrounded the history of the ,light-,god4 ,i have said that the history of ,quetzalcoatl in ,tollan is but a continuation of the conflict of the two primal brother gods4 ,it is still the implacable ,tezcatlipoca who pursues and finally conquers him4 ,but there is this significant difference1 that whereas in the elemental warfare portrayed in the older myth mutual violence and alternate destruction prevail1 in all these later myths ,quetzalcoatl makes no effort at defence1 scarcely remonstrates1 but accepts his defeat as a decree of ,fate which it is vain to resist4 ,he sees his people fall about him1 and the beautiful city sink into destruction1 but he knows it is the hand of ,destiny1 and prepares himself to meet the inevitable with what stoicism and dignity he may4 ,the one is the quenching of the light by the darkness of the tempest and the night1 represented as a struggle2 in the other it is the gradual and calm but certain and unavoidable extinction of the sun as it noiselessly sinks to the western horizon4 ,the story of the subtlety of ,tezcatlipoca is variously told4 ,in what may well be its oldest and simplest version it is said that in his form as ,camaxtli he caught a deer with two heads1 which1 so long as he kept it1 secured him luck in war2 but falling in with one of five goddesses he had created1 he begat a son1 and through this act he lost his good fortune4 ,the son was ,quetzalcoatl1 surnamed ,ce ,acatl1 and he became ,lord of ,tollan1 and a famous warrior4 ,for many years he ruled the city1 and at last began to build a very great temple4 ,while engaged in its construction ,tezcatlipoca came to him one day and told him that toward ,honduras1 in a place called ,tlapallan1 a house was ready for him1 and he must quit ,tollan and go there to live and die4 ,quetzalcoatl replied that the heavens and stars had already warned him that after four years he must go hence1 and that he would obey4 ,the time past1 he took with him all the inhabitants of ,tula1 and some he left in ,cholula1 from whom its inhabitants are descended1 and some he placed in the province of ,cuzcatan1 and others in ,cempoal1 and at last he reached ,tlapallan1 and on the very day he arrived there1 he fell sick and died4 ,as for ,tula1 it remained without an inhabitant for nine years4#a ,footnote #a3 ,ramirez de ,fuen-leal1 ,historia de los ,mexicanos por sus ,pinturas1 cap4 viii4 ,a more minute account is given by the author of the ,annals of ,cuauhtitlan1 a work written at an early date1 in the ,aztec tongue4 ,he assures his readers that his narrative of these particular events is minutely and accurately recorded from the oldest and most authentic traditions4 ,it is this3-- ,when those opposed to ,quetzalcoatl did not succeed in their designs1 they summoned to their aid a demon or sorcerer1 by name ,tezcatlipoca1 and his assistants4 ,he said3 ,we will give him a drink to dull his reason1 and will show him his own face in a mirror1 and surely he will be lost4 ,then ,tezcatlipoca brewed an intoxicating beverage1 the pulque1 from the maguey1 and taking a mirror he wrapped it in a rabbit skin1 and went to the house of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,go tell your master1 he said to the servants1 that ,i have come to show him his own flesh4 ,what is this8 said ,quetzalcoatl1 when the message was delivered4 ,what does he call my own flesh8 ,go and ask him4 ,but ,tezcatlipoca refused4 ,i have not come to see you1 but your master1 he said to the servants4 ,then he was admitted1 and ,quetzalcoatl said3-- ,welcome1 youth1 you have troubled yourself much4 ,whence come you8 ,what is this1 my flesh1 that you would show me8 ,my ,lord and ,priest1 replied the youth1 ,i come from the mountain-side of ,nonoalco4 ,look1 now1 at your flesh2 know yourself2 see yourself as you are seen of others2 and with that he handed him the mirror4 ,as soon as ,quetzalcoatl saw his face in the mirror he exclaimed3-- ,how is it possible my subjects can look on me without affright8 ,well might they flee from me4 ,how can a man remain among them filled as ,i am with foul sores1 his face wrinkled and his aspect loathsome8 ,i shall be seen no more2 ,i shall no longer frighten my people4 ,then ,tezcatlipoca went away to take counsel1 and returning1 said3-- ,my lord and master1 use the skill of your servant4 ,i have come to console you4 ,go forth to your people4 ,i will conceal your defects by art4 ,do what you please1 replied ,quetzalcoatl4 ,i will see what my fate is to be4 ,tezcatlipoca painted his cheeks green and dyed his lips red4 ,the forehead he colored yellow1 and taking feathers of the quechol bird1 he arranged them as a beard4 ,quetzalcoatl surveyed himself in the mirror1 and rejoiced at his appearance1 and forthwith sallied forth to see his people4 ,tezcatlipoca withdrew to concoct another scheme of disgrace4 ,with his attendants he took of the strong pulque which he had brewed1 and came again to the palace of the ,lord of ,tollan4 ,they were refused admittance and asked their country4 ,they replied that they were from the ,mountain of the ,holy ,priest1 from the ,hill of ,tollan4 ,when ,quetzalcoatl heard this1 he ordered them to be admitted1 and asked their business4 ,they offered him the pulque1 but he refused1 saying that he was sick1 and1 moreover1 that it would weaken his judgment and might cause his death4 ,they urged him to dip but the tip of his finger in it to taste it2 he complied1 but even so little of the magic liquor overthrew his self control1 and taking the bowl he quaffed a full draught and was drunk4 ,then these perverse men ridiculed him1 and cried out3-- ,you feel finely now1 my son2 sing us a song2 sing1 worthy priest4 ,thereupon ,quetzalcoatl began to sing1 as follows3-- ,my pretty house1 my coral house1 ,i call it ,zacuan by name2 ,and must ,i leave it1 do you say8 ,oh my1 oh me1 and ah for shame4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the original is-- ,quetzal1 quetzal1 no calli1 ,zacuan1 no callin tapach ,no callin nic yacahuaz ,an ya1 an ya1 an quilmach4 ,literally-- ,beautiful1 beautiful 7is7 my house ,zacuan1 my house of coral2 ,my house1 ,i must leave it4 ,alas1 alas1 they say4 ,zacuan1 instead of being a proper name1 may mean a rich yellow leather from the bird called zacuantototl4 ,as the fumes of the liquor still further disordered his reason1 he called his attendants and bade them hasten to his sister ,quetzalpetlatl1 who dwelt on the ,mountain ,nonoalco1 and bring her1 that she too might taste the divine liquor4 ,the attendants hurried off and said to his sister3-- ,noble lady1 we have come for you4 ,the high priest ,quetzalcoatl awaits you4 ,it is his wish that you come and live with him4 ,she instantly obeyed and went with them4 ,on her arrival ,quetzalcoatl seated her beside him and gave her to drink of the magical pulque4 ,immediately she felt its influence1 and ,quetzalcoatl began to sing1 in drunken fashion-- ,sister mine1 beloved mine1 ,quetzal--petlatl--tzin1 ,come with me1 drink with me1 ',tis no sin1 sin1 sin4 ,soon they were so drunken that all reason was forgotten2 they said no prayers1 they went not to the bath1 and they sank asleep on the floor4#a ,footnote #a3 ,it is not clear1 at least in the translations1 whether the myth intimates an incestuous relation between ,quetzalcoatl and his sister4 ,in the song he calls her ,nohueltiuh1 which means1 strictly1 ,my elder sister2 but ,mendoza translates it ,querida esposa mia4 ,quetzalpetlatl means the ,beautiful ,carpet1 petlatl being the rug or mat used on floors1 etc4 ,this would be a most appropriate figure of speech to describe a rich tropical landscape1 carpeted with flowers1 as we say2 and as the earth is1 in primitive cosmogony1 older than the sun1 ,i suspect that this story of ,quetzalcoatl and his sister refers to the sun sinking from heaven1 seemingly1 into the earth4 ,los ,nahoas1 remarks ,chavero1 figuraban la tierra en forma de un cuadriltero dividido en pequeos quatros1 lo que semijaba una estera1 petlatl 7,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,tom4 ii1 p4 #bdh74 ,sad1 indeed1 was ,quetzalcoatl the next morning4 ,i have sinned1 he said2 the stain on my name can never be erased4 ,i am not fit to rule this people4 ,let them build for me a habitation deep under ground2 let them bury my bright treasures in the earth2 let them throw the gleaming gold and shining stones into the holy fountain where ,i take my daily bath4 ,all this was done1 and ,quetzalcoatl spent four days in his underground tomb4 ,when he came forth he wept and told his followers that the time had come for him to depart for ,tlapallan1 the ,red ,land1 ,tlillan1 the ,dark ,land1 and ,tlatlallan1 the ,fire ,land1 all names of one locality4 ,he journeyed eastward until he came to a place where the sky1 and land1 and water meet together4#a ,there his attendants built a funeral pile1 and he threw himself into the flames4 ,as his body burned his heart rose to heaven1 and after four days became the planet ,venus4#b ,footnote #a3 ,designated in the ,aztec original by the name ,teoapan ,ilhuicaatenco1 from teotl1 divine1 atl1 water1 pan1 in or near1 ilhuicac1 heaven1 atenco1 the waterside3 ,near the divine water1 where the sky meets the strand4 ,footnote #b3 ,the whole of this account is from the ,anales de ,cuauhtitlan1 pp4 #af-bb4 ,that there is a profound moral significance in this fiction all will see2 but ,i am of opinion that it is accidental and adventitious4 ,the means that ,tezcatlipoca employs to remove ,quetzalcoatl refer to the two events that mark the decline of day4 ,the sun is reflected by a long lane of beams in the surface waters of lake or sea2 it loses the strength of its rays and fails in vigor2 while the evening mists1 the dampness of approaching dewfall1 and the gathering clouds obscure its power and foretell the extinction which will soon engulf the bright luminary4 ,as ,quetzalcoatl cast his shining gold and precious stones into the water where he took his nightly bath1 or buried them in underground hiding places1 so the sun conceals his glories under the waters1 or in the distant hills1 into which he seems to sink4 ,as he disappears at certain seasons1 the ,star of ,evening shines brightly forth amid the lingering and fading rays1 rising1 as it were1 from the dying fires of the sunset4 ,to this it may be objected that the legend makes ,quetzalcoatl journey toward the ,east1 and not toward the sunset4 ,the explanation of this apparent contradiction is easy4 ,the ,aztec sages had at some time propounded to themselves the question of how the sun1 which seems to set in the ,west1 can rise the next morning in the ,east8 ,mungo ,parke tells us that when he asked the desert ,arabs this conundrum1 they replied that the inquiry was frivolous and childish1 as being wholly beyond the capacities of the human mind4 ,the ,aztecs did not think so1 and had framed a definite theory which overcame the difficulty4 ,it was that1 in fact1 the sun only advances to the zenith1 and then returns to the ,east1 from whence it started4 ,what we seem to see as the sun between the zenith and the western horizon is1 in reality1 not the orb itself1 but only its brightness1 one of its accidents1 not its substance1 to use the terms of metaphysics4 ,hence to the ,aztec astronomer and sage1 the house of the sun is always toward the ,east4#a ,footnote #a3 ,ramirez de ,fuen-leal1 ,historia1 cap4 xx1 p4 #ajb4 ,we need not have recourse even to this explanation4 ,the sun1 indeed1 disappears in the ,west2 but his journey must necessarily be to the ,east1 for it is from that point that he always comes forth each morning4 ,the ,light-,god must necessarily daily return to the place whence he started4 ,the symbols of the mirror and the mystic drink are perfectly familiar in ,aryan sun-myths4 ,the best known of the stories referring to the former is the transparent tale of ,narcissus forced by ,nemesis to fall in love with his own image reflected in the waters1 and to pine away through unsatisfied longing2 or1 as ,pausanias tells the story1 having lost his twin sister 7the morning twilight71 he wasted his life in noting the likeness of his own features to those of his beloved who had passed away4 ,the sun1 as he looks down upon his own face reflected in a lake or sea1 sinks or dies at last1 still gazing on it4#a ,footnote #a3 ,sir ,george ,a4 ,cox1 ,the ,science of ,mythology and ,folk ,lore1 p4 #if4 ,some later writers say that the drink which ,quetzalcoatl quaffed was to confer immortality4 ,this is not stated in the earliest versions of the myth4 ,the beverage is health-giving and intoxicating1 and excites the desire to seek ,tlapallan1 but not more4 ,it does not1 as the ,soma of the ,vedas1 endow with unending life4 ,nevertheless1 there is another myth which countenances this view and explains it4 ,it was told in the province of ,meztitlan1 a mountainous country to the northwest of the province of ,vera ,cruz4 ,its inhabitants spoke the ,nahuatl tongue1 but were never subject to the ,montezumas4 ,their chief god was ,tezcatlipoca1 and it was said of him that on one occasion he slew ,ometochtli 7,two ,rabbits71 the god of wine1 at the latter's own request1 he believing that he thus would be rendered immortal1 and that all others who drank of the beverage he presided over would die4 ,his death1 they added1 was indeed like the stupor of a drunkard1 who1 after his lethargy has passed1 rises healthy and well4 ,in this sense of renewing life after death1 he presided over the native calendar1 the count of years beginning with ,tochtli1 the ,rabbit4#a ,thus we see that this is a myth of the returning seasons1 and of nature waking to life again after the cold months ushered in by the chill rains of the late autumn4 ,the principle of fertility is alone perennial1 while each individual must perish and die4 ,the ,god of ,wine in ,mexico1 as in ,greece1 is one with the mysterious force of reproduction4 ,footnote #a3 ,gabriel de ,chaves1 ,relacion de la ,provincia de ,meztitlan1 #aeef1 in the ,colecion de ,documentos ,ineditos del ,archivo de ,indias1 ,tom4 iv1 p4 #ecf4 ,no writer has preserved such numerous traditions about the tricks of ,tezcatlipoca in ,tollan1 as ,father ,sahagun4 ,they are1 no doubt1 almost verbally reported as he was told them1 and as he wrote his history first in the ,aztec tongue1 they preserve all the quaintness of the original tales4 ,some of them appear to be idle amplifications of story tellers1 while others are transparent myths4 ,i shall translate a few of them quite literally1 beginning with that of the mystic beverage4 ,the time came for the luck of ,quetzalcoatl and the ,toltecs to end2 for there appeared against them three sorcerers1 named ,vitzilopochtli1 ,titlacauan and ,tlacauepan1#a who practiced many villanies in the city of ,tullan4 ,titlacauan began them1 assuming the disguise of an old man of small stature and white hairs4 ,with this figure he approached the palace of ,quetzalcoatl and said to the servants3-- ,footnote #a3 ,titlacauan was the common name of ,tezcatlipoca4 ,the three sorcerers were really ,quetzalcoatl's three brothers1 representing the three other cardinal points4 ,i wish to see the ,king and speak to him4 ,away with you1 old man2 said the servants4 ,you cannot see him4 ,he is sick4 ,you would only annoy him4 ,i must see him1 answered the old man4 ,the servants said1 ,wait1 and going in1 they told ,quetzalcoatl that an old man wished to see him1 adding1 ,sire1 we put him out in vain2 he refuses to leave1 and says that he absolutely must see you4 ,quetzalcoatl answered3-- ,let him in4 ,i have been waiting his coming for a long time4 ,they admitted the old man and he entered the apartment of ,quetzalcoatl1 and said to him3-- ,my lord and son1 how are you8 ,i have with me a medicine for you to drink4 ,you are welcome1 old man1 replied ,quetzalcoatl4 ,i have been looking for your arrival for many days4 ,tell me how you are1 asked the old man4 ,how is your body and your health8 ,i am very ill1 answered ,quetzalcoatl4 ,my whole body pains me1 and ,i cannot move my hands or feet4 ,then the old man said3-- ,sire1 look at this medicine which ,i bring you4 ,it is good and healthful1 and intoxicates him who drinks it4 ,if you will drink it1 it will intoxicate you1 it will heal you1 it will soothe your heart1 it will prepare you for the labors and fatigues of death1 or of your departure4 ,whither1 oh ancient man1 asked ,quetzalcoatl1 ,whither must ,i go8 ,the old man answered3-- ,you must without fail go to ,tullan ,tlapallan1 where there is another old man awaiting you2 you and he will talk together1 and at your return you will be transformed into a youth1 and you will regain the vigor of your boyhood4 ,when ,quetzalcoatl heard these words1 his heart was shaken with strong emotion1 and the old man added3-- ,my lord1 drink this medicine4 ,oh ancient man1 answered the king1 ,i do not want to drink it4 ,drink it1 my lord1 insisted the old man1 for if you do not drink it now1 later you will long for it2 at least1 lift it to your mouth and taste a single drop4 ,quetzalcoatl took the drop and tasted it1 and then quaffed the liquor1 exclaiming3-- ,what is this8 ,it seems something very healthful and well-flavored4 ,i am no longer sick4 ,it has cured me4 ,i am well4 ,drink again1 said the old man4 ,it is a good medicine1 and you will be healthier than ever4 ,again did ,quetzalcoatl drink1 and soon he was intoxicated4 ,he began to weep2 his heart was stirred1 and his mind turned toward the suggestion of his departure1 nor did the deceit of the old sorcerer permit him to abandon the thought of it4 ,the medicine which ,quetzalcoatl drank was the white wine of the country1 made of those magueys call teometl4#a ,footnote #a3 ,from teotl1 deity1 divine1 and metl1 the maguey4 ,of the twenty-nine varieties of the maguey1 now described in ,mexico1 none bears this name2 but ,hernandez speaks of it1 and says it was so called because there was a superstition that a person soon to die could not hold a branch of it2 but if he was to recover1 or escape an impending danger1 he could hold it with ease and feel the better for it4 ,see ,nieremberg1 ,historia ,naturae1 ,lib4 xiv1 cap4 xxxii4 ,teomatl1 vitae et mortis ,index4 ,this was but the beginning of the guiles and juggleries of ,tezcatlipoca4 ,transforming himself into the likeness of one of those ,indians of the ,maya race1 called ,toveyome1#a he appeared1 completely nude1 in the market place of ,tollan1 having green peppers to sell4 ,now ,huemac1 who was associated with ,quetzalcoatl in the sovereignty of ,tollan 7although other myths apply this name directly to ,quetzalcoatl1 and this seems the correct version71#b had an only daughter of surpassing beauty1 whom many of the ,toltecs had vainly sought in marriage4 ,this damsel looked forth on the market where ,tezcatlipoca stood in his nakedness1 and her virginal eyes fell upon the sign of his manhood4 ,straightway an unconquerable longing seized her1 a love so violent that she fell ill and seemed like to die4 ,her women told her father the reason1 and he sent forth and had the false ,toveyo brought before him4 ,huemac addressed him3-- ,footnote #a3 ,toveyome is the plural of toveyo1 which ,molina1 in his dictionary1 translates foreigner1 stranger4 ,sahagun says that it was applied particularly to the ,huastecs1 a ,maya tribe living in the province of ,panuco4 ,historia1 etc41 ,lib4 x1 cap4 xxix1 #h4 ,footnote #b3 ,huemac is a compound of uey1 great1 and maitl1 hand4 ,tezozomoc1 ,duran1 and various other writers assign this name to ,quetzalcoatl4 ,whence come you8 ,my lord1 replied the ,toveyo1 ,i am a stranger1 and ,i have come to sell green peppers4 ,why1 asked the king do you not wear a maxtli 7breech-cloth71 and cover your nakedness with a garment8 ,my lord1 answered the stranger1 ,i follow the custom of my country4 ,then the king added3-- ,you have inspired in my daughter a longing2 she is sick with desire2 you must cure her4 ,nay1 my lord1 said the stranger1 this may not be4 ,rather slay me here2 ,i wish to die2 for ,i am not worthy to hear such words1 poor as ,i am1 and seeking only to gain my bread by selling green peppers4 ,but the king insisted1 and said3-- ,have no fear2 you alone can restore my daughter2 you must do so4 ,thereupon the attendants cut the sham ,toveyo's hair2 they led him to the bath1 and colored his body black2 they placed a maxtli and a robe upon him1 and the king said3-- ,go in unto my daughter4 ,tezcatlipoca went in unto her1 and she was healed from that hour4 ,thus did the naked stranger become the son-in-law of the great king of ,tula4 ,but the ,toltecs were deeply angered that the maiden had given his black body the preference over their bright forms1 and they plotted to have him slain4 ,he was placed in the front of battle1 and then they left him alone to fight the enemy4 ,but he destroyed the opposing hosts and returned to ,tula with a victory all the more brilliant for their desertion of him4 ,then he requited their treachery with another1 and pursued his intended destruction of their race4 ,he sent a herald to the top of the ,hill of ,shouting1 and through him announced a magnificent festival to celebrate his victory and his marriage4 ,the ,toltecs swarmed in crowds1 men1 women and children1 to share in the joyous scene4 ,tezcatlipoca received them with simulated friendship4 ,taking his drum1 he began to beat upon it1 accompanying the music with a song4 ,as his listeners heard the magic music1 they became intoxicated with the strains1 and yielding themselves to its seductive influence1 they lost all thought for the future or care for the present4 ,the locality to which the crafty ,tezcatlipoca had invited them was called1 ,the ,rock upon the ,water4#a ,it was the summit of a lofty rock at the base of which flowed the river called1 ,by the ,rock of ,light4#b ,when the day had departed and midnight approached1 the magician1 still singing and dancing1 led the intoxicated crowd to the brink of the river1 over which was a stone bridge4 ,this he had secretly destroyed1 and as they came to the spot where it should have been and sought to cross1 the innumerable crowd pressing one upon the other1 they all fell into the water far below1 where they sank out of sight and were changed into stones4 ,footnote #a3 ,texcalapan1 from texcalli1 rock1 and apan1 upon or over the water4 ,footnote #b3 ,texcaltlauhco1 from texcalli1 rock1 tlaulli1 light1 and the locative ending co1 by1 in or at4 ,is it pushing symbolism too far to attempt an interpretation of this fable1 recounted with all the simplicity of the antique world1 with greater directness1 indeed1 than ,i have thought wise to follow8 ,i am strongly inclined to regard it as a true myth1 which1 in materialistic language1 sets forth the close of the day and the extinction of the light4 ,may we not construe the maiden as the ,evening ,twilight1 the child of the ,day at the close of its life8 ,the black lover with whom she is fatally enamored1 is he not the ,darkness1 in which the twilight fades away8 ,the countless crowds of ,toltecs that come to the wedding festivities1 and are drowned before midnight in the waters of the strangely named river1 are they not the infinitely numerous light-rays which are quenched in the world-stream1 when the sun has sunk1 and the gloaming is lost in the night8 ,may we not go farther1 and in this ,rock of ,light which stands hard by the river1 recognize the ,heavenly ,hill which rises beside the ,world ,stream8 ,the bright light of one day cannot extend to the next4 ,the bridge is broken by the intervening night1 and the rays are lost in the dark waters4 ,but whether this interpretation is too venturesome or not1 we cannot deny the deep human interest in the story1 and its poetic capacities4 ,the overmastering passion of love was evidently as present to the ,indian mind as to that of the mediaeval ,italian4 ,in ,new as well as in ,old ,spain it could break the barriers of rank and overcome the hesitations of maidenly modesty4 ,love clouding the soul1 as night obscures the day1 is a figure of speech1 used1 ,i remember1 by the most pathetic of ,ireland's modern bards3-- ,love1 the tyrant1 evinces1 ,alas6 an omnipotent might2 ,he treads on the necks of princes1 ,he darkens the mind1 like night4#a ,footnote #a3 ,clarence ,mangan1 ,poems1 ,the ,mariner's ,bride4 ,i shall not detail the many other wiles with which ,tezcatlipoca led the ,toltecs to their destruction4 ,a mere reference to them must suffice4 ,he summoned thousands to come to labor in the rose-garden of ,quetzalcoatl1 and when they had gathered together1 he fell upon them and slew them with a hoe4 ,disguised with ,huitzilopochtli1 he irritated the people until they stoned the brother gods to death1 and from the corrupting bodies spread a pestilential odor1 to which crowds of the ,toltecs fell victims4 ,he turned the thought of thousands into madness1 so that they voluntarily offered themselves to be sacrificed4 ,by his spells all articles of food soured1 and many perished of famine4 ,at length ,quetzalcoatl1 wearied with misfortune1 gave orders to burn the beautiful houses of ,tollan1 to bury his treasures1 and to begin the journey to ,tlapallan4 ,he transformed the cacao trees into plants of no value1 and ordered the birds of rich plumage to leave the land before him4 ,the first station he arrived at was ,quauhtitlan1 where there was a lofty and spreading tree4 ,here he asked of his servants a mirror1 and looking in it said3 ,i am already old4 ,gathering some stones1 he cast them at the tree4 ,they entered the wood and remained there4 ,as he journeyed1 he was preceded by boys playing the flute4 ,thus he reached a certain spot1 where he sat upon a stone by the wayside1 and wept for the loss of ,tollan4 ,the marks of his hands remained upon the stone1 and the tears he dropped pierced it through4 ,to the day of the ,conquest these impressions on the solid rock were pointed out4 ,at the fountain of ,cozcapan1 sorcerers met him1 minded to prevent his departure3-- ,where are you going8 they asked4 ,why have you left your capital8 ,in whose care is it8 ,who will perform the sacred rites8 ,but ,quetzalcoatl answered3-- ,you can in no manner hinder my departure4 ,i have no choice but to go4 ,the sorcerers asked again3 ,whither are you going8 ,i am going1 replied ,quetzalcoatl1 to ,tlapallan4 ,i have been sent for4 ,the ,sun calls me4 ,go1 then1 with good luck1 said they4 ,but leave with us the art of smelting silver1 of working stone and wood1 of painting1 of weaving feathers and other such arts4 ,thus they robbed him1 and taking the rich jewels he carried with him he cast them into the fountain1 whence it received its name ,cozcapan1 ,jewels in the ,water4 ,again1 as he journeyed1 a sorcerer met him1 who asked him his destination3-- ,i go1 said ,quetzalcoatl1 to ,tlallapan4 ,and luck go with you1 replied the sorcerer1 but first take a drink of this wine4 ,no1 replied ,quetzalcoatl1 not so much as a sip4 ,you must taste a little of it1 said the sorcerer1 even if it is by force4 ,to no living person would ,i give to drink freely of it4 ,i intoxicate them all4 ,come and drink of it4 ,quetzalcoatl took the wine and drank of it through a reed1 and as he drank he grew drunken and fell in the road1 where he slept and snored4 ,thus he passed from place to place1 with various adventures4 ,his servants were all dwarfs or hunchbacks1 and in crossing the ,sierra ,nevada they mostly froze to death4 ,by drawing a line across the ,sierra he split it in two and thus made a passage4 ,he plucked up a mighty tree and hurling it through another1 thus formed a cross4 ,at another spot he caused underground houses to be built1 which were called ,mictlancalco1 ,at the ,house of ,darkness4 ,at length he arrived at the sea coast where he constructed a raft of serpents1 and seating himself on it as in a canoe1 he moved out to sea4 ,no one knows how or in what manner he reached ,tlapallan4#a ,footnote #a3 ,these myths are from the third book of ,sahagun's ,historia de las ,cosas de ,nueva ,espaa4 ,they were taken down in the original ,nahuatl1 by him1 from the mouth of the natives1 and he gives them word for word1 as they were recounted4 ,the legend which appears to have been prevalent in ,cholula was somewhat different4 ,according to that1 ,quetzalcoatl was for many years ,lord of ,tollan1 ruling over a happy people4 ,at length1 ,tezcatlipoca let himself down from heaven by a cord made of spider's web1 and1 coming to ,tollan1 challenged its ruler to play a game of ball4 ,the challenge was accepted1 and the people of the city gathered in thousands to witness the sport4 ,suddenly ,tezcatlipoca changed himself into a tiger1 which so frightened the populace that they fled in such confusion and panic that they rushed over the precipice and into the river1 where nearly all were killed by the fall or drowned in the waters4 ,quetzalcoatl then forsook ,tollan1 and journeyed from city to city till he reached ,cholula1 where he lived twenty years4 ,he was at that time of light complexion1 noble stature1 his eyes large1 his hair abundant1 his beard ample and cut rounding4 ,in life he was most chaste and honest4 ,they worshiped his memory1 especially for three things3 first1 because he taught them the art of working in metals1 which previous to his coming was unknown in that land2 secondly1 because he forbade the sacrifice either of human beings or the lower animals1 teaching that bread1 and roses1 and flowers1 incense and perfumes1 were all that the gods demanded2 and lastly1 because he forbade1 and did his best to put a stop to1 wars1 fighting1 robbery1 and all deeds of violence4 ,for these reasons he was held in high esteem and affectionate veneration1 not only by those of ,cholula1 but by the neighboring tribes as well1 for many leagues around4 ,distant nations maintained temples in his honor in that city1 and made pilgrimages to it1 on which journeys they passed in safety through their enemy's countries4 ,the twenty years past1 ,quetzalcoatl resumed his journey1 taking with him four of the principal youths of the city4 ,when he had reached a point in the province of ,guazacoalco1 which is situated to the southeast of ,cholula1 he called the four youths to him1 and told them they should return to their city2 that he had to go further2 but that they should go back and say that at some future day white and bearded men like himself would come from the east1 who would possess the land4#a ,footnote #a3 ,for this version of the myth1 see ,mendieta1 ,historia ,eclesiastica ,indiana1 ,lib4 ii1 caps1 v and x4 ,thus he disappeared1 no one knew whither4 ,but another legend said that he died there1 by the seashore1 and they burned his body4 ,of this event some particulars are given by ,ixtlilxochitl1 as follows3#a-- ,footnote #a3 ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,relaciones ,historicas1 p4 #chh1 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 ix4 ,quetzalcoatl1 surnamed ,topiltzin1 was lord of ,tula4 ,at a certain time he warned his subjects that he was obliged to go to the place whence comes the ,sun1 but that after a term he would return to them1 in that year of their calendar of the name ,ce ,acatl1 ,one ,reed1 which returns every fifty-two years4 ,he went forth with many followers1 some of whom he left in each city he visited4 ,at length he reached the town of ,ma ,tlapallan4 ,here he announced that he should soon die1 and directed his followers to burn his body and all his treasures with him4 ,they obeyed his orders1 and for four days burned his corpse1 after which they gathered its ashes and placed them in a sack made of the skin of a tiger4 ,the introduction of the game of ball and the tiger into the story is not so childish as it seems4 ,the game of ball was as important an amusement among the natives of ,mexico and ,central ,america as were the jousts and tournaments in ,europe in the ,middle ,ages4#a ,towns1 nations and kings were often pitted against each other4 ,in the great temple of ,mexico two courts were assigned to this game1 over which a special deity was supposed to preside4#b ,in or near the market place of each town there were walls erected for the sport4 ,in the centre of these walls was an orifice a little larger than the ball4 ,the players were divided into two parties1 and the ball having been thrown1 each party tried to drive it through or over the wall4 ,the hand was not used1 but only the hip or shoulders4 ,footnote #a3 ,torquemada gives a long but obscure description of it4 ,monarquia ,indiana1 ,lib4 xiv1 cap4 xii4 ,footnote #b3 ,nieremberg1 ,de septuaginta et octo partibus maximi templi ,mexicani1 in his ,historia ,naturae1 ,lib4 viii1 cap4 xxii 7,antwerpt1 #afce74 ,one of these was called ,the ,ball ,court of the ,mirror1 perhaps with special reference to this legend4 ,trigesima secunda ,tezcatlacho1 locus erat ubi ludebatur pil ex gumi olli1 inter templa4 ,the name is from tezcatl1 mirror1 tlachtli1 the game of ball1 and locative ending co4 ,from the earth the game was transferred to the heavens4 ,as a ball1 hit by a player1 strikes the wall and then bounds back again1 describing a curve1 so the stars in the northern sky circle around the pole star and return to the place they left4 ,hence their movement was called ,the ,ball-play of the ,stars4#a ,footnote #a3 ,citlaltlachtli1 from citlalin1 star1 and tlachtli1 the game of ball4 ,alvarado ,tezozomoc1 ,cronica ,mexicana1 cap4 lxxxii4 ,the obscure passage in which ,tezozomoc refers to this is ingeniously analyzed in the ,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,tom4 ii1 p4 #chh4 ,a recent writer asserts that the popular belief of the ,aztecs extended the figure to a greater game than this4#a ,the ,sun and ,moon were huge balls with which the gods played an unceasing game1 now one1 now the other1 having the better of it4 ,if this is so1 then the game between ,tezcatlipoca and ,quetzalcoatl is again a transparent figure of speech for the contest between night and day4 ,footnote #a3 ,anales del ,museo ,nacional1 ,tom4 ii1 p4 #cfg4 ,the ,mexican tiger1 the ocelotl1 was a well recognized figure of speech1 in the ,aztec tongue1 for the nocturnal heavens1 dotted with stars1 as is the tiger skin with spots4#a ,the tiger1 therefore1 which destroyed the subjects of ,quetzalcoatl--the swift-footed1 happy inhabitants of ,tula--was none other than the night extinguishing the rays of the orb of light4 ,in the picture writings ,tezcatlipoca appears dressed in a tiger's skin1 the spots on which represent the stars1 and thus symbolize him in his character as the god of the sky at night4 ,footnote #a3 ,segun los ,anales de ,cuauhtitlan el ocelotl es el cielo manchado de estrellas1 como piel de tigre4 ,anales del ,mus4 ,nac41 ii1 p4 #bed4 ,the apotheosis of ,quetzalcoatl from the embers of his funeral pyre to the planet ,venus has led several distinguished students of ,mexican mythology to identify his whole history with the astronomical relations of this bright star4 ,such an interpretation is1 however1 not only contrary to results obtained by the general science of mythology1 but it is specifically in contradiction to the uniform statements of the old writers4 ,all these agree that it was not till after he had finished his career1 after he had run his course and disappeared from the sight and knowledge of men1 that he was translated and became the evening or morning star4#a ,this clearly signifies that he was represented by the planet in only one1 and that a subordinate1 phase of his activity4 ,we can readily see that the relation of ,venus to the sun1 and the evening and morning twilights1 suggested the pleasing tale that as the light dies in the west1 it is1 in a certain way1 preserved by the star which hangs so bright above the horizon4 ,footnote #a3 ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis1 plate xiv4 #d4 ,quetzalcoatl as ,lord of the ,winds4 ,as ,i have shown in the introductory chapter1 the ,light-,god1 the ,lord of the ,east1 is also master of the cardinal points and of the winds which blow from them1 and therefore of the ,air4 ,this was conspicuously so with ,quetzalcoatl4 ,as a divinity he is most generally mentioned as the ,god of the ,air and ,winds4 ,he was said to sweep the roads before ,tlaloc2 god of the rains1 because in that climate heavy down-pours are preceded by violent gusts4 ,torquemada names him as ,god of the ,air1 and states that in ,cholula this function was looked upon as his chief attribute1#a and the term was distinctly applied to him ,nanihe-hecatli1 ,lord of the four ,winds4 ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 i1 cap4 v4 ,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 xxiv4 ,in one of the earliest myths he is called ,yahualli ehecatl1 meaning the ,wheel of the ,winds1#a the winds being portrayed in the picture writing as a circle or wheel1 with a figure with five angles inscribed upon it1 the sacred pentagram4 ,his image carried in the left hand this wheel1 and in the right a sceptre with the end recurved4 ,footnote #a3 ,quealcoatl y por otro nombre yagualiecatl4 ,ramirez de ,fuen-leal1 ,historia1 cap4 i4 ,yahualli is from the root yaual or youal1 circular1 rounding1 and was applied to various objects of a circular form4 ,the sign of ,quetzalcoatl is called by ,sahagun1 using the native word1 el ,yoel de los ,vientos 7,historia1 ubi supra74 ,another reference to this wheel1 or mariner's box1 was in the shape of the temples which were built in his honor as god of the winds4 ,these1 we are informed1 were completely circular1 without an angle anywhere4#a ,footnote #a3 ,se llaman 7 ,quetzalcoatl7 ,seor de el ,viento 99 99 99 ,a este le hacian las yglesias redondas1 sin esquina ninguna4 ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis4 ,parte ii1 ,lam4 ii4 ,describing the sacred edifices of ,mexico1 ,motolinia says3 ,habio en todos los mas de estos grandes patios un otro templo que despues de levantada aquella capa quadrada1 hecho su altar1 cubrianlo con una pared redonda1 alta y cubierta con su chapital4 ,este era del dios del aire1 cual dijimos tener su principal sella en ,cholollan1 y en toda esta provincia habia mucho de estos4 ,a este dios del aire llamaban en su lengua ,quetzalcoatl1 ,historia de los ,indios1 ,epistola ,proemial4 ,compare also ,herrera1 ,historia de las ,indias ,occidentals1 ,dec4 ii1 ,lib4 vii1 cap4 xvii1 who describes the temple of ,quetzalcoatl1 in the city of ,mexico1 and adds that it was circular1 porque asi como el ,aire anda al rededor del ,cielo1 asi le hacian el ,templo redondo4 ,still another symbol which was sacred to him as lord of the four winds was the ,cross4 ,it was not the ,latin but the ,greek cross1 with four short arms of equal length4 ,several of these were painted on the mantle which he wore in the picture writings1 and they are occasionally found on the sacred jades1 which bear other of his symbols4 ,this has often been made use of by one set of writers to prove that ,quetzalcoatl was some ,christian teacher2 and by others as evidence that these native tales were of a date subsequent to the ,conquest4 ,but a moment's consideration of the meaning of this cruciform symbol as revealed in its native names shows where it belongs and what it refers to4 ,these names are three1 and their significations are1 ,the ,rain-,god1 ,the ,tree of our ,life1 ,the ,god of ,strength4#a ,as the rains fertilize the fields and ripen the food crops1 so he who sends them is indeed the prop or tree of our subsistence1 and thus becomes the giver of health and strength4 ,no other explanation is needed1 or is1 in fact1 allowable4 ,footnote #a3 ,the ,aztec words are ,quiahuitl teotl1 quiahuitl1 rain1 teotl1 god2 ,tonacaquahuitl1 from to1 our1 naca1 flesh or life1 quahuitl1 tree2 ,chicahualizteotl1 from chicahualiztli1 strength or courage1 and teotl1 god4 ,these names are given by ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,historia chichimeca1 cap4 i4 ,the winds and rains come from the four cardinal points4 ,this fact was figuratively represented by a cruciform figure1 the ends directed toward each of these4 ,the ,god of the ,four ,winds bore these crosses as one of his emblems4 ,the sign came to be connected with fertility1 reproduction and life1 through its associations as a symbol of the rains which restore the parched fields and aid in the germination of seeds4 ,their influence in this respect is most striking in those southern countries where a long dry season is followed by heavy tropical showers1 which in a few days change the whole face of nature1 from one of parched sterility to one of a wealth of vegetable growth4 ,as there is a close connection1 in meteorology1 between the winds and the rains1 so in ,aztec mythology1 there was an equally near one between ,quetzalcoatl1 as the god of the winds1 and the gods of rain1 ,tlaloc and his sister1 or wife1 or mother1 ,chalchihuitlicue4 ,according to one myth1 these were created by the four primeval brother-gods1 and placed in the heavens1 where they occupy a large mansion divided into four apartments1 with a court in the middle4 ,in this court stand four enormous vases of water1 and an infinite number of very small slaves 7the rain drops7 stand ready to dip out the water from one or the other vase and pour it on the earth in showers4#a ,footnote #a3 ,ramirez de ,fuen-leal1 ,historia de los ,mexicanos1 cap4 ii4 ,tlaloc means1 literally1 ,the wine of the ,earth1#a the figure being that as man's heart is made glad1 and his strength revived by the joyous spirit of wine1 so is the soil refreshed and restored by the rains4 ,tlaloc tecutli1 the ,lord of the ,wine of the ,earth1 was the proper title of the male divinity1 who sent the fertilizing showers1 and thus caused the seed to grow in barren places4 ,it was he who gave abundant crops and saved the parched and dying grain after times of drought4 ,therefore1 he was appealed to as the giver of good things1 of corn and wine2 and the name of his home1 ,tlalocan1 became synonymous with that of the terrestrial paradise4 ,footnote #a3 ,tlalli1 earth1 oc from octli1 the native wine made from the maguey1 enormous quantities of which are consumed by the lower classes in ,mexico at this day1 and which was well known to the ancients4 ,another derivation of the name is from tlalli1 and onoc1 being1 to be1 hence1 resident on the earth4 ,this does not seem appropriate4 ,his wife or sister1 ,chalchihuitlicue1 ,she of the ,emerald ,skirts1 was goddess of flowing streams1 brooks1 lakes and rivers4 ,her name1 probably1 has reference to their limpid waters4#a ,it is derived from chalchihuitl1 a species of jade or precious green stone1 very highly esteemed by the natives of ,mexico and ,central ,america1 and worked by them into ornaments and talismans1 often elaborately engraved and inscribed with symbols1 by an art now altogether lost4#b ,according to one myth1 ,quetzalcoatl's mother took the name of chalchiuitl when she ascended to heaven2#c by another he was engendered by such a sacred stone2#d and by all he was designated as the discoverer of the art of cutting and polishing them1 and the patron deity of workers in this branch4#e ,footnote #a3 ,from chalchihuitl1 jade1 and cueitl1 skirt or petticoat1 with the possessive prefix1 i1 her4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,e4,g4 ,squier1 ,observations on a ,collection of ,chalchihuitls from ,central ,america1 ,new ,york1 #ahfi1 and ,heinrich ,fischer1 ,nephrit und ,jadeit nach ihrer ,urgeschichtlichen und ,ethnographischen ,bedeutung1 ,stuttgart1 #ahhj1 for a full discussion of the subject4 ,footnote #c3 ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis1 ,pt4 ii1 ,lam4 ii4 ,footnote #d3 ,see above1 chapter iii1 #c ,footnote #e3 ,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 xxiv4 ,the association of this stone and its color1 a bluish green of various shades1 with the ,god of ,light and the ,air1 may have reference to the blue sky where he has his home1 or to the blue and green waters where he makes his bed4 ,whatever the connection was1 it was so close that the festivals of all three1 ,tlaloc1 ,chalchihuitlicue and ,quetzalcoatl1 were celebrated together on the same day1 which was the first of the first month of the ,aztec calendar1 in ,february4#a ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,hisioria1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 i4 ,a worthy but visionary ,mexican antiquary1 ,don ,j4,m4 ,melgar1 has recognized in ,aztec mythology the frequency of the symbolism which expresses the fertilizing action of the sky 7the sun and rains7 upon the earth4 ,he thinks that in some of the manuscripts1 as the ,codex ,borgia1 it is represented by the rabbit fecundating the frog4 ,see his ,examen ,comparativo entre los ,signos ,simbolicos de las ,teogonias y ,cosmogonias antiguas y los que existen en los ,manuscritos ,mexicanos1 p4 #ba 7,vera ,cruz1 #ahgb74 ,in his character as god of days1 the deity who brings back the diurnal suns1 and thus the seasons and years1 ,quetzalcoatl was the reputed inventor of the ,mexican ,calendar4 ,he himself was said to have been born on ,ce ,acatl1 ,one ,cane1 which was the first day of the first month1 the beginning of the reckoning1 and the name of the day was often added to his own4#a ,as the count of the days really began with the beginning1 it was added that ,heaven itself was created on this same day1 ,ce ,acatl4#b ,footnote #a3 ,codex ,vaticanus1 ,pl4 xv4 ,footnote #b3 ,codex ,telleriano ,remensis1 ,pl4 xxxiii4 ,in some myths ,quetzalcoatl was the sole framer of the ,calendar2 in others he was assisted by the first created pair1 ,cipactli and ,oxomuco1 who1 as ,i have said1 appear to represent the ,sky and the ,earth4 ,a certain cave in the province of ,cuernava 7,quauhnauac7 was pointed out as the scene of their deliberations4 ,cipactonal chose the first name1 ,oxomuco the second1 and ,quetzalcoatl the third1 and so on in turn4#a ,footnote #a3 ,mendieta1 ,hist4 ,eclesiastia ,indiana1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 xiv4 ,una tonta ficcion1 comments the worthy chronicler upon the narrative1 como son las demas que creian cerca de sus dioses4 ,this has been the universal opinion4 ,my ambition in writing this book is1 that it will be universal no longer4 ,in many mythologies the gods of light and warmth are1 by a natural analogy1 held to be also the deities which preside over plenty1 fertility and reproduction4 ,this was quite markedly the case with ,quetzalcoatl4 ,his land and city were the homes of abundance2 his people1 the ,toltecs1 were skilled in all arts1 all of which they had been taught by ,quetzalcoatl himself4 ,they were1 moreover1 very rich2 they lacked nothing2 food was never scarce and crops never failed4 ,they had no need to save the small ears of corn1 so all the use they made of them was to burn them in heating their baths4#a ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 iii1 cap4 iii4 ,as thus the promoter of fertility in the vegetable world1 he was also the genius of reproduction in the human race4 ,the ceremonies of marriage which were in use among the ,aztecs were attributed to him1#a and when the wife found she was with child it was to him that she was told to address her thanks4 ,one of her relatives recited to her a formal exhortation1 which began as follows3-- ,footnote #a3 ,veitia1 cap4 xvii1 in ,kingsborough4 ,my beloved little daughter1 precious as sapphire and jade1 tender and generous6 ,our ,lord1 who dwells everywhere and rains his bounties on whom he pleases1 has remembered you4 ,the ,god now wishes to give you the fruit of marriage1 and has placed within you a jewel1 a rich feather4 ,perhaps you have watched1 and swept1 and offered incense2 for such good works the kindness of the ,lord has been made manifest1 and it was decreed in ,heaven and ,hell1 before the beginning of the ,world1 that this grace should be accorded you4 ,for these reasons our ,lord1 ,quetzalcoatl1 who is the author and creator of things1 has shown you this favor2 thus has resolved ,he in heaven1 who is at once both man and woman1 and is known under the names ,twice ,master and ,twice ,mistress4#a ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 xxv4 ,the bisexual nature of the ,mexican gods1 referred to in this passage1 is well marked in many features of their mythology4 ,quetzalcoatl is often addressed in the prayers as father and mother1 just as1 in the ,egyptian ritual1 ,chnum was appealed to as father of fathers and mother of mothers 7,tiele1 ,hist4 of the ,egyptian ,religion1 p4 #acd74 ,i have endeavored to explain this widespread belief in hermaphroditic deities in my work entitled1 ,the ,religious ,sentiment1 ,its ,source and ,aim1 pp4 #fe-fh1 7,new ,york1 #ahgf74 ,it is recorded in the old histories that the priests dedicated to his service wore a peculiar head-dress1 imitating a snail shell1 and for that reason were called ,quateczizque4#a ,no one has explained this curiously shaped bonnet4 ,but it was undoubtedly because ,quetzalcoatl was the god of reproduction1 for among the ,aztecs the snail was a well known symbol of the process of parturition4#b ,footnote #a3 ,duran1 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 viii1 p4 #bfg4 ,the word is from quaitl1 head or top1 and tecziztli1 a snail shell4 ,footnote #b3 ,mettevanli in testa una lumaca marina per dimostrare que siccome il piscato esce dalle pieghe di quell'osso1 o conca4 cosi v ed esce l'uomo ab utero matris suae4 ,codice ,vaticana1 ,tavola ,,xxvi4 ,quetzalcoatl was that marvelous artist who fashions in the womb of the mother the delicate limbs and tender organs of the unborn infant4 ,therefore1 when a couple of high rank were blessed with a child1 an official orator visited them1 and the baby being placed naked before him1 he addressed it beginning with these words3-- ,my child and lord1 precious gem1 emerald1 sapphire1 beauteous feather1 product of a noble union1 you have been formed far above us1 in the ninth heaven1 where dwell the two highest divinities4 ,his ,divine ,majesty has fashioned you in a mould1 as one fashions a ball of gold2 you have been chiseled as a precious stone1 artistically dressed by your ,father and ,mother1 the great ,god and the great ,goddess1 assisted by their son1 ,quetzalcoatl4#a ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 xxxiv4 ,as he was thus the god on whom depended the fertilization of the womb1 sterile women made their vows to him1 and invoked his aid to be relieved from the shame of barrenness4#a ,footnote #a3 ,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 ,lib4 xi1 cap4 xxiv4 ,in still another direction is this function of his godship shown4 ,the worship of the genesiac principle is as often characterized by an excessive austerity as by indulgence in sexual acts4 ,here we have an example4 ,nearly all the accounts tell us that ,quetzalcoatl was never married1 and that he held himself aloof from all women1 in absolute chastity4 ,we are told that on one occasion his subjects urged upon him the propriety of marriage1 and to their importunities he returned the dark answer that1 ,yes1 he had determined to take a wife2 but that it would be when the oak tree shall cast chestnuts1 when the sun shall rise in the west1 when one can cross the sea dry-shod1 and when nightingales grow beards4#a ,footnote #a3 ,duran1 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 viii1 p4 #bfg4 ,i believe ,alva ,ixtlilxochitl is the only author who specifically assigns a family to ,quetzalcoatl4 ,this author does not mention a wife1 but names two sons1 one1 ,xilotzin1 who was killed in war1 the other1 ,pochotl1 who was educated by his nurse1 ,toxcueye1 and who1 after the destruction of ,tollan1 collected the scattered ,toltecs and settled with them around the ,lake of ,tezcuco 7,relaciones ,historicas1 p4 #cid1 in ,kingsborough1 vol4 ix74 ,all this is in contradiction to the reports of earlier and better authorities4 ,for instance1 ,motolinia says pointedly1 no fu casado1 ni se le conoci mujer 7,historia de los ,indios1 ,epistola ,proemial74 ,following the example of their ,master1 many of the priests of his cult refrained from sexual relations1 and as a mortification of the flesh they practiced a painful rite by transfixing the tongue and male member with the sharp thorns of the maguey plant1 an austerity which1 according to their traditions1 he was the first to institute4#a ,there were also in the cities where his special worship was in vogue1 houses of nuns1 the inmates of which had vowed perpetual virginity1 and it was said that ,quetzalcoatl himself had founded these institutions4#b ,footnote #a3 ,codex ,vaticanus1 ,tab4 xxii4 ,footnote #b3 ,veitia1 ,historia1 cap4 ,,xvii4 ,his connection with the worship of the reproductive principle seems to be further indicated by his surname1 ,ce acatl4 ,this means ,one ,reed1 and is the name of a day in the calendar4 ,but in the ,nahuatl language1 the word acatl1 reed1 cornstalk1 is also applied to the virile member2 and it has been suggested that this is the real signification of the word when applied to the hero-god4 ,the suggestion is plausible1 but the word does not seem to have been so construed by the early writers4 ,if such an understanding had been current1 it could scarcely have escaped the inquiries of such a close student and thorough master of the ,nahuatl tongue as ,father ,sahagun4 ,on the other hand1 it must be said1 in corroboration of this identification1 that the same idea appears to be conveyed by the symbol of the serpent4 ,one correct translation of the name ,quetzalcoatl is the beautiful serpent2 his temple in the city of ,mexico1 according to ,torquemada1 had a door in the form of a serpent's mouth2 and in the ,codex ,vaticanus1 ,no4 #cgch1 published by ,lord ,kingsborough1 of which we have an explanation by competent native authority1 he is represented as a serpent2 while in the same ,codex1 in the astrological signs which were supposed to control the different parts of the human body1 the serpent is pictured as the sign of the male member4#a ,this indicates the probability that in his function as god of reproduction ,quetzalcoatl may have stood in some relation to phallic rites4 ,footnote #a3 ,compare the ,codex ,vaticanus1 ,no4 #cgch1 plates #dd and #ge1 ,kingsborough1 ,mexican ,antiquities1 vol4 ii4 ,this same sign1 ,ce ,coatl1 ,one ,serpent1 used in their astrology1 was that of one of the gods of the merchants1 and apparently for this reason1 some writers have identified the chief god of traffic1 ,yacatecutli 7,god of ,journeying71 with ,quetzalcoatl4 ,this seems the more likely as another name of this divinity was ,yacacoliuhqui1 ,with the ,end ,curved1 a name which appears to refer to the curved rod or stick which was both his sign and one of those of ,quetzalcoatl4#a ,the merchants also constantly associated in their prayers this deity with ,huitzilopochtli1 which is another reason for supposing their patron was one of the four primeval brothers1 and but another manifestation of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,his character1 as patron of arts1 the model of orators1 and the cultivator of peaceful intercourse among men1 would naturally lend itself to this position4 ,footnote #a3 ,compare ,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 xxviii and ,sahagun1 ,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,lib4 ix1 passim4 ,yacatecutli1 is from tecutli1 lord1 and either yaqui1 traveler1 or else yacana1 to conduct4 ,yacacoliuhqui1 is translated by ,torquemada1 el que tiene la nariz aquilea4 ,it is from yaque1 a point or end1 and hence1 also1 the nose1 and coliuhqui1 bent or curved4 ,the translation in the text is quite as allowable as that of ,torquemada1 and more appropriate4 ,i have already mentioned that this divinity was suspected1 by ,dr4 ,schultz-,sellack1 to be merely another form of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,see above1 chapter iii1 #b ,but ,quetzalcoatl1 as god of the violent wind-storms1 which destroy the houses and crops1 and as one1 who1 in his own history1 was driven from his kingdom and lost his all1 was not considered a deity of invariably good augury4 ,his day and sign1 ce acatl1 ,one ,reed1 was of bad omen4 ,a person born on it would not succeed in life4#a ,his plans and possessions would be lost1 blown away1 as it were1 by the wind1 and dissipated into thin air4 ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun4 ,historia1 ,lib4 iv1 cap4 viii4 ,through the association of his person with the prying winds he came1 curiously enough1 to be the patron saint of a certain class of thieves1 who stupefied their victims before robbing them4 ,they applied to him to exercise his maleficent power on those whom they planned to deprive of their goods4 ,his image was borne at the head of the gang when they made their raids1 and the preferred season was when his sign was in the ascendant4#a ,this is a singular parallelism to the ,aryan ,hermes myth1 as ,i have previously observed 7,chap4 ,i74 ,footnote #a3 ,ibid4 ,lib4 ,,iv1 cap4 ,,xxxi4 ,the representation of ,quetzalcoatl in the ,aztec manuscripts1 his images and the forms of his temples and altars1 referred to his double functions as ,lord of the ,light and the ,winds4 ,he was not represented with pleasing features4 ,on the contrary1 ,sahagun tells us that his face1 that is1 that of his image1 was very ugly1 with a large head and a full beard4#a ,the beard1 in this and similar instances1 was to represent the rays of the sun4 ,his hair at times was also shown rising straight from his forehead1 for the same reason4#b ,footnote #a3 ,la cara que tenia era muy fea y la cabeza larga y barbuda4 ,historia1 ,lib4 ,,iii1 cap4 ,,iii4 ,on the other hand ,ixtlilxochitl speaks of him as de bella figura4 ,historia ,chichimeca1 cap4 viii4 ,he was occasionally represented with his face painted black1 probably expressing the sun in its absence4 ,footnote #b3 ,he is so portrayed in the ,codex ,vaticanus4 and ,ixtlilxochitl says1 tubiese el cabello levantado desde la frente hasta la nuca como manera de penacho4 ,historia ,chichimeca1 cap4 viii4 ,at times he was painted with a large hat and flowing robe1 and was then called ,father of the ,sons of the ,clouds1 that is1 of the rain drops4#a ,footnote #a3 ,diego ,duran1 ,historia1 in ,kingsborough1 viii1 p4 #bfg4 ,these various representations doubtless referred to him at different parts of his chequered career1 and as a god under different manifestations of his divine nature4 ,the religious art of the ,aztecs did not demand any uniformity in this respect4 #e4 ,the ,return of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,quetzalcoatl was gone4 ,whether he had removed to the palace prepared for him in ,tlapallan1 whether he had floated out to sea on his wizard raft of serpent skins1 or whether his body had been burned on the sandy sea strand and his soul had mounted to the morning star1 the wise men were not agreed4 ,but on one point there was unanimity4 ,quetzalcoatl was gone2 but he would return4 ,in his own good time1 in the sign of his year1 when the ages were ripe1 once more he would come from the east1 surrounded by his fair-faced retinue1 and resume the sway of his people and their descendants4 ,tezcatlipoca had conquered1 but not for aye4 ,the immutable laws which had fixed the destruction of ,tollan assigned likewise its restoration4 ,such was the universal belief among the ,aztec race4 ,for this reason ,quetzalcoatl's statue1 or one of them1 was in a reclining position and covered with wrappings1 signifying that he was absent1 as of one who lays him down to sleep1 and that when he should awake from that dream of absence1 he should rise to rule again the land4#a ,footnote #a3 ,torquemada1 ,monarquia ,indiana1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 xxiv4 ,so in ,egyptian mythology ,tum was called the concealed or imprisoned god1 in a physical sense the ,sun-god in the darkness of night1 not revealing himself1 but alive1 nevertheless4 ,tiele1 ,history of the ,egyptian ,religion1 p4 #gg4 ,he was not dead4 ,he had indeed built mansions underground1 to the ,lord of ,mictlan1 the abode of the dead1 the place of darkness1 but he himself did not occupy them4#a ,where he passed his time was where the sun stays at night4 ,as this1 too1 is somewhere beneath the level of the earth1 it was occasionally spoken of as ,tlillapa1 ,the ,murky ,land1#b and allied therefore to ,mictlan4 ,caverns led down to it1 especially one south of ,chapultepec1 called ,cincalco1 ,to the ,abode of ,abundance1 through whose gloomy corridors one could reach the habitation of the sun and the happy land still governed by ,quetzalcoatl and his lieutenant ,totec4#c ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 iii4 cap4 ult4 ,footnote #b3 ,mendieta1 ,hist4 ,eclesiast4 ,indiana1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 v4 ,the name is from tlilli1 something dark1 obscure4 ,footnote #c3 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 xii1 cap4 ix2 ,duran1 ,historia1 cap4 lxviii2 ,tezozomoc1 ,cron4 ,mexicana1 cap4 ciii4 ,sahagun and ,tezozomoc give the name ,cincalco1 ,to the ,house of ,maize1 i4e41 ,fertility1 ,abundance1 the ,paradise4 ,duran gives ,cicalco1 and translates it casa de la liebre1 citli1 hare1 calli1 house1 co locative4 ,but this is1 no doubt1 an error1 mistaking citli for cintli1 maize4 ,but the real and proper names of that land were ,tlapallan1 the ,red ,land1 and ,tizapan1 the ,white ,land1 for either of these colors is that of the sun-light4#a ,footnote #a3 ,tizapan from tizatl1 white earth or other substance1 and pan1 in4 ,mendicta1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 iv4 ,it was generally understood to be the same land whence he and the ,toltecs had come forth in ancient times2 or if not actually the same1 nevertheless1 very similar to it4 ,while the myth refers to the latter as ,tlapallan1 it speaks of the former as ,huey ,tlapallan1 ,old ,tlapallan1 or the first ,tlapallan4 ,but ,old ,tlapallan was usually located to the ,west1 where the sun disappears at night2#a while ,new ,tlapallan1 the goal of ,quetzalcoatl's journey1 was in the ,east1 where the day-orb rises in the morning4 ,the relationship is obvious1 and is based on the similarity of the morning and the evening skies1 the heavens at sunset and at sunrise4 ,footnote #a3 ,huitlapalan1 que es la que al presente llaman de ,cortes1 que por parecer vermeja le pusieron el nombre referido4 ,alva ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,historia ,chichimeca1 ,cap4 ii4 ,in his capacity as master of arts1 and1 at the same time1 ruler of the underground realm1 in other words1 as representing in his absence the ,sun at night1 he was supposed to preside over the schools where the youth were shut up and severely trained in ascetic lives1 previous to coming forth into the world4 ,in this function he was addressed as ,quetzalcoatl ,tlilpotonqui1 the ,dark or ,black ,plumed1 and the child1 on admittance1 was painted this color1 and blood drawn from his ears and offered to the god4#a ,probably for the same reason1 in many picture writings1 both his face and body were blackened4 ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,lib4 iii1 ,append1 cap4 vii4 and cf4 ,lib4 i1 cap v4 ,the surname is from tlilli1 black1 and potonia1 emplumar otro4 ,it is at first sight singular to find his character and symbols thus in a sense reversed1 but it would not be difficult to quote similar instances from ,aryan and ,egyptian mythology4 ,the sun at night was often considered to be the ruler of the realm of the dead1 and became associated with its gloomy symbolism4 ,wherever he was1 ,quetzalcoatl was expected to return and resume the sceptre of sovereignty1 which he had laid down at the instigation of ,tezcatlipoca4 ,in what cycle he would appear the sages knew not1 but the year of the cycle was predicted by himself of old4 ,here appears an extraordinary coincidence4 ,the sign of the year of ,quetzalcoatl was1 as ,i have said1 ,one ,reed1 ,ce ,acatl4 ,in the ,mexican calendar this recurs only once in their cycle of fifty-two years4 ,the myth ran that on some recurrence of this year his arrival was to take place4 ,the year #aeai of the ,christian era was the year ,one ,reed1 and in that year ,hernan ,cortes landed his army on ,mexican soil6 ,the approach of the year had1 as usual1 revived the old superstition1 and possibly some vague rumors from ,yucatan or the ,islands had intensified the dread with which the ,mexican emperor contemplated the possible loss of his sovereignty4 ,omens were reported in the sky1 on earth and in the waters4 ,the sages and diviners were consulted1 but their answers were darker than the ignorance they were asked to dispel4 ,yes1 they agreed1 a change is to come1 the present order of things will be swept away1 perhaps by ,quetzalcoatl1 perhaps by hideous beings with faces of serpents1 who walk with one foot1 whose heads are in their breasts1 whose huge hands serve as sun shades1 and who can fold themselves in their immense ears4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the names of these mysterious beings are given by ,tezozomoc as ,tezocuilyoxique1 ,zenteicxique and ,coayxaques4 ,cronica ,mexicana1 caps1 cviii and civ4 ,little satisfied with these grotesque prophecies the monarch summoned his dwarfs and hunchbacks--a class of dependents he maintained in imitation of ,quetzalcoatl--and ordered them to proceed to the sacred ,cave of ,cincalco4 ,enter its darknes1 he said1 without fear4 ,there you will find him who ages ago lived in ,tula1 who calls himself ,huemac1 the ,great ,hand4#a ,if one enters1 he dies indeed1 but only to be born to an eternal life in a land where food and wine are in perennial plenty4 ,it is shady with trees1 filled with fruit1 gay with flowers1 and those who dwell there know nought but joy4 ,huemac is king of that land1 and he who lives with him is ever happy4 ,footnote #a3 ,huemac1 as ,i have already said1 is stated by ,sahagun to have been the war chief of ,tula1 as ,quetzalcoatl was the sacerdotal head 7,lib4 iii1 cap4 v74 ,but ,duran and most writers state that it was simply another name of ,quetzalcoatl4 ,the dwarfs and hunchbacks departed on their mission1 under the guidance of the priests4 ,after a time they returned and reported that they had entered the cave and reached a place where four roads met4 ,they chose that which descended most rapidly1 and soon were accosted by an old man with a staff in his hand4 ,this was ,totec1 who led them to his lord ,huemac1 to whom they stated the wish of ,montezuma for definite information4 ,the reply was vague and threatening1 and though twice afterwards the emperor sent other embassies1 only ominous and obscure announcements were returned by the priests4#a ,clearly they preferred to be prophets of evil1 and quite possibly they themselves were the slaves of gloomy forebodings4 ,footnote #a3 ,tezozomoc1 ,cronica ,mexicana1 caps4 cviii1 cix2 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 xii1 cap4 ix4 ,the four roads which met one on the journey to the ,under ,world are also described in the ,popol ,vuh1 p4 #hc4 ,each is of a different color1 and only one is safe to follow4 ,dissatisfied with their reports1 ,montezuma determined to visit the underground realm himself1 and by penetrating through the cave of ,cincalco to reach the mysterious land where his attendants and priests professed to have been4 ,for obvious reasons such a suggestion was not palatable to them1 and they succeeded in persuading him to renounce the plan1 and their deceptions remained undiscovered4 ,their idle tales brought no relief to the anxious monarch1 and at length1 when his artists showed him pictures of the bearded ,spaniards and strings of glittering beads from ,cortes1 the emperor could doubt no longer1 and exclaimed3 ,truly this is the ,quetzalcoatl we expected1 he who lived with us of old in ,tula4 ,undoubtedly it is he1 ,ce ,acatl ,inacuil1 the god of ,one ,reed1 who is journeying4#a ,footnote #a3 ,tezozomoc1 ,cronica ,mexicana1 cap4 cviii4 ,on his very first interview with ,cortes1 he addressed him through the interpreter ,marina in remarkable words which have been preserved to us by the ,spanish conqueror himself4 ,cortes writes3-- ,having delivered me the presents1 he seated himself next to me and spoke as follows3-- ',we have known for a long time1 by the writings handed down by our forefathers1 that neither ,i nor any who inhabit this land are natives of it1 but foreigners who came here from remote parts4 ,we also know that we were led here by a ruler1 whose subjects we all were1 who returned to his country1 and after a long time came here again and wished to take his people away4 ,but they had married wives and built houses1 and they would neither go with him nor recognize him as their king2 therefore he went back4 ,we have ever believed that those who were of his lineage would some time come and claim this land as his1 and us as his vassals4 ,from the direction whence you come1 which is where the sun rises1 and from what you tell me of this great lord who sent you1 we believe and think it certain that he is our natural ruler1 especially since you say that for a long time he has known about us4 ,therefore you may feel certain that we shall obey you1 and shall respect you as holding the place of that great lord2 and in all the land ,i rule you may give what orders you wish1 and they shall be obeyed1 and everything we have shall be put at your service4 ,and since you are thus in your own heritage and your own house1 take your ease and rest from the fatigue of the journey and the wars you have had on the way4'#a ,footnote #a3 ,cortes1 ,carta ,segunda1 ,october #cjth1 #aebj4 ,according to ,bernal ,diaz ,montezuma referred to the prediction several times4 ,historia ,verdadera de la ,conquista de la ,nueva ,espaa1 cap4 lxxxix1 xc4 ,the words of ,montezuma are also given by ,father ,sahagun1 ,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1 ,lib4 xii1 cap4 xvi4 ,the statement of ,montezuma that ,quetzalcoatl had already returned1 but had not been well received by the people1 and had1 therefore1 left them again1 is very interesting4 ,it is a part of the ,quetzalcoatl myth which ,i have not found in any other ,aztec source4 ,but it distinctly appears in the ,kiche which ,i shall quote on a later page1 and is also in close parallelism with the hero-myths of ,yucatan1 ,peru and elsewhere4 ,it is1 to my mind1 a strong evidence of the accuracy of ,marina's translation of ,montezuma's words1 and the fidelity of ,cortes' memory4 ,such was the extraordinary address with which the ,spaniard1 with his handful of men1 was received by the most powerful war chief of the ,american continent4 ,it confessed complete submission1 without a struggle4 ,but it was the expression of a general sentiment4 ,when the ,spanish ships for the first time reached the ,mexican shores the natives kissed their sides and hailed the white and bearded strangers from the east as gods1 sons and brothers of ,quetzalcoatl1 come back from their celestial home to claim their own on earth and bring again the days of ,paradise2 #a a hope1 dryly observes ,father ,mendieta1 which the poor ,indians soon gave up when they came to feel the acts of their visitors4#b ,footnote #a3 ,sahagun1 ,historia1 ,lib4 xii1 cap4 ii4 ,footnote #b3 ,los ,indios siempre esperaron que se habia de cumplir aquella profecia y cuando vieron venir los cristianos luego los llamaron dioses1 hijos1 y hermanos de ,quetzalcoatl1 aunque despues que conocieron y experimentaron sus obras1 no los tuvieron por celestiales4 ,historia ,eclesiastica ,indiana1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 x4 ,such presentiments were found scattered through ,america4 ,they have excited the suspicion of historians and puzzled antiquaries to explain4 ,but their interpretation is simple enough4 ,the primitive myth of the sun which had sunk but should rise again1 had in the lapse of time lost its peculiarly religious sense1 and had been in part taken to refer to past historical events4 ,the ,light-,god had become merged in the divine culture hero4 ,he it was who was believed to have gone away1 not to die1 for he was immortal1 but to dwell in the distant east1 whence in the fullness of time he would return4 ,this was why ,montezuma and his subjects received the whites as expected guests1 and quoted to them prophecies of their coming4 ,the ,mayas of ,yucatan1 the ,muyscas of ,bogota1 the ,qquichuas of ,peru1 all did the same1 and all on the same grounds--the confident hope of the return of the ,light-,god from the under world4 ,this hope is an integral part of this great ,myth of ,light1 in whatever part of the world we find it4 ,osiris1 though murdered1 and his body cast into the unclean sea1 will come again from the eastern shores4 ,balder1 slain by the wiles of ,loki1 is not dead forever1 but at the appointed time will appear again in nobler majesty4 ,so in her divine fury sings the prophetess of the ,vluspa3-- ,shall arise a second time1 ,earth from ocean1 green and fair1 ,the waters ebb1 the eagles fly1 ,snatch the fish from out the flood4 ,once again the wondrous runes1 ,golden tablets1 shall be found2 ,mystic runes by ,aesir carved1 ,gods who ruled ,fiolnir's line4 ,then shall fields unseeded bear1 ,ill shall flee1 and ,balder come1 ,dwell in ,odin's highest hall1 ,he and all the happy gods4 ,outshines the sun that mighty hall1 ,glitters gold on heaven's hill2 ,there shall god-like princes dwell1 ,and rule for aye a happy world4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,hero-,,gods ,,of ,,the ,,mayas4 ,,civilization ,,of ,,the ,,mayas--,,whence ,,it ,,originated--,,duplicate ,,traditions4 #a4 ,the ,culture ,hero ,itzamna4 ,,itzamna ,,as ,,ruler1 ,,priest ,,and ,,teacher--,,as ,,chief ,,god ,,and ,,creator ,,of ,,the ,,world--,,las ,,casas' ,,supposed ,,christ ,,myth--,,the ,,four ,,bacabs--,,itzamna ,,as ,,lord ,,of ,,the ,,winds ,,and ,,rains--,,the ,,symbol ,,of ,,the ,,cross--,,as ,,lord ,,of ,,the ,,light ,,and ,,day--,,derivation ,,of ,,his ,,various ,,names4 #b4 ,the ,culture ,hero ,kukulcan4 ,,kukulcan ,,as ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,calendar--,,meaning ,,of ,,the ,,name--,,the ,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,brothers--,,kukulcan',s ,,happy ,,rule ,,and ,,miraculous ,,disappearance--,,relation ,,to ,,quetzalcoatl--,,aztec ,,and ,,maya ,,mythology--,,kukulcan ,a ,,maya ,,divinity--,,the ,,expected ,,return ,,of ,,the ,,hero-,,gods--,,the ,,maya ,,prophecies--,,their ,,explanation4 ,the high-water mark of ancient ,american civilization was touched by the ,mayas1 the race who inhabited the peninsula of ,yucatan and vicinity4 ,its members extended to the ,pacific coast and included the tribes of ,vera ,paz1 ,guatemala1 and parts of ,chiapas and ,honduras1 and had an outlying branch in the hot lowlands watered by the ,river ,panuco1 north of ,vera ,cruz4 ,in all1 it has been estimated that they numbered at the time of the ,conquest perhaps two million souls4 ,to them are due the vast structures of ,copan1 ,palenque and ,uxmal1 and they alone possessed a mode of writing which rested distinctly on a phonetic basis4 ,the zenith of their prosperity had1 however1 been passed a century before the ,spanish conquerors invaded their soil4 ,a large part of the peninsula of ,yucatan had been for generations ruled in peace by a confederation of several tribes1 whose capital city was ,mayapan1 ten leagues south of where ,mrida now stands1 and whose ruins still cover many hundred acres of the plain4 ,somewhere about the year #addj there was a general revolt of the eastern provinces2 ,mayapan itself was assaulted and destroyed1 and the ,peninsula was divided among a number of petty chieftains4 ,such was its political condition at the time of the discovery4 ,there were numerous populous cities1 well built of stone and mortar1 but their inhabitants were at war with each other and devoid of unity of purpose4#a ,hence they fell a comparatively easy prey to the conquistadors4 ,footnote #a3 ,francisco de ,montejo1 who was the first to explore ,yucatan 7#aebh71 has left strong testimony to the majesty of its cities and the agricultural industry of its inhabitants4 ,he writes to the ,king1 in the report of his expedition3 ,la tierra es muy poblada y de muy grandes ciudades y villas muy frescas4 ,todos los pueblos son una huerta de frutales4 ,carta su ,magestad1 #ac ,abril1 #aebi1 in the ,coleccion de ,documentos ,ineditos del ,archivo de ,indias1 ,tom4 xiii4 ,whence came this civilization8 ,was it an offshoot of that of the ,aztecs8 ,or did it produce the latter8 ,these interesting questions ,i cannot discuss in full at this time4 ,all that concerns my present purpose is to treat of them so far as they are connected with the mythology of the race4 ,incidentally1 however1 this will throw some light on these obscure points1 and at any rate enable us to dismiss certain prevalent assumptions as erroneous4 ,one of these is the notion that the ,toltecs were the originators of ,yucatan culture4 ,i hope ,i have said enough in the previous chapter to exorcise permanently from ancient ,american history these purely imaginary beings4 ,they have served long enough as the last refuge of ignorance4 ,let us rather ask what accounts the ,mayas themselves gave of the origin of their arts and their ancestors4 ,most unfortunately very meagre sources of information are open to us4 ,we have no ,sahagun to report to us the traditions and prayers of this strange people4 ,only fragments of their legends and hints of their history have been saved1 almost by accident1 from the general wreck of their civilization4 ,from these1 however1 it is possible to piece together enough to give us a glimpse of their original form1 and we shall find it not unlike those we have already reviewed4 ,there appear to have been two distinct cycles of myths in ,yucatan1 the most ancient and general that relating to ,itzamn1 the second1 of later date and different origin1 referring to ,kukulcan4 ,it is barely possible that these may be different versions of the same2 but certainly they were regarded as distinct by the natives at and long before the time of the ,conquest4 ,this is seen in the account they gave of their origin4 ,they did not pretend to be autochthonous1 but claimed that their ancestors came from distant regions1 in two bands4 ,the largest and most ancient immigration was from the ,east1 across1 or rather through1 the ocean--for the gods had opened twelve paths through it--and this was conducted by the mythical civilizer ,itzamn4 ,the second band1 less in number and later in time1 came in from the ,west1 and with them was ,kukulcan4 ,the former was called the ,great ,arrival2 the latter1 the ,less ,arrival#a4 ,footnote #a3 ,cogolludo contradicts himself in describing these events2 saying first that the greater band came from the ,west1 but later in the same chapter corrects himself1 and criticizes ,father ,lizana for having committed the same error4 ,cogolludo's authority was the original ,,mss4 of ,gaspar ,antonio1 an educated native1 of royal lineage1 who wrote in #aehb4 ,historia de ,yucatan1 ,lib4 iv1 caps1 iii1 iv4 ,lizana gives the names of these arrivals as ,nohnial and ,cenial4 ,these words are badly mutilated4 ,they should read noh emel 7noh1 great1 emel1 descent1 arrival7 and cec1 emel 7cec1 small74 ,landa supports the position of ,cogolludo4 ,relacion de las ,cosas de ,yucatan1 p4 #bh4 ,it is he who speaks of the doce caminos por el mar4 #a4 ,the ,culture ,hero1 ,itzamn4 ,to this ancient leader1 ,itzamn1 the nation alluded as their guide1 instructor and civilizer4 ,it was he who gave names to all the rivers and divisions of land2 he was their first priest1 and taught them the proper rites wherewith to please the gods and appease their ill-will2 he was the patron of the healers and diviners1 and had disclosed to them the mysterious virtues of plants2 in the month ,uo they assembled and made new fire and burned to him incense1 and having cleansed their books with water drawn from a fountain from which no woman had ever drunk1 the most learned of the sages opened the volumes to forecast the character of the coming year4 ,it was ,itzamn who first invented the characters or letters in which the ,mayas wrote their numerous books1 and which they carved in such profusion on the stone and wood of their edifices4 ,he also devised their calendar1 one more perfect even than that of the ,mexicans1 though in a general way similar to it#a4 ,footnote #a3 ,the authorities on this phase of ,itzamn's character are ,cogolludo1 ,historia de ,yucatan1 ,lib4 iv1 cap4 iii2 ,landa1 ,cosas de ,yucatan1 pp4 #bhe1 #bhi1 and ,beltran de ,santa ,rosa ,maria1 ,arte del ,idioma ,maya1 p4 #af4 ,the latter has a particularly valuable extract from the now lost ,maya ,dictionary of ,f4 ,gabriel de ,san ,buenaventura4 ,el primero que hall las letras de la lengua ,maya hizo el computo de los aos1 meses y edades1 y lo enseo todo los ,indios de esta ,provincia1 fu un ,indio llamado ,kinchahau1 y por otro nombre ,tzamn4 ,noticia que debemos dicho ,r4,f4 ,gabriel1 y trae en su ,calepino1 lit4 ,k4 verb4 ,kinchahau1 fol4 #cij1 vuelt4 ,as city-builder and king1 his history is intimately associated with the noble edifices of ,itzamal1 which he laid out and constructed1 and over which he ruled1 enacting wise laws and extending the power and happiness of his people for an indefinite period4 ,thus ,itzamna1 regarded as ruler1 priest and teacher1 was1 no doubt1 spoken of as an historical personage1 and is so put down by various historians1 even to the most recent#a4 ,but another form in which he appears proves him to have been an incarnation of deity1 and carries his history from earth to heaven4 ,this is shown in the very earliest account we have of the ,maya mythology4 ,footnote #a3 ,crescencio ,carrillo1 ,historia ,antigua de ,yucatan1 p4 #add1 ,mrida1 #ahha4 ,though obliged to differ on many points with this indefatigable archaeologist1 ,i must not omit to state my appreciation and respect for his earnest interest in the language and antiquities of his country4 ,i know of no other ,yucatecan who has equal enthusiasm or so just an estimate of the antiquarian riches of his native land4 ,for this account we are indebted to the celebrated ,las ,casas1 the ,apostle of the ,indians4 ,in #aede he sent a certain priest1 ,francisco ,hernandez by name1 into the peninsula as a missionary4 ,hernandez had already traversed it as chaplain to ,montejo's expedition1 in #aebh1 and was to some degree familiar with the ,maya tongue4 ,after nearly a year spent among the natives he forwarded a report to ,las ,casas1 in which1 among other matters1 he noted a resemblance which seemed to exist between the myths recounted by the ,maya priests and the ,christian dogmas4 ,they told him that the highest deity they worshiped was ,izona1 who had made men and all things4 ,to him was born a son1 named ,bacab or ,bacabab1 by a virgin1 ,chibilias1 whose mother was ,ixchel4 ,bacab was slain by a certain ,eopuco1 on the day called hemix1 but after three days rose from the dead and ascended into heaven4 ,the ,holy ,ghost was represented by ,echuac1 who furnished the world with all things necessary to man's life and comfort4 ,asked what ,bacab meant1 they replied1 the ,son of the ,great ,father1 and ,echuac they translated by the merchant4#a ,footnote #a3 ,las ,casas1 ,historia ,apologetica de las ,indias ,occidentales1 cap4 cxxiii4 ,this is the story that a modern writer says1 ought to be repudiated without question4#a ,but ,i think not4 ,it is not difficult to restore these names to their correct forms1 and then the fancied resemblance to ,christian theology disappears1 while the character of the original myth becomes apparent4 ,footnote #a3 ,john ,t4 ,short1 ,the ,north ,americans of ,antiquity1 p4 #bca4 ,cogolludo long since justly construed ,izona as a misreading for ,izamna4 ,bacabab is the plural form of ,bacab1 and shows that the sons were several4 ,we are well acquainted with the ,bacabab4 ,bishop ,landa tells us all about them4 ,they were four in number1 four gigantic brothers1 who supported the four corners of the heavens1 who blew the four winds from the four cardinal points1 and who presided over the four ,dominical signs of the ,calendar4 ,as each year in the ,calendar was supposed to be under the influence of one or the other of these brothers1 one ,bacab was said to die at the close of the year2 and after the nameless or intercalary days had passed the next ,bacab would live2 and as each computation of the year began on the day ,imix1 which was the third before the close of the ,maya week1 this was said figuratively to be the day of death of the ,bacab of that year4 ,and whereas three 7or four7 days later a new year began1 with another ,bacab1 the one was said to have died and risen again4 ,the myth further relates that the ,bacabs were sons of ,ix-chel4 ,she was the ,goddess of the ,rainbow1 which her name signifies4 ,she was likewise believed to be the guardian of women in childbirth1 and one of the patrons of the art of medicine4 ,the early historians1 ,roman and ,landa1 also associate her with ,itzamna#a1 thus verifying the legend recorded by ,hernandez4 ,footnote #a3 ,fray ,hieronimo ,roman1 ,de la ,republica de las ,indias ,occidentales1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 xv2 ,diego de ,landa1 ,relacion de las ,cosas de ,yucatan1 p4 #bhh4 ,cogolludo also mentions ,ix chel1 ,historia de ,yucatan1 ,lib4 iv1 cap4 vi4 ,the word in ,maya for rainbow is chel or cheel2 ix is the feminine prefix1 which also changes the noun from the inanimate to the animate sense4 ,that the ,rainbow should be personified as wife of the ,light-,god and mother of the rain-gods1 is an idea strictly in accordance with the course of mythological thought in the red race1 and is founded on natural relations too evident to be misconstrued4 ,the rainbow is never seen but during a shower1 and while the sun is shining2 hence it is always associated with these two meteorological phenomena4 ,i may quote in comparison the rainbow myth of the ,moxos of ,south ,america4 ,they held it to be the wife of ,arama1 their god of light1 and her duty was to pour the refreshing rains on the soil parched by the glaring eye of her mighty spouse4 ,hence they looked upon her as goddess of waters1 of trees and plants1 and of fertility in general4#a ,footnote #a3 ,fabula1 ridicula adspersam superstitione1 habebant de iride4 ,ajebant illam esse ,aramam feminam1 solis conjugem1 cujus officium sit terras a viro exustas imbrium beneficio recreare4 ,cum enim viderent arcum illum non nisi pluvio tempore in conspectu venire1 et tunc arborum cacuminibus velut insidere1 persuadebant sibi aquarum illum esse ,praesidem1 arboresque proceras omnes sua in tutela habere4 ,franc4 ,xav41 ,eder1 ,descriptio ,provinciae ,moxitarum in ,regno ,peruano p4 #bdi 7,budae1 #agia74 ,or we may take the ,muyscas1 a cultivated and interesting nation who dwelt on the lofty plateau where ,bogota is situated4 ,they worshiped the ,rainbow under the name ,cuchaviva and personified it as a goddess1 who took particular care of those sick with fevers and of women in childbirth4 ,she was also closely associated in their myth with their culture-hero ,bochica1 the story being that on one occasion1 when an ill-natured divinity had inundated the plain of ,bogota1 ,bochica appeared to the distressed inhabitants in company with ,cuchaviva1 and cleaving the mountains with a blow of his golden sceptre1 opened a passage for the waters into the valley below4#a ,footnote #a3 ,e4 ,uricoechea1 ,gramatica de la ,lengua ,chibcha1 ,introd41 p4 xx4 ,the similarity of these to the ,biblical account is not to be attributed to borrowing from the latter1 but simply that it1 as they1 are both the mythological expressions of the same natural phenomenon4 ,in ,norse mythology1 ,freya is the rainbow goddess4 ,she wears the bow as a necklace or girdle4 ,it was hammered out for her by four dwarfs1 the four winds from the cardinal points1 and ,odin seeks to get it from her4 ,schwartz1 ,ursprung der ,mythologie1 ,s4 #aag4 ,as goddess of the fertilizing showers1 of growth and life1 it is easily seen how ,ixchel came to be the deity both of women in childbirth and of the medical art1 a ,juno ,sospita as well as a ,juno ,lucina4 ,the statement is also significant1 that the ,bacabs were supposed to be the victims of ,ah-puchah1 the ,despoiler or ,destroyer1#a though the precise import of that character in the mythical drama is left uncertain4#b ,footnote #a3 ,eopuco ,i take to be from the verb puch or puk1 to melt1 to dissolve1 to shell corn from the cob1 to spoil2 hence puk1 spoiled1 rotten1 podrida1 and possibly ppuch1 to flog1 to beat4 ,the prefix ah1 signifies one who practices or is skilled in the action which the verb denotes4 ,footnote #b3 ,the mother of the ,bacabs is given in the myth as ,chibilias 7or ,chibirias1 but there is no r in the ,maya alphabet74 ,cogolludo mentions a goddess ,ix chebel yax1 one of whose functions was to preside over drawing and painting4 ,the name is from chebel1 the brush used in these arts4 ,but the connection is obscure4 ,the supposed ,holy ,ghost1 ,echuac1 properly ,ah-,kiuic1 ,master of the ,market1 was the god of the merchants and the cacao plantations4 ,he formed a triad with two other gods1 ,chac1 one of the rain gods1 and ,hobnel1 also a god of the food supply4 ,to this triad travelers1 on stopping for the night1 set on end three stones and placed in front of them three flat stones1 on which incense was burned4 ,at their festival in the month ,muan precisely three cups of native wine 7mead7 were drained by each person present4#a ,footnote #a3 ,landa1 ,relacion de las ,cosas de ,yucatan1 pp4 #aef1 #bfj4 ,the description of some such rites as these is1 no doubt1 what led the worthy ,hernandez to suppose that the ,mayas had ,trinitarian doctrines4 ,when they said that the god of the merchants and planters supplied the wants of men and furnished the world with desirable things1 it was but a slightly figurative way of stating a simple truth4 ,the four ,bacabs are called by ,cogolludo the gods of the winds4 ,each was identified with a particular color and a certain cardinal point4 ,the first was that of the ,south4 ,he was called ,hobnil1 the ,belly2 his color was yellow1 which1 as that of the ripe ears1 was regarded as a favorable and promising hue2 the augury of his year was propitious1 and it was said of him1 referring to some myth now lost1 that he had never sinned as had his brothers4 ,he answered to the day ,kan4 which was the first of the ,maya week of thirteen days4#a ,the remaining ,bacabs were the ,red1 assigned to the ,east1 the ,white1 to the ,north1 and the ,black1 to the ,west1 and the winds and rains from those directions were believed to be under the charge of these giant caryatides4 ,footnote #a3 ,landa1 ,relacion1 pp4 #bjh1-baa1 etc4 ,hobnil is the ordinary word for belly1 stomach1 from hobol1 hollow4 ,figuratively1 in these dialects it meant subsistence1 life1 as we use in both these senses the word vitals4 ,among the ,kiches of ,guatemala1 a tribe of ,maya stock1 we find1 as terms applied to their highest divinity1 u pam uleu1 u pam cah1 literally ,belly of the ,earth1 ,belly of the ,sky1 meaning that by which earth and sky exist4 ,popol ,vuh1 p4 #ccb4 ,their close relation with ,itzamn is evidenced1 not only in the fragmentary myth preserved by ,hernandez1 but quite amply in the descriptions of the rites at the close of each year and in the various festivals during the year1 as narrated by ,bishop ,landa4 ,thus at the termination of the year1 along with the sacrifices to the ,bacab of the year were others to ,itzamn1 either under his surname ,canil1 which has various meanings1#a or as ,kinich-ahau1 ,lord of the ,eye of the ,day1#b or ,yax-coc-ahmut1 the first to know and hear of events1#c or finally as ,uac-mtun-ahau1 ,lord of the ,wheel of the ,months4#d ,footnote #a3 ,can1 of which the determinative form is canil1 may mean a serpent1 or the yellow one1 or the strong one1 or he who gives gifts1 or the converser4 ,footnote #b3 ,kin1 the day2 ich1 eye2 ahau1 lord4 ,footnote #c3 ,yax1 first2 coc1 which means literally deaf1 and hence to listen attentively 7whence the name ,cocomes1 for the ancient royal family of ,chichen ,itza1 an appellation correctly translated escuchadores7 and ah-mut1 master of the news1 mut meaning news1 good or bad4 ,footnote #d3 ,uac1 the months1 is a rare and now obsolete form of the plural of u1 month1 ,uac1 i4e4 u1 por meses y habla de tiempo pasado4 ,diccionario ,maya-,espaol del ,convento de ,motul1 ,,ms4 ,metun 7,landa1 mitun7 is from met1 a wheel4 ,the calendars1 both in ,yucatan and ,mexico1 were represented as a wheel4 ,the word bacab means erected1 set up4#a ,it was applied to the ,bacabs because they were imagined to be enormous giants1 standing like pillars at the four corners of the earth1 supporting the heavens4 ,in this sense they were also called chac1 the giants1 as the rain senders4 ,they were also the gods of fertility and abundance1 who watered the crops1 and on whose favor depended the return of the harvests4 ,they presided over the streams and wells1 and were the divinities whose might is manifested in the thunder and lightning1 gods of the storms1 as well as of the gentle showers4#b ,the festival to these gods of the harvest was in the month ,mac1 which occurred in the early spring4 ,in this ceremony1 ,itzamn was also worshiped as the leader of the ,bacabs1 and an important rite called the extinction of the fire was performed4 ,the object of these sacrifices and this festival1 writes ,bishop ,landa1 was to secure an abundance of water for their crops4#c ,footnote #a3 ,the ,diccionario ,maya del ,convento de ,motul1 ,,ms41 the only dictionary in which ,i find the exact word1 translates bacab by representante1 juglar1 bufon4 ,this is no doubt a late meaning taken from the scenic representations of the supposed doings of the gods in the ritual ceremonies4 ,the proper form of the word is uacab or vacab1 which the dictionary mentioned renders cosa que esta en pi enhiesta delante de otra4 ,the change from the initial v to b is quite common1 as may be seen by comparing the two letters in ,pio ,perez's ,diccionario de la ,lengua ,maya1 e4g4 balak1 the revolution of a wheel1 from ualak1 to turn1 to revolve4 ,footnote #b3 ,the entries in the ,diccionario ,maya-,espaol del ,convento de ,motul1 ,,ms41 are as follows3-- ,chaac3 gigante1 hombre de grande estatura4 ,chaac3 fu un hombre asi grande que enseo la agricultura1 al cual tuvieron despues por ,dios de los panes1 del agua1 de los truenos y relmpagos4 ,y asi se dice1 hac chaac1 el rayo3 u lemba chaac el relmpago2 u pec chaac1 el trueno1 etc4 ,footnote #c3 ,relacion1 etc41 p4 #bee4 ,these four ,chac or ,bacabab were worshiped under the symbol of the cross1 the four arms of which represented the four cardinal points4 ,both in language and religious art1 this was regarded as a tree4 ,in the ,maya tongue it was called the tree of bread1 or the tree of life4#a ,the celebrated cross of ,palenque is one of its representations1 as ,i believe ,i was the first to point out1 and has now been generally acknowledged to be correct4#b ,there was another such cross1 about eight feet high1 in a temple on the island of ,cozumel4 ,this was worshiped as the god of rain1 or more correctly1 as the symbol of the four rain gods1 the ,bacabs4 ,in periods of drought offerings were made to it of birds 7symbols of the winds7 and it was sprinkled with water4 ,when this had been done1 adds the historian1 they felt certain that the rains would promptly fall4#c ,footnote #a3 ,the ,maya word is uahomche1 from uah1 originally the tortilla or maize cake1 now used for bread generally4 ,it is also current in the sense of life 7la vida en cierta manera1 ,diccionario ,maya ,espaol del ,convento de ,motul1 ,,ms474 ,che is the generic word for tree4 ,i cannot find any particular tree called ,homche4 ,hom was the name applied to a wind instrument1 a sort of trumpet4 ,in the ,codex ,troano1 ,plates xxv1 xxvii1 xxxiv1 it is represented in use4 ,the four ,bacabs were probably imagined to blow the winds from the four corners of the earth through such instruments4 ,a similar representation is given in the ,codex ,borgianus1 ,plate xiii1 in ,kingsborough4 ,as the ,chac was the god of bread1 ,dios de los panes1 so the cross was the tree of bread4 ,footnote #b3 ,see the ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #ie 7#ast ed41 ,new ,york1 #ahfh74 ,this explanation has since been adopted by ,dr4 ,carl ,schultz-,sellack1 although he omits to state whence he derived it4 ,his article is entitled ,die ,amerikanischen ,gtter der ,vier ,weltgegenden und ihre ,tempel in ,palenque in the ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 #ahgi4 ,compare also ,charles ,rau1 ,the ,palenque ,tablet1 p4 #dd 7,washington1 #ahgi74 ,footnote #c3 ,al pi de aquella misma torre estaba un cercado de piedra y cal1 muy bien lucido y almenado1 en medio del cual habia una cruz de cal tan alta como diez palmos1 la cual tenian y adoraban por dios de la lluvia1 porque quando no llovia y habia falta de agua1 iban ella en procesion y muy devotos2 ofrescianle codornices sacrificadas por aplacarle la ira y enojo con que ellos tenia mostraba tener1 con la sangre de aquella simple avezica4 ,francisco ,lopez de ,gomara1 ,conquista de ,mejico1 p4 #cje 7,ed4 ,paris1 #aheb74 ,each of the four ,bacabs was also called ,acantun1 which means a stone set up1 such a stone being erected and painted of the color sacred to the cardinal point that the ,bacab represented#a4 ,some of these stones are still found among the ruins of ,yucatecan cities1 and are to this day connected by the natives with reproductive signs#b4 ,it is probable1 however1 that actual phallic worship was not customary in ,yucatan4 ,the ,bacabs and ,itzamn were closely related to ideas of fertility and reproduction1 indeed1 but it appears to have been especially as gods of the rains1 the harvests1 and the food supply generally4 ,the ,spanish writers were eager to discover all the depravity possible in the religion of the natives1 and they certainly would not have missed such an opportunity for their tirades1 had it existed4 ,as it is1 the references to it are not many1 and not clear4 ,footnote #a3 ,the feasts of the ,bacabs ,acantun are described in ,landa's work4 ,the name he does not explain4 ,i take it to be acaan1 past participle of actal1 to erect1 and tun1 stone4 ,but it may have another meaning4 ,the word acan meant wine1 or rather1 mead1 the intoxicating hydromel the natives manufactured4 ,the god of this drink also bore the name ,acan 7,,acan2 el ,dios del vino que es ,baco1 ,diccionario del ,convento de ,motul1 ,,ms474 ,it would be quite appropriate for the ,bacabs to be gods of wine4 ,footnote #b3 ,stephens1 ,travels in ,yucatan1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dcd4 ,from what ,i have now presented we see that ,itzamn came from the distant east1 beyond the ocean marge2 that he was the teacher of arts and agriculture2 that he1 moreover1 as a divinity1 ruled the winds and rains1 and sent at his will harvests and prosperity4 ,can we identify him further with that personification of ,light which1 as we have already seen1 was the dominant figure in other ,american mythologies8 ,this seems indicated by his names and titles4 ,they were many1 some of which ,i have already analyzed4 ,that by which he was best known was ,itzamn1 a word of contested meaning but which contains the same radicals as the words for the morning and the dawn#a1 and points to his identification with the grand central fact at the basis of all these mythologies1 the welcome advent of the light in the eastern horizon after the gloom of the night4 ,footnote #a3 ,some have derived ,itzamua from i1 grandson by a son1 used only by a female2 zamal1 morning1 morrow1 from zam1 before1 early1 related to yam1 first1 whence also zamalzam1 the dawn1 the aurora2 and n1 mother4 ,without the accent na1 means house4 ,crescencio ,carrillo prefers the derivation from itz1 anything that trickles in drops1 as gum from a tree1 rain or dew from the sky1 milk from teats1 and semen 7leche de amor1 ,dicc4 de ,motul1 ,,ms474 ,he says3 ,itzamna1 esto es1 rocio diario1 sustancia cuotidiana del cielo1 es el mismo nombre del fundador 7de ,itzamal74 ,historia ,antigua de ,yucatan1 p4 #ade4 7,mrida1 #ahha47 ,this does not explain the last syllable1 n1 which is always strongly accented4 ,it is said that ,itzamn spoke of himself only in the words ,itz en caan1 ,i am that which trickles from the sky2 ,itz en muyal1 ,i am that which trickles from the clouds4 ,this plainly refers to his character as a rain god4 ,lizana1 ,historia de ,yucatan1 ,lib4 i1 cap4 #d4 ,if a compound of itz1 amal1 n1 the name1 could be translated1 the milk of the mother of the morning1 or of the dawn1 i4 e41 the dew2 while i1 zamal1 n would be son of the mother of the morning4 ,his next most frequent title was ,kin-ich-ahau1 which may be translated either1 ,lord of the ,sun's ,face1 or1 ,the ,lord1 the ,eye of the ,day4#a ,as such he was the deity who presided in the ,sun's disk and shot forth his scorching rays4 ,there was a temple at ,itzamal consecrated to him as ,kin-ich-kak-mo1 the ,eye of the ,day1 the ,bird of ,fire4#b ,in a time of pestilence the people resorted to this temple1 and at high noon a sacrifice was spread upon the altar4 ,the moment the sun reached the zenith1 a bird of brilliant plumage1 but which1 in fact1 was nothing else than a fiery flame shot from the sun1 descended and consumed the offering in the sight of all4 ,at ,campeche he had a temple1 as ,kin-ich-ahau-haban1 the ,lord of the ,sun's face1 the ,hunter1 where the rites were sanguinary4#c ,footnote #a3 ,cogolludo1 who makes a distinction between ,kinich-ahau and ,itzamn 7,hist4 de ,yucatan1 ,lib4 iv1 cap4 viii71 may be corrected by ,landa and ,buenaventura1 whom ,i have already quoted4 ,footnote #b3 ,kin1 the sun1 the day2 ich1 the face1 but generally the eye or eyes2 kak1 fire2 mo1 the brilliant plumaged1 sacred bird1 the ara or guacamaya1 the red macaw4 ,this was adopted as the title of the ruler of ,itzamal1 as we learn from the ,chronicle of ,chichen ,itza--,ho ahau paxci u cah yahau ah ,itzmal ,kinich ,kakmo--,in the fifth ,age the town 7of ,chichen ,itza7 was destroyed by ,king ,kinich ,kakmo1 of ,itzamal4 ,el ,libro de ,chilan ,balam de ,chumayel1 ,,ms4 ,footnote #c3 ,cogolludo1 ,historia de ,yucatan1 ,lib4 iv1 cap4 viii4 ,another temple at ,itzamal was consecrated to him1 under one of his names1 ,kabil1 ,he of the ,lucky ,hand1#a and the sick were brought there1 as it was said that he had cured many by merely touching them4 ,this fane was extremely popular1 and to it pilgrimages were made from even such remote regions as ,tabasco1 ,guatemala and ,chiapas4 ,to accommodate the pilgrims four paved roads had been constructed1 to the ,north1 ,south1 ,east and ,west1 straight toward the quarters of the four winds4 ,footnote #a3 ,lizana says3 ,se llama y nombra ,kab-ul que quiere decir mano obradora1 and all writers have followed him1 although no such meaning can be made out of the name thus written4 ,the proper word is kabil1 which is defined in the ,diccionario del ,convento de ,motul1 ,,ms41 el que tiene buena mano para sembrar1 para poner colmenas1 etc4 ,landa also gives this orthography1 ,relacion1 p4 #baf4 #b4 ,the ,culture ,hero1 ,kukulcan4 ,the second important hero-myth of the ,mayas was that about ,kukulcan4 ,this is in no way connected with that of ,itzamna1 and is probably later in date1 and less national in character4 ,the first reference to it we also owe to ,father ,francisco ,hernandez1 whom ,i have already quoted1 and who reported it to ,bishop ,las ,casas in #aede4 ,his words clearly indicate that we have here to do with a myth relating to the formation of the calendar1 an opinion which can likewise be supported from other sources4 ,the natives affirmed1 says ,las ,casas1 that in ancient times there came to that land twenty men1 the chief of whom was called ,cocolcan1 and him they spoke of as the god of fevers or agues1 two of the others as gods of fishing1 another two as the gods of farms and fields1 another was the thunder god1 etc4 ,they wore flowing robes and sandals on their feet1 they had long beards1 and their heads were bare4 ,they ordered that the people should confess and fast1 and some of the natives fasted on ,fridays1 because on that day the god ,bacab died2 and the name of that day in their language is himix1 which they especially honor and hold in reverence as the day of the death of ,bacab4#a ,footnote #a3 ,las ,casas1 ,historia ,apologetica de las ,indias ,occidentales1 cap4 cxxii4 ,in the manuscript of ,hernandez1 which ,las ,casas had before him when he was writing his ,apologetical ,history1 the names of all the twenty were given2 but unfortunately for antiquarian research1 the good bishop excuses himself from quoting them1 on account of their barbarous appearance4 ,i have little doubt1 however1 that had he done so1 we should find them to be the names of the twenty days of the native calendar month4 ,these are the visitors who come1 one every morning1 with flowing robes1 full beard and hair1 and bring with them our good or bad luck--whatever the day brings forth4 ,hernandez made the same mistake as did ,father ,francisco de ,bobadilla1 when he inquired of the ,nicaraguans the names of their gods1 and they gave him those of the twenty days of the month4#a ,each day was1 indeed1 personified by these nations1 and supposed to be at once a deity and a date1 favorable or unfavorable to fishing or hunting1 planting or fighting1 as the case might be4 ,footnote #a3 ,oviedo1 ,historia ,general de las ,indias1 ,lib4 xlii1 cap4 iii4 ,kukulcan seems1 therefore1 to have stood in the same relation in ,yucatan to the other divinities of the days as did ,votan in ,chiapa and ,quetzalcoatl ,ce ,acatl in ,cholula4 ,his name has usually been supposed to be a compound1 meaning a serpent adorned with feathers1 but there are no words in the ,maya language to justify such a rendering4 ,there is some variation in its orthography1 and its original pronunciation may possibly be lost2 but if we adopt as correct the spelling which ,i have given above1 of which1 however1 ,i have some doubts1 then it means1 ,the ,god of the ,mighty ,speech4#a ,footnote #a3 ,eligio ,ancona1 after giving the rendering1 serpiente adornada de plumas1 adds1 ha sido repetido por tal nmero de etimologistas que tendremos necesidad de aceptarla1 aunque nos parece un poco violento1 ,historia de ,yucatan1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #dd4 ,the ,abb ,brasseur1 in his ,vocabulaire ,maya1 boldly states that kukul means emplumado adornado con plumas4 ,this rendering is absolutely without authority1 either modern or ancient4 ,the word for feathers in ,maya is kukum2 kul1 in composition1 means very or much1 as kulvinic1 muy hombre1 hombre de respeto hecho1 ,diccionario de ,motul1 ,,ms4 ,ku is god1 divinity4 ,for can see chapter iv1 #a4 ,can was and still is a common surname in ,yucatan4 7,berendt1 ,nombres ,proprios en ,lengua ,maya1 ,,ms47 ,i should prefer to spell the name ,kukulkan1 and have it refer to the first day of the ,maya week1 ,kan4 ,the reference probably was to the fame of this divinity as an oracle1 as connected with the calendar4 ,but it is true that the name could with equal correctness be translated ,the ,god1 the ,mighty ,serpent1 for can is a homonym with these and other meanings1 and we are without positive proof which was intended4 ,to bring ,kukulcan into closer relations with other ,american hero-gods we must turn to the locality where he was especially worshiped1 to the traditions of the ancient and opulent city of ,chichen ,itza1 whose ruins still rank among the most imposing on the peninsula4 ,the fragments of its chronicles1 as preserved to us in the ,books of ,chilan ,balam and by ,bishop ,landa1 tell us that its site was first settled by four bands who came from the four cardinal points and were ruled over by four brothers4 ,these brothers chose no wives1 but lived chastely and ruled righteously1 until at a certain time one died or departed1 and two began to act unjustly and were put to death4 ,the one remaining was ,kukulcan4 ,he appeased the strife which his brothers' acts had aroused1 directed the minds of the people to the arts of peace1 and caused to be built various important structures4 ,after he had completed his work in ,chichen ,itza1 he founded and named the great city of ,mayapan1 destined to be the capital of the confederacy of the ,mayas4 ,in it was built a temple in his honor1 and named for him1 as there was one in ,chichen ,itza4 ,these were unlike others in ,yucatan1 having circular walls and four doors1 directed1 presumably1 toward the four cardinal points#a4 ,footnote #a3 ,el ,libro de ,chilan ,balam de ,chumayel1 ,,ms42 ,landa1 ,relacion1 pp4 #cd-ch4 and #bii2 ,herrera1 ,historia de las ,indias1 ,dec4 iv1 ,lib4 x1 cap ii4 ,in gratifying confirmation of the legend1 travelers do actually find in ,mayapan and ,chichen ,itza1 and nowhere else in ,yucatan1 the ruins of two circular temples with doors opening toward the cardinal points#a4 ,footnote #a3 ,stephens1 ,incidents of ,travel in ,yucatan1 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #bih4 ,under the beneficent rule of ,kukulcan1 the nation enjoyed its halcyon days of peace and prosperity4 ,the harvests were abundant and the people turned cheerfully to their daily duties1 to their families and their lords4 ,they forgot the use of arms1 even for the chase1 and contented themselves with snares and traps4 ,at length the time drew near for ,kukulcan to depart4 ,he gathered the chiefs together and expounded to them his laws4 ,from among them he chose as his successor a member of the ancient and wealthy family of the ,cocoms4 ,his arrangements completed1 he is said1 by some1 to have journeyed westward1 to ,mexico1 or to some other spot toward the sun-setting4 ,but by the people at large he was confidently believed to have ascended into the heavens1 and there1 from his lofty house1 he was supposed to watch over the interests of his faithful adherents4 ,such was the tradition of their mythical hero told by the ,itzas4 ,no wonder that the early missionaries1 many of whom1 like ,landa1 had lived in ,mexico and had become familiar with the story of ,quetzalcoatl and his alleged departure toward the east1 identified him with ,kukulcan1 and that1 following the notion of this assumed identity1 numerous later writers have framed theories to account for the civilization of ancient ,yucatan through colonies of ,toltec immigrants4 ,it can1 indeed1 be shown beyond doubt that there were various points of contact between the ,aztec and ,maya civilizations4 ,the complex and artificial method of reckoning time was one of these2 certain architectural devices were others2 a small number of words1 probably a hundred all told1 have been borrowed by the one tongue from the other4 ,mexican merchants traded with ,yucatan1 and bands of ,aztec warriors with their families1 from ,tabasco1 dwelt in ,mayapan by invitation of its rulers1 and after its destruction1 settled in the province of ,canul1 on the western coast1 where they lived strictly separate from the ,maya-speaking population at the time the ,spaniards conquered the country4#a ,footnote #a3 ,el ,libro de ,chilan ,balam de ,chumayel1 ,,ms42 ,landa1 ,relacion1 p4 #ed4 ,but all this is very far from showing that at any time a race speaking the ,aztec tongue ruled the ,peninsula4 ,there are very strong grounds to deny this4 ,the traditions which point to a migration from the west or southwest may well have referred to the depopulation of ,palenque1 a city which undoubtedly was a product of ,maya architects4 ,the language of ,yucatan is too absolutely dissimilar from the ,nahuatl for it ever to have been moulded by leaders of that race4 ,the details of ,maya civilization are markedly its own1 and show an evolution peculiar to the people and their surroundings4 ,how far they borrowed from the fertile mythology of their ,nahuatl visitors is not easily answered4 ,that the circular temple in ,mayapan1 with four doors1 specified by ,landa as different from any other in ,yucatan1 was erected to ,quetzalcoatl1 by or because of the ,aztec colony there1 may plausibly be supposed when we recall how peculiarly this form was devoted to his worship4 ,again1 one of the ,maya chronicles--that translated by ,pio ,perez and published by ,stephens in his ,travels in ,yucatan--opens with a distinct reference to ,tula and ,nonoal1 names inseparable from the ,quetzalcoatl myth4 ,a statue of a sleeping god holding a vase was disinterred by ,dr4 ,le ,plongeon at ,chichen ,itza1 and it is too entirely similar to others found at ,tlaxcala and near the city of ,mexico1 for us to doubt but that they represented the same divinity1 and that the god of rains1 fertility and the harvests4#a ,footnote #a3 ,i refer to the statue which ,dr4 ,le,plongeon was pleased to name ,chac ,mool4 ,see the ,estudio acerca de la ,estatua llamada ,chac-,mool rey tigre1 by ,sr4 ,jesus ,sanchez1 in the ,anales del ,museo ,nacional de ,mexico1 ,tom4 i4 p4 #bgj4 ,there was a divinity worshiped in ,yucatan1 called ,cum-ahau1 lord of the vase1 whom the ,diccionario de ,motul1 ,,ms4 terms1 ,lucifer1 principal de los demnios4 ,the name is also given by ,pio ,perez in his manuscript dictionary in my possession1 but is omitted in the printed copy4 ,as ,lucifer1 the morning star1 was identified with ,quetzalcoatl in ,mexican mythology1 and as the word cum1 vase1 ,aztec comitl1 is the same in both tongues1 there is good ground to suppose that this lord of the vase1 the prince of devils1 was the god of fertility1 common to both cults4 ,the version of the tradition which made ,kukulcan arrive from the ,west1 and at his disappearance return to the ,west--a version quoted by ,landa1 and which evidently originally referred to the westward course of the sun1 easily led to an identification of him with the ,aztec ,quetzalcoatl1 by those acquainted with both myths4 ,the probability seems to be that ,kukulcan was an original ,maya divinity1 one of their hero-gods1 whose myth had in it so many similarities to that of ,quetzalcoatl that the priests of the two nations came to regard the one as the same as the other4 ,after the destruction of ,mayapan1 about the middle of the fifteenth century1 when the ,aztec mercenaries were banished to ,canul1 and the reigning family 7the ,xiu7 who supported them became reduced in power1 the worship of ,kukulcan fell1 to some extent1 into disfavor4 ,of this we are informed by ,landa1 in an interesting passage4 ,he tells us that many of the natives believed that ,kukulcan1 after his earthly labors1 had ascended into ,heaven and become one of their gods4 ,previous to the destruction of ,mayapan temples were built to him1 and he was worshiped throughout the land1 but after that event he was paid such honor only in the province of ,mani 7governed by the ,xiu74 ,nevertheless1 in gratitude for what all recognized they owed to him1 the kings of the neighboring provinces sent yearly to ,mani1 on the occasion of his annual festival1 which took place on the #afth of the month ,xul 7,november #hth71 either four or five magnificent feather banners4 ,these were placed in his temple1 with appropriate ceremonies1 such as fasting1 the burning of incense1 dancing1 and with simple offerings of food cooked without salt or pepper1 and drink from beans and gourd seeds4 ,this lasted five nights and five days2 and1 adds ,bishop ,landa1 they said1 and held it for certain1 that on the last day of the festival ,kukulcan himself descended from ,heaven and personally received the sacrifices and offerings which were made in his honor4 ,the celebration itself was called the ,festival of the ,founder#a1 with reference1 ,i suppose1 to the alleged founding of the cities of ,mayapan and ,chichen ,itza by this hero-god4 ,the five days and five sacred banners again bring to mind the close relation of this with the ,quetzalcoatl symbolism4 ,footnote #a3 ,llamaban a esta fiesta ,chic ,kaban2 ,landa1 ,relacion1 p4 #cjb4 ,i take it this should read ,chiic u ,kaba 7,chiic2 fundar poblar alguna cosa1 casa1 pueblo1 etc4 ,diccionario de ,motul1 ,,ms47 ,as ,itzamn had disappeared without undergoing the pains of death1 as ,kukulcan had risen into the heavens and thence returned annually1 though but for a moment1 on the last day of the festival in his honor1 so it was devoutly believed by the ,mayas that the time would come when the worship of other gods should be done away with1 and these mighty deities alone demand the adoration of their race4 ,none of the ,american nations seems to have been more given than they to prognostics and prophecies1 and of none other have we so large an amount of this kind of literature remaining4 ,some of it has been preserved by the ,spanish missionaries1 who used it with good effect for their own purposes of proselyting2 but that it was not manufactured by them for this purpose1 as some late writers have thought1 is proved by the existence of copies of these prophecies1 made by native writers themselves1 at the time of the ,conquest and at dates shortly subsequent4 ,these prophecies were as obscure and ambiguous as all successful prophets are accustomed to make their predictions2 but the one point that is clear in them is1 that they distinctly referred to the arrival of white and bearded strangers from the ,east1 who should control the land and alter the prevailing religion4#a ,footnote #a3 ,nakuk ,pech1 ,concixta yetel mapa1 #aefb4 ,,ms42 ,el ,libro de ,chilan ,balam de ,mani1 #aeie1 ,,ms4 ,the former is a history of the ,conquest written in ,maya1 by a native noble1 who was an adult at the time that ,mrida was founded 7#aedb74 ,even that portion of the ,itzas who had separated from the rest of their nation at the time of the destruction of ,mayapan 7about #addj-ej7 and wandered off to the far south1 to establish a powerful nation around ,lake ,peten1 carried with them a forewarning that at the eighth age they should be subjected to a white race and have to embrace their religion2 and1 sure enough1 when that time came1 and not till then1 that is1 at the close of the seventeenth century of our reckoning1 they were driven from their island homes by ,governor ,ursua1 and their numerous temples1 filled with idols1 leveled to the soil4#a ,footnote #a3 ,juan de ,villagutierre ,sotomayor1 ,historia de la ,provincia de el ,itza1 passim 7,madrid1 #agja74 ,the ground of all such prophecies was1 ,i have no doubt1 the expected return of the hero-gods1 whose myths ,i have been recording4 ,both of them represented in their original forms the light of day1 which disappears at nightfall but returns at dawn with unfailing certainty4 ,when the natural phenomenon had become lost in its personification1 this expectation of a return remained and led the priests1 who more than others retained the recollection of the ancient forms of the myth1 to embrace this expectation in the prognostics which it was their custom and duty to pronounce with reference to the future4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,qquichua ,,hero-,,god ,,viracocha4 ,,viracocha ,,as ,,the ,,first ,,cause--,,his ,,name1 ,,illa ,,ticci--,,qquichua ,,prayers--,,other ,,names ,,and ,,titles ,,of ,,viracocha--,,his ,,worship ,a ,,true ,,monotheism--,,the ,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,brothers--,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,twin ,,brothers4 ,,viracocha ,,as ,,tunapa1 ,,he ,,who ,,perfects--,,various ,,incidents ,,in ,,his ,,life--,,relation ,,to ,,manco ,,capac--,,he ,,disappears ,,in ,,the ,,west4 ,,viracocha ,,rises ,,from ,,lake ,,titicaca ,,and ,,journeys ,,to ,,the ,,west--,,derivation ,,of ,,his ,,name--,,he ,,was ,,represented ,,as ,,white ,,and ,,bearded--,,the ,,myth ,,of ,,con ,,and ,,pachacamac--,,contice ,,viracocha--,,prophecies ,,of ,,the ,,peruvian ,,seers--,,the ,,white ,,men ,,called ,,viracochas--,,similarities ,,to ,,aztec ,,myths4 ,the most majestic empire on this continent at the time of its discovery was that of the ,incas4 ,it extended along the ,pacific1 from the parallel of #b north latitude to #bj south1 and may be roughly said to have been #aejj miles in length1 with an average width of #djj miles4 ,the official and principal tongue was the ,qquichua1 the two other languages of importance being the ,yunca1 spoken by the coast tribes1 and the ,aymara1 around ,lake ,titicaca and south of it4 ,the latter1 in phonetics and in many root-words1 betrays a relationship to the ,qquichua1 but a remote one4 ,the ,qquichuas were a race of considerable cultivation4 ,they had a developed metrical system1 and were especially fond of the drama4 ,several specimens of their poetical and dramatic compositions have been preserved1 and indicate a correct taste4 ,although they did not possess a method of writing1 they had various mnemonic aids1 by which they were enabled to recall their verses and their historical traditions4 ,in the mythology of the ,qquichuas1 and apparently also of the ,aymaras1 the leading figure is ,viracocha4 ,his august presence is in one cycle of legends that of ,infinite ,creator1 the ,primal ,cause2 in another he is the beneficent teacher and wise ruler2 in other words1 he too1 like ,quetzalcoatl and the others whom ,i have told about1 is at one time ,god1 at others the incarnation of ,god4 ,as the first cause and ground of all things1 ,viracocha's distinctive epithet was ,ticci1 the ,cause1 the ,beginning1 or ,illa ticci1 the ,ancient ,cause#a1 the ,first ,beginning1 an endeavor in words to express the absolute priority of his essence and existence4 ,he it was who had made and moulded the ,sun and endowed it with a portion of his own divinity1 to wit1 the glory of its far-shining rays2 he had formed the ,moon and given her light1 and set her in the heavens to rule over the waters and the winds1 over the queens of the earth and the parturition of women2 and it was still he1 the great ,viracocha1 who had created the beautiful ,chasca1 the ,aurora1 the ,dawn1 goddess of all unspotted maidens like herself1 her who in turn decked the fields and woods with flowers1 whose time was the gloaming and the twilight1 whose messengers were the fleecy clouds which sail through the sky1 and who1 when she shakes her clustering hair1 drops noiselessly pearls of dew on the green grass fields4#b ,footnote #a3 ,ticci1 origen1 principio1 fundamento1 cimiento1 causa4 ,ylla2 todo lo que es antiguo4 ,holguin1 ,vocabulario de la ,lengua ,qquichua del ,inga 7,ciudad de los ,reyes1 #afjh74 ,ticci is not to be confounded with aticsi1 he conquers1 from atini1 ,i conquer1 a term also occasionally applied to ,viracocha4 ,footnote #b3 ,relacion ,annyma1 de los ,costumbres ,antiguos de los ,naturales del ,piru1 p4 #ach4 #afae4 7,published1 ,madrid1 #ahgi74 ,invisible and incorporeal himself1 so1 also1 were his messengers 7the light-rays71 called huaminca1 the faithful soldiers1 and hayhuaypanti1 the shining ones1 who conveyed his decrees to every part4#a ,he himself was omnipresent1 imparting motion and life1 form and existence1 to all that is4 ,therefore it was1 says an old writer1 with more than usual insight into man's moral nature1 with more than usual charity for a persecuted race1 that when these natives worshiped some swift river or pellucid spring1 some mountain or grove1 it was not that they believed that some particular divinity was there1 or that it was a living thing1 but because they believed that the great ,god1 ,illa ,ticci1 had created and placed it there and impressed upon it some mark of distinction1 beyond other objects of its class1 that it might thus be designated as an appropriate spot whereat to worship the maker of all things2 and this is manifest from the prayers they uttered when engaged in adoration1 because they are not addressed to that mountain1 or river1 or cave1 but to the great ,illa ,ticci ,viracocha1 who1 they believed1 lived in the heavens1 and yet was invisibly present in that sacred object4#b ,footnote #a3 ,ibid41 p4 #adj4 ,footnote #b3 ,ibid41 p4 #adg4 ,in the prayers for the dead1 ,illa ,ticci was appealed to1 to protect the body1 that it should not see corruption nor become lost in the earth1 and that he should not allow the soul to wander aimlessly in the infinite spaces1 but that it should be conducted to some secure haven of contentment1 where it might receive the sacrifices and offerings which loving hands laid upon the tomb4#a ,were other gods also called upon1 it was that they might intercede with the ,supreme ,divinity in favor of these petitions of mortals4 ,footnote #a3 ,ibid41 p4 #aed4 ,to him1 likewise1 the chief priest at certain times offered a child of six years1 with a prayer for the prosperity of the ,inca1 in such terms as these3-- ,oh1 ,lord1 we offer thee this child1 in order that thou wilt maintain us in comfort1 and give us victory in war1 and keep to our ,lord1 the ,inca1 his greatness and his state1 and grant him wisdom that he may govern us righteously4#a ,footnote #a3 ,herrera1 ,historia de las ,indias1 ,dec4 v1 ,lib4 iv1 cap4 i4 ,or such a prayer as this was offered up by the assembled multitude3-- ,oh1 ,viracocha ever present1 ,viracocha ,cause of ,all1 ,viracocha the ,helper1 the ,ceaseless ,worker1 ,viracocha who gives the beginnings1 ,viracocha who encourages1 ,viracocha the always fortunate1 ,viracocha ever near1 listen to this our prayer1 send health1 send prosperity to us thy people4#a ,footnote #a3 ,christoval de ,molina1 ,the ,fables and ,rites of the ,incas1 p4 #bi4 ,molina gives the original ,qquichua1 the translation of which is obviously incomplete1 and ,i have extended it4 ,thus ,viracocha was placed above and beyond all other gods1 the essential ,first ,cause1 infinite1 incorporeal1 invisible1 above the sun1 older than the beginning1 but omnipresent1 accessible1 beneficent4 ,does this seem too abstract1 too elevated a notion of ,god for a race whom we are accustomed to deem gross and barbaric8 ,i cannot help it4 ,the testimony of the earliest observers1 and the living proof of language1 are too strong to allow of doubt4 ,the adjectives which were applied to this divinity by the native priests are still on record1 and that they were not a loan from ,christian theology is conclusively shown by the fact that the very writers who preserved them often did not know their meaning1 and translated them incorrectly4 ,thus even ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 himself of the blood of the ,incas1 tells us that neither he nor the natives of that day could translate ,ticci4#a ,thus1 also1 ,garcia and ,acosta inform us that ,viracocha was surnamed ,usapu1 which they translate admirable1#b but really it means he who accomplishes all that he undertakes1 he who is successful in all things2 ,molina has preserved the term ,ymamana1 which means he who controls or owns all things2#c the title ,pachayachachi1 which the ,spanish writers render ,creator1 really means the ,teacher of the ,world2 that of ,caylla signifies the ,ever-present one2 ,taripaca1 which has been guessed to be the same as tarapaca1 an eagle1 is really a derivative of taripani1 to sit in judgment1 and was applied to ,viracocha as the final arbiter of the actions and destinies of man4 ,another of his frequent appellations for which no explanation has been offered1 was ,tokay or ,tocapo1 properly ,tukupay4#d ,it means he who finishes1 who completes and perfects1 and is antithetical to ,ticci1 he who begins4 ,these two terms express the eternity of divinity2 they convey the same idea of mastery over time and the things of time1 as do those words heard by the ,evangelist in his vision in the isle called ,patmos1 ,i am ,alpha and ,omega2 ,i am the ,beginning and the ,end4 ,footnote #a3 ,dan 7los ,indios71 otro nombre ,dios1 que es ,tici ,viracocha1 que yo no se que signifique1 ni ellos tampoco4 ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,comentarios ,reales1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 ii4 ,footnote #b3 ,garcia1 ,origen de los ,indios1 ,lib4 iii1 cap4 vi2 ,acosta1 ,historia1 ,natural y ,moral de las ,indias1 fol4 #aii 7,barcelona #aeia74 ,footnote #c3 ,christoval de ,molina1 ,the ,fables and ,rites of the ,incas1 ,eng4 ,trans41 p4 #f4 ,footnote #d3 ,melchior ,hernandez1 one of the earliest writers1 whose works are now lost1 but who is quoted in the ,relacion ,annima1 gives this name ,tocapu2 ,christoval de ,molina 7ubi sup47 spells it ,tocapo2 ,la ,vega ,tocay2 ,molina gives its signification1 the maker4 ,it is from the word tukupay or tucuychani1 to finish1 complete1 perfect4 ,yet another epithet of ,viracocha was ,zapala4#a ,it conveys strongly and positively the monotheistic idea4 ,it means ,the ,one1 or1 more strongly1 ,the ,only ,one4 ,footnote #a3 ,gomara1 ,historia de las ,indias1 p4 #bcb 7ed4 ,paris1 #aheb74 ,nor must it be supposed that this monotheism was unconscious2 that it was1 for example1 a form of henotheism1 where the devotion of the adorer filled his soul1 merely to the forgetfulness of other deities2 or that it was simply the logical law of unity asserting itself1 as was the case with many of the apparently monotheistic utterances of the ,greek and ,roman writers4 ,no2 the evidence is such that we are obliged to acknowledge that the religion of ,peru was a consciously monotheistic cult1 every whit as much so as the ,greek or ,roman ,catholic ,churches of ,christendom4 ,those writers who have called the ,inca religion a sun worship have been led astray by superficial resemblances4 ,one of the best early authorities1 ,christoval de ,molina1 repeats with emphasis the statement1 ,they did not recognize the ,sun as their ,creator1 but as created by the ,creator1 and this creator was not born of woman1 but was unchangeable and eternal4#a ,for conclusive testimony on this point1 however1 we may turn to an ,informacion or ,inquiry as to the ancient belief1 instituted in #aega1 by order of the viceroy ,don ,francisco de ,toledo4 ,the oldest ,indians1 especially those of noble birth1 including many descendants of the ,incas1 were assembled at different times and in different parts of the country1 and carefully questioned1 through the official interpreter1 as to just what the old religion was4 ,the questions were not leading ones1 and the replies have great uniformity4 ,they all agreed that ,viracocha was worshiped as creator1 and as the ever-present active divinity2 he alone answered prayers1 and aided in time of need2 he was the sole efficient god4 ,all prayers to the ,sun or to the deceased ,incas1 or to idols1 were directed to them as intercessors only4 ,on this point the statements were most positive#b4 ,the ,sun was but one of ,viracocha's creations1 not itself the ,creator4 ,footnote #a3 ,christoval de ,molina1 ,the ,fables and ,rites of the ,incas1 pp4 #h1 #ag4 ,eng4 ,trans4 ,footnote #b3 ,ellos solo ,viracocha tenian por hacedor de todas las cosas1 y que el solo los podia socorrer1 y que de todos los demas los tenian por sus intercesores1 y que ansi los decian ellos en sus oraciones antiguas1 antes que fuesen cristianos1 y que ansi lo dicen y declaran por cosa muy cierta y verdadera4 ,information de las ,idolatras de los ,incas ,indios1 in the ,coleccion de ,documentos ,ineditos del ,archivo de ,indias1 vol4 xxi1 p4 #aih4 ,other witnesses said3 ,los dichos ,ingas y sus antepasados tenian por criador al solo ,viracocha1 y que solo los podia socorrer1 id4 p4 #ahd4 ,adoraban ,viracocha por hacedor de todas las cosas1 como el sol y a ,hachaccuna los adoraban porque los tenia por hijos de ,viracocha y por cosa muy allegada suya1 p4 #acc4 ,it is singular that historians have continued to repeat that the ,qquichuas adored the ,sun as their principal divinity1 in the face of such evidence to the contrary4 ,if this ,inquiry and its important statements had not been accessible to them1 at any rate they could readily have learned the same lesson from the well known ,history of ,father ,joseph de ,acosta4 ,that author says1 and repeats with great positiveness1 that the ,sun was in ,peru a secondary divinity1 and that the supreme deity1 the ,creator and ruler of the world1 was ,viracocha4#a ,footnote #a3 ,sientan y confiessan un supremo seor1 y hazedor de todo1 al qual los del ,piru llamavan ,viracocha4 99 99 ,despues del ,viracocha1 o supremo ,dios1 fui1 y es en los infieles1 el que mas comunmente veneran y adoran el sol4 ,acosta1 ,de la ,historia ,moral de las ,indias1 ,lib1 v4 cap4 iii1 iv1 7,barcelona1 #aeia74 ,another misapprehension is that these natives worshiped directly their ancestors4 ,thus1 ,mr4 ,markham writes3 ,the ,incas worshiped their ancestors1 the ,pacarina1 or forefather of the ,ayllu1 or lineage1 being idolized as the soul or essence of his descendants4#a ,but in the ,inquiry above quoted it is explained that the belief1 in fact1 was that the soul of the ,inca went at death to the presence of the deity ,viracocha1 and its emblem1 the actual body1 carefully preserved1 was paid divine honors in order that the soul might intercede with ,viracocha for the fulfillment of the prayers4#b ,footnote #a3 ,clements ,r4 ,markham1 ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 #ahga1 p4 #bia4 ,pacarina is the present participle of pacarini1 to dawn1 to begin1 to be born4 ,footnote #b3 ,informacion1 etc41 p4 #bji4 ,we are compelled1 therefore1 by the best evidence now attainable1 to adopt the conclusion that the ,inca religion1 in its purity1 deserved the name of monotheism4 ,the statements of the natives and the terms of their religious language unite in confirming this opinion4 ,it is not right to depreciate the force of these facts simply because we have made up our minds that a people in the intellectual stage of the ,peruvians could not have mounted to such a pure air of religion4 ,a prejudgment of this kind is unworthy of a scientific mind4 ,the evidence is complete that the terms ,i have quoted did belong to the religious language of ancient ,peru4 ,they express the conception of divinity which the thinkers of that people had formed4 ,and whether it is thought to be in keeping or not with the rest of their development1 it is our bounden duty to accept it1 and explain it as best we can4 ,other instances might be quoted1 from the religious history of the old world1 where a nation's insight into the attributes of deity was singularly in advance of their general state of cultivation4 ,the best thinkers of the ,semitic race1 for example1 from ,moses to ,spinoza1 have been in this respect far ahead of their often more generally enlightened ,aryan contemporaries4 ,the more interesting1 in view of this lofty ideal of divinity they had attained1 become the ,peruvian myths of the incarnation of ,viracocha1 his life and doings as a man among men4 ,these myths present themselves in different1 but to the reader who has accompanied me thus far1 now familiar forms4 ,once more we meet the story of the four brothers1 the first of men4 ,they appeared on the earth after it had been rescued from the primeval waters1 and the face of the land was divided between them4 ,manco ,capac took the ,north1 ,colla the ,south1 ,pinahua the ,west1 and the ,east1 the region whence come the sun and the light1 was given to ,tokay or ,tocapa1 to ,viracocha1 under his name of the ,finisher1 he who completes and perfects4#a ,footnote #a3 ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,comentarios ,reales1 ,lib4 i1 cap4 xviii4 ,the outlines of this legend are identical with another1 where ,viracocha appears under the name of ,ayar ,cachi4 ,this was1 in its broad outlines1 the most general myth1 that which has been handed down by the most numerous authorities1 and which they tell us was taken directly from the ancient songs of the ,indians1 as repeated by those who could recall the days of the ,incas ,huascar and ,atahualpa4#a ,footnote #a3 ,parece por los cantares de los ,indios2 99 99 99 afirmaron los ,orejones que quedaron de los tiempos de ,guascar i de ,atahualpa2 99 99 99 cuentan los ,indios del ,cuzco mas viejos1 etc41 repeats the historian ,herrera1 ,historia de las ,indias ,occidentals1 ,dec4 v1 ,lib4 iii1 cap4 vii1 viii4 ,it ran in this wise3 ,in the beginning of things there appeared on the earth four brothers1 whose names were1 of the oldest1 ,ayar ,cachi1 which means he who gives ,being1 or who ,causes2#a of the youngest1 ,ayar ,manco1 and of the others1 ,ayar ,aucca 7the enemy71 and ,ayar ,uchu4 ,their father was the ,sun1 and the place of their birth1 or rather of their appearance on earth1 was ,paccari-tampu1 which means ,the ,house of the ,morning or the ,mansion of the ,dawn4#b ,in after days a certain cave near ,cuzco was so called1 and pointed out as the scene of this momentous event1 but we may well believe that a nobler site than any the earth affords could be correctly designated4 ,footnote #a3 ,cachini2 dar el ser y hazer que sea2 cachi chiuachic1 el autor y causa de algo4 ,holguin1 ,vocabvlario de la ,lengva ,qquichua1 sub voce1 cachipuni4 ,the names differ little in ,herrera 7who1 however1 omits ,uchu71 ,montesinos1 ,balboa1 ,oliva1 ,la ,vega and ,pachacuti2 ,i have followed the orthography of the two latter1 as both were native ,qquichuas4 ,footnote #b3 ,holguin 7ubi supr17 gives paccarin1 the morning1 paccarini1 to dawn2 tampu1 venta meson4 ,these brothers were clothed in long and flowing robes1 with short upper garments without sleeves or collar1 and this raiment was worked with marvelous skill1 and glittered and shone like light4 ,they were powerful and proud1 and determined to rule the whole earth1 and for this purpose divided it into four parts1 the ,north1 the ,south1 the ,east1 and the ,west4 ,hence they were called by the people1 ,tahuantin ,suyu ,kapac1 ,lords of all four ,quarters of the ,earth4#a ,footnote #a3 ,tahuantin1 all four1 from tahua1 four2 suyu1 division1 section2 kapac1 king4 ,the most powerful of these was ,ayar ,cachi4 ,he possessed a sling of gold1 and in it a stone with which he could demolish lofty mountains and hurl aloft to the clouds themselves4 ,he gathered together the natives of the country at ,pacari tampu1 and accumulated at the ,house of the ,dawn a great treasure of yellow gold4 ,like the glittering hoard which we read of in the lay of the ,nibelung1 the treasure brought with it the destruction of its owner1 for his brothers1 envious of the wondrous pile1 persuaded ,ayar ,cachi to enter the cave where he kept his hoard1 in order to bring out a certain vase1 and also to pray to their father1 the ,sun1 to aid them to rule their domains4 ,as soon as he had entered1 they stopped the mouth of the cave with huge stones2 and thus rid of him1 they set about collecting the people and making a settlement at a certain place called ,tampu quiru 7the ,teeth of the ,house74 ,but they did not know the magical power of their brother4 ,while they were busy with their plans1 what was their dismay to see ,ayar ,cachi1 freed from the cave1 and with great wings of brilliantly colored feathers1 hovering like a bird in the air over their heads4 ,they expected swift retribution for their intended fratricide1 but instead of this they heard reassuring words from his lips4 ,have no fear1 he said1 ,i left you in order that the great empire of the ,incas might be known to men4 ,leave1 therefore1 this settlement of ,tampu quiru1 and descend into the ,valley of ,cuzco1 where you shall found a famous city1 and in it build a sumptuous temple to the ,sun4 ,as for me1 ,i shall remain in the form in which you see me1 and shall dwell in the mountain peak ,guanacaure1 ready to help you1 and on that mountain you must build me an altar and make to me sacrifices4 ,and the sign that you shall wear1 whereby you shall be feared and respected of your subjects1 is that you shall have your ears pierced1 as are mine1 saying which he showed them his ears pierced and carrying large1 round plates of gold4 ,they promised him obedience in all things1 and forthwith built an altar on the mountain ,guanacaure1 which ever after was esteemed a most holy place4 ,here again ,ayar ,cachi appeared to them1 and bestowed on ,ayar ,manco the scarlet fillet which became the perpetual insignia of the reigning ,inca4 ,the remaining brothers were turned into stone1 and ,manco1 assuming the title of ,kapac1 ,king1 and the metaphorical surname of ,pirhua1 the ,granary or ,treasure house1 founded the ,city of ,cuzco1 married his four sisters1 and became the first of the dynasty of the ,incas4 ,he lived to a great age1 and during the whole of his life never omitted to pay divine honors to his brothers1 and especially to ,ayar ,cachi4 ,in another myth of the incarnation the infinite ,creator ,ticci ,viracocha duplicates himself in the twin incarnation of ,ymamana ,viracocha and ,tocapu ,viracocha1 names which we have already seen mean he who has all things1 and he who perfects all things4 ,the legend was that these brothers started in the distant ,east and journeyed toward the ,west4 ,the one went by way of the mountains1 the other by the paths of the lowlands1 and each on his journey1 like ,itzamna in ,yucatecan story1 gave names to the places he passed1 and also to all trees and herbs of the field1 and to all fruits1 and taught the people which were good for food1 which of virtue as medicines1 and which were poisonous and to be shunned4 ,thus they journeyed westward1 imparting knowledge and doing good works1 until they reached the western ocean1 the great ,pacific1 whose waves seem to stretch westward into infinity4 ,there1 having accomplished all they had to do in this world1 they ascended into ,heaven1 once more to form part of the ,infinite ,being2 for the venerable authority whom ,i am following is careful to add1 most explicitly1 that these ,indians believed for a certainty that neither the ,creator nor his sons were born of woman1 but that they all were unchangeable and eternal4#a ,footnote #a3 ,christoval de ,molina1 ,fables and ,rites of the ,incas1 p4 #f4 ,still more human does ,viracocha become in the myth where he appears under the surnames ,tunapa and ,taripaca4 ,the latter ,i have already explained to mean ,he who ,judges1 and the former is a synonym of ,tocapu1 as it is from the verb ttaniy or ttanini1 and means ,he who ,finishes completes or perfects1 although1 like several other of his names1 the significance of this one has up to the present remained unexplained and lost4 ,the myth has been preserved to us by a native ,indian writer1 ,joan de ,santa ,cruz ,pachacuti1 who wrote it out somewhere about the year #afjj4a ,footnote #a3 ,relacion de ,antiguedades deste ,reyno del ,piru1 por ,don ,joan de ,santacruz ,pachacuti ,yamqui1 passim4 ,pachacuti relates the story of ,tunapa as being distinctly the hero-myth of the ,qquichuas4 ,he was also the hero-god of the ,aymaras1 and about him1 says ,father ,ludovico ,bertonio1 they to this day relate many fables and follies4 ,vocabulario de la ,lengua ,aymara1 s4v4 ,another name he bore in ,aymara was ,ecaco1 which in that language means1 as a common noun1 an ingenious1 shifty man of many plans 7,bertonio1 ,vocabulario1 s4v474 ,thunnupa1 as ,bertonio spells it1 does not lend itself to any obvious etymology in ,aymara1 which is further evidence that the name was introduced from the ,qquichua4 ,this is by no means a singular example of the identity of religious thought and terms between these nations4 ,in comparing the two tongues1 ,m4 ,alcide ,d',orbigny long since observed3 ,on retrouve mme peu prs un vingtime des mots qui ont evidemment la mme origine1 surtout ceux qui expriment les ides religieuses4 ,l',homme ,amricain1 considr sous ses ,rapports ,physiologiques et ,moraux1 ,tome i1 p4 #cbb 7,paris1 #ahci74 ,this author endeavors to prove that the ,qquichua religion was mainly borrowed from the ,aymaras1 and of the two he regards the latter as the senior in civilization4 ,but so far as ,i have been able to study the mythology of the ,aymaras1 which is but very superficially1 on account of the lack of sources1 it does not seem to be entitled to this credit4 ,he tells us that at a very remote period1 shortly after the country of ,peru had been populated1 there came from ,lake ,titicaca to the tribes an elderly man with flowing beard and abundant white hair1 supporting himself on a staff and dressed in wide-spreading robes4 ,he went among the people1 calling them his sons and daughters1 relieving their infirmities and teaching them the precepts of wisdom4 ,often1 however1 he met the fate of so many other wise teachers1 and was rejected and scornfully entreated by those whom he was striving to instruct4 ,swift retribution sometimes fell upon such stiff-necked listeners4 ,thus he once entered the town of ,yamquesupa1 the principal place in the province of the ,south1 and began teaching the inhabitants2 but they heeded him not1 and seized him1 and with insult and blows drove him from the town1 so that he had to sleep in the open fields4 ,thereupon he cursed their town1 and straightway it sank into the earth with all its inhabitants1 and the depression was filled with water1 and all were drowned4 ,to this day it is known as the lake of ,yamquesupa1 and all the people about there well know that what is now a sheet of water was once the site of a flourishing city4 ,at another time he visited ,tiahuanaco1 where may yet be seen the colossal ruins of some ancient city1 and massive figures in stone of men and women4 ,in his time this was a populous mart1 its people rich and proud1 given to revelry1 to drunkenness and dances4 ,little they cared for the words of the preacher1 and they treated him with disdain4 ,then he turned upon them his anger1 and in an instant the dancers were changed into stone1 just as they stood1 and there they remain to this day1 as any one can see1 perpetual warnings not to scorn the words of the wise4 ,on another occasion he was seized by the people who dwelt by the great lake of ,carapaco1 and tied hands and feet with stout cords1 it being their intention to put him to a cruel death the next day4 ,but very early in the morning1 just at the time of the dawn1 a beautiful youth entered and said1 ,fear not1 ,i have come to call you in the name of the lady who is awaiting you1 that you may go with her to the place of joys4 ,with that he touched the fetters on ,tunapa's limbs1 and the ropes snapped asunder1 and they went forth untouched by the guards1 who stood around4 ,they descended to the lake shore1 and just as the dawn appeared1 ,tunapa spread his mantle on the waves1 and he and his companion stepping upon it1 as upon a raft1 were wafted rapidly away into the rays of the morning light4 ,the cautious ,pachacuti does not let us into the secret of this mysterious assignation1 either because he did not know or because he would not disclose the mysteries of his ancestral faith4 ,but ,i am not so discreet1 and ,i vehemently suspect that the lady who was awaiting the virtuous ,tunapa1 was ,chasca1 the ,dawn ,maiden1 she of the beautiful hair which distills the dew1 and that the place of joys whither she invited him was the ,mansion of the ,sky1 into which1 daily1 the ,light-,god1 at the hour of the morning twilight1 is ushered by the chaste maiden ,aurora4 ,as the anger of ,tunapa was dreadful1 so his favors were more than regal4 ,at the close of a day he once reached the town of the chief ,apotampo1 otherwise ,pacari tampu1 which means the ,house or ,lodgings of the ,dawn1 where the festivities of a wedding were in progress4 ,the guests1 intent upon the pleasures of the hour1 listened with small patience to the words of the old man1 but the chief himself heard them with profound attention and delight4 ,therefore1 as ,tunapa was leaving he presented to the chief1 as a reward for his hospitality and respect1 the staff which had assisted his feeble limbs in many a journey4 ,it was of no great seemliness1 but upon it were inscribed characters of magic power1 and the chief wisely cherished it among his treasures4 ,it was well he did1 for on the day of the birth of his next child the staff turned into fine gold1 and that child was none other than the far-famed ,manco ,capac1 destined to become the ancestor of the illustrious line of the ,incas1 ,sons of the ,sun1 and famous in all countries that it shines upon2 and as for the golden staff1 it became1 through all after time until the ,spanish conquest1 the sceptre of the ,incas and the sign of their sovereignty1 the famous and sacred tupa yauri1 the royal wand4#a ,footnote #a3 ,tupa yauri2 ,el cetro real1 vara insignia real del ,inca4 ,holguin1 ,vocabvlario de la ,lengva ,qquichua o del ,inca1 s4v4 ,it became1 indeed1 to ,manco ,capac a mentor and guide4 ,his father and mother having died1 he started out with his brothers and sisters1 seven brothers and seven sisters of them1 to seek new lands1 taking this staff in his hand4 ,like the seven brothers who1 in ,mexican legend1 left ,aztlan1 the ,white ,land1 to found nations and cities1 so the brothers of ,manco ,capac1 leaving ,pacari tampu1 the ,lodgings of the ,dawn1 became the sinchi1 or heads of various noble houses and chiefs of tribes in the empire of the ,incas4 ,as for ,manco1 it is well known that with his golden wand he journeyed on1 overcoming demons and destroying his enemies1 until he reached the mountain over against the spot where the city of ,cuzco now stands4 ,here the sacred wand sunk of its own motion into the earth1 and ,manco ,capac1 recognizing the divine monition1 named the mountain ,huanacauri1 the ,place of ,repose4 ,in the valley at the base he founded the great city which he called ,cuzco1 the ,navel4 ,its inhabitants ever afterwards classed ,huanacauri as one of their principal deities4#a ,footnote #a3 ,don ,gavino ,pacheco ,zegarra derives ,huanacauri from huanaya1 to rest oneself1 and cayri1 here2 c'est ici qu'il faut se reposer4 ,ollantai1 ,introd41 p4 xxv4 ,it was distinctly the huzca1 or sacred fetish of the ,incas1 and they were figuratively said to have descended from it4 ,its worship was very prominent in ancient ,peru4 ,see the ,information de las ,idolatras de los ,incas y ,indios1 #afga1 previously quoted4 ,when ,manco ,capac's work was done1 he did not die1 like other mortals1 but rose to heaven1 and became the planet ,jupiter1 under the name ,pirua4 ,from this1 according to some writers1 the country of ,peru derived its name4#b ,footnote #b3 ,the identification of ,manco ,capac with the planet ,jupiter is mentioned in the ,relacion ,anonima1 on the authority of ,melchior ,hernandez4 ,it may fairly be supposed that this founder of the ,inca dynasty was an actual historical personage4 ,but it is evident that much that is told about him is imagery drawn from the legend of the ,light-,god4 ,and what became of ,tunapa8 ,we left him sailing on his outspread mantle1 into the light of the morning1 over ,lake ,carapace4 ,but the legend does not stop there4 ,whereever he went that day1 he returned to his toil1 and pursued his way down the river ,chacamarca till he reached the sea4 ,there his fate becomes obscure2 but1 adds ,pachacuti1 ,i understand that he passed by the strait 7of ,panama7 into the other sea 7back toward the ,east74 ,this is what is averred by the most ancient sages of the ,inca line1 7por aquellos ingas antiquissimos74 ,we may well believe he did2 for the light of day1 which is quenched in the western ocean1 passes back again1 by the straits or in some other way1 and appears again the next morning1 not in the ,west1 where we watched its dying rays1 but in the ,east1 where again it is born to pursue its daily and ever recurring journey4 ,according to another1 and also very early account1 ,viracocha was preceded by a host of attendants1 who were his messengers and soldiers4 ,when he reached the sea1 he and these his followers marched out upon the waves as if it had been dry land1 and disappeared in the ,west4#a ,footnote #a3 ,garcia1 ,origen de los ,indios1 ,lib4 v1 ,cap4 vii4 ,these followers were1 like himself1 white and bearded4 ,just as1 in ,mexico1 the natives attributed the erection of buildings1 the history of which had been lost1 to the white ,toltecs1 the subjects of ,quetzalcoatl 7see above1 chapter iii1 #b71 so in ,peru various ancient ruins1 whose builders had been lost to memory1 were pointed out to the ,spaniards as the work of a white and bearded race who held the country in possession long before the ,incas had founded their dynasty4#a ,the explanation in both cases is the same4 ,in both the early works of art of unknown origin were supposed to be the productions of the personified light rays1 which are the source of skill1 because they supply the means indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge4 ,footnote #b3 ,speaking of certain grandes y muy antiquissimos edificios on the river ,vinaque1 ,cieza de ,leon says3 ,preguntando a los ,indios comarcanos quien hizo aquella antigualla1 responden que otras gentes barbadas y blancas como nosotros3 los cuales1 muchos tiempos antes que los ,ingas reinasen1 dicen que vinieron a estas partes y hicieron alli su morada4 ,la ,crnica del ,peru1 cap4 lxxxvi4 ,the versions of these myths which have been preserved to us by ,juan de ,betanzos1 and the documents on which the historian ,herrera founded his narrative1 are in the main identical with that which ,i have quoted from the narrative of ,pachacuti4 ,i shall1 however1 give that of ,herrera1 as it has some interesting features4 ,he tells us that the traditions and songs which the ,indians had received from their remote ancestors related that in very early times there was a period when there was no sun1 and men lived in darkness4 ,at length1 in answer to their urgent prayers1 the sun emerged from ,lake ,titicaca1 and soon afterwards there came a man from the south1 of fair complexion1 large in stature1 and of venerable presence1 whose power was boundless4 ,he removed mountains1 filled up valleys1 caused fountains to burst from the solid rocks1 and gave life to men and animals4 ,hence the people called him the ,beginning of all ,created ,things1 and ,father of the ,sun4 ,many good works he performed1 bringing order among the people1 giving them wise counsel1 working miracles and teaching4 ,he went on his journey toward the north1 but until the latest times they bore his deeds and person in memory1 under the names of ,tici ,viracocha and ,tuapaca1 and elsewhere as ,arnava4 ,they erected many temples to him1 in which they placed his figure and image as described4 ,they also said that after a certain length of time there re-appeared another like this first one1 or else he was the same1 who also gave wise counsel and cured the sick4 ,he met disfavor1 and at one spot the people set about to slay him1 but he called down upon them fire from heaven1 which burned their village and scorched the mountains into cinders4 ,then they threw away their weapons and begged of him to deliver them from the danger1 which he did#a4 ,he passed on toward the ,west until he reached the shore of the sea4 ,there he spread out his mantle1 and seating himself upon it1 sailed away and was never seen again4 ,for this reason1 adds the chronicler1 the name was given to him1 ,viracocha1 which means ,foam of the ,sea1 though afterwards it changed in signification4#b ,footnote #a3 ,this incident is also related by ,pachacuti and ,betanzos4 ,all three locate the scene of the event at ,carcha1 eighteen leagues from ,cuzco1 where the ,canas tribe lived at the ,conquest4 ,pachacuti states that the cause of the anger of ,viracocha was that upon the ,sierra there was the statue of a woman to whom human victims were sacrificed4 ,if this was the tradition1 it would offer another point of identity with that of ,quetzalcoatl1 who was also said to have forbidden human sacrifices4 ,footnote #b3 ,herrera1 ,historia de las ,indias ,occidentales1 ,dec4 v1 ,lib4 iii1 cap4 vi4 ,this leads me to the etymology of the name4 ,it is confessedly obscure4 ,the translation which ,herrera gives1 is that generally offered by the ,spanish writers1 but it is not literal4 ,the word uira means fat1 and cocha1 lake1 sea1 or other large body of water2 therefore1 as the genitive must be prefixed in the ,qquichua tongue1 the translation must be ,lake or ,sea of ,fat4 ,this was shown by ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 in his ,royal ,commentaries1 and as he could see no sense or propriety in applying such a term as ,lake of ,grease to the ,supreme ,divinity1 he rejected this derivation1 and contented himself by saying that the meaning of the name was totally unknown4#a ,in this ,mr4 ,clements ,r4 ,markham1 who is an authority on ,peruvian matters1 coincides1 though acknowledging that no other meaning suggests itself4#b ,i shall not say anything about the derivations of this name from the ,sanskrit1#c or the ancient ,egyptian2#d these are etymological amusements with which serious studies have nothing to do4 ,footnote #a3 ,donde consta claro no ser nombre compuesto1 sino proprio de aquella fantasma que dij llamarse ,viracocha y que era hijo del ,sol4 ,com1 ,reales1 ,lib4 v1 cap4 xxi4 ,footnote #b3 ,introduction to ,narratives of the ,rites and ,laws of the ,incas1 p4 xi4 ,footnote #c3 ,le nom de ,viracocha dont la physionomie sanskrite est si frappante1 etc4 ,desjardins1 ,le ,perou avant la ,conqute ,espagnole1 p4 #ahj 7,paris #aheh74 ,footnote #d3 ,viracocha is the ,il or ,ra of the ,babylonian monuments1 and thus the ,ra of ,egypt1 etc4 ,professor ,john ,campbell1 ,compte-,rendu du ,congrs ,international des ,amricanistes1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cfb 7#ahge74 ,the first and accepted derivation has been ably and to my mind successfully defended by probably the most accomplished ,qquichua scholar of our age1 ,seor ,gavino ,pacheco ,zegarra1 who1 in the introduction to his most excellent edition of the ,drama of ,ollanta1 maintains that ,viracocha1 literally ,lake of ,fat1 was a simile applied to the frothing1 foaming sea1 and adds that as a personal name in this signification it is in entire conformity with the genius of the ,qquichua tongue#a4 ,footnote #a3 ,ollantai1 ,drame en vers ,quechuas1 ,introd41 p4 xxxvi 7,paris1 #ahgh74 ,there was a class of diviners in ,peru who foretold the future by inspecting the fat of animals2 they were called ,vira-piricuc4 ,molina1 ,fables and ,rites1 p4 #ac4 ,to quote his words3--,the tradition was that ,viracocha's face was extremely white and bearded4 ,from this his name was derived1 which means1 taken literally1 ',lake of ,fat2' by extension1 however1 the word means ',sea-,foam1' as in the ,qquichua language the foam is called fat1 no doubt on account of its whiteness4 ,it had a double appropriateness in its application to the hero-god4 ,not only was he supposed in the one myth to have risen from the waves of ,lake ,titicaca1 and in another to have appeared when the primeval ocean left the land dry1 but he was universally described as of fair complexion1 a white man4 ,strange1 indeed1 it is that these people who had never seen a member of the white race1 should so persistently have represented their highest gods as of this hue1 and what is more1 with the flowing beard and abundant light hair which is their characteristic4 ,there is no denying1 however1 that such is the fact4 ,did it depend on legend alone we might1 however strong the consensus of testimony1 harbor some doubt about it4 ,but it does not4 ,the monuments themselves attest it4 ,there is1 indeed1 a singular uniformity of statement in the myths4 ,viracocha1 under any and all his surnames1 is always described as white and bearded1 dressed in flowing robes and of imposing mien4 ,his robes were also white1 and thus he was figured at the entrance of one of his most celebrated temples1 that of ,urcos4 ,his image at that place was of a man with a white robe falling to his waist1 and thence to his feet2 by him1 cut in stone1 were his birds1 the eagle and the falcon4#a ,so1 also1 on a certain occasion when he was said to have appeared in a dream to one of the ,incas who afterwards adopted his name1 he was said to have come with beard more than a span in length1 and clothed in a large and loose mantle1 which fell to his feet1 while with his hand he held1 by a cord to its neck1 some unknown animal4 ,and thus in after times he was represented in painting and statue1 by order of that ,inca4#b ,footnote #a3 ,christoval de ,molina1 ubi supra1 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #b3 ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,comentarios ,reales1 ,lib4 iv1 cap4 xxi4 ,an early writer tells us that the great temple of ,cuzco1 which was afterwards chosen for the ,cathedral1 was originally that of ,illa ,ticci ,viracocha4 ,it contained only one altar1 and upon it a marble statue of the god4 ,this is described as being1 both as to the hair1 complexion1 features1 raiment and sandals1 just as painters represent the ,apostle1 ,saint ,bartholomew4#a ,footnote #a3 ,relacion anonima1 p4 #adh4 ,misled by the statements of the historian ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 some later writers1 among whom ,i may note the eminent ,german traveler ,von ,tschudi1 have supposed that ,viracocha belonged to the historical deities of ,peru1 and that his worship was of comparatively recent origin4#a ,la ,vega1 who could not understand the name of the divinity1 and1 moreover1 either knew little about the ancient religion1 or else concealed his knowledge 7as is shown by his reiterated statement that human sacrifices were unknown71 pretended that ,viracocha first came to be honored through a dream of the ,inca who assumed his name4 ,but the narrative of the occurrence that he himself gives shows that even at that time the myth was well known and of great antiquity4#b ,footnote #a3 ,la principal de estas ,deidades historicas era ,viracocha4 99 99 99 ,dos siglos contaba el culto de ,viracocha la llegada de los ,espaoles4 ,j4 ,diego de ,tschudi1 ,antiguedades ,peruanas1 pp4 #aei1 #afj 7,vienna1 #ahea74 ,footnote #b3 ,compare the account in ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,comentarios ,reales1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 iv2 ,lib4 iv1 cap4 xxi1 xxiii1 with that in ,acosta1 ,historia ,natural y ,moral de las ,indias1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 xxi4 ,the statements which he makes on the authority of ,father ,blas ,valera1 that the ,inca ,tupac ,yupanqui sought to purify the religion of his day by leading it toward the contemplation of an incorporeal ,god1#c is probably1 in the main1 correct4 ,it is supported by a similar account given by ,acosta1 of the famous ,huayna ,capac4 ,indeed1 they read so much alike that they are probably repetitions of teachings familiar to the nobles and higher priests4 ,both ,incas maintained that the ,sun could not be the chief god1 because he ran daily his accustomed course1 like a slave1 or an animal that is led4 ,he must therefore be the subject of a mightier power than himself4 ,footnote #c3 ,comentarios ,reales1 ,pt4 i1 ,lib4 viii1 cap4 viii4 ,we may reasonably suppose that these expressions are proof of a growing sense of the attributes of divinity4 ,they are indications of the evolution of religious thought1 and go to show that the monotheistic ideas which ,i have pointed out in the titles and names of the highest ,god1 were clearly recognized and publicly announced4 ,viracocha was also worshiped under the title ,con-ticci-,viracocha4 ,various explanations of the name ,con have been offered4 ,it is not positively certain that it belongs to the ,qquichua tongue4 ,a myth preserved by ,gomara treats ,con as a distinct deity4 ,he is said to have come from the north1 to have been without bones1 muscles or members1 to have the power of running with infinite swiftness1 and to have leveled mountains1 filled up valleys1 and deprived the coast plains of rain4 ,at the same time he is called a son of the ,sun and the ,moon1 and it was owing to his good will and creative power that men and women were formed1 and maize and fruits given them upon which to subsist4 ,another more powerful god1 however1 by name ,pachacamac1 also a son of the ,sun and ,moon1 and hence brother to ,con1 rose up against him and drove him from the land4 ,the men and women whom ,con had formed were changed by ,pachacamac into brutes1 and others created who were the ancestors of the present race4 ,these he supplied with what was necessary for their support1 and taught them the arts of war and peace4 ,for these reasons they venerated him as a god1 and constructed for his worship a sumptuous temple1 a league and a half from the present city of ,lima4#a ,footnote #a3 ,francisco ,lopez de ,gomara1 ,historia de las ,indias1 p4 #bcc 7,ed4 ,paris1 #aheb74 ,this myth of the conflict of the two brothers is too similar to others ,i have quoted for its significance to be mistaken4 ,unfortunately it has been handed down in so fragmentary a condition that it does not seem possible to assign it its proper relations to the cycle of ,viracocha legends4 ,as ,i have hinted1 we are not sure of the meaning of the name ,con1 nor whether it is of ,qquichua origin4 ,if it is1 as is indeed likely1 then we may suppose that it is a transcription of the word ccun1 which in ,qquichua is the third person singular1 present indicative1 of ccuni1 ,i give4 ,he ,gives2 the ,giver1 would seem an appropriate name for the first creator of things4 ,but the myth itself1 and the description of the deity1 incorporeal and swift1 bringer at one time of the fertilizing rains1 at another of the drought1 seems to point unmistakably to a god of the winds4 ,linguistic analogy bears this out1 for the name given to a whirlwind or violent wind storm was ,conchuy1 with an additional word to signify whether it was one of rain or merely a dust storm4#a ,for this reason ,i think ,m4 ,wiener's attempt to make of ,con 7or ,qquonn1 as he prefers to spell it7 merely a deity of the rains1 is too narrow4#b ,footnote #a3 ,a whirlwind with rain was paria conchuy 7paria1 rain71 one with clouds of dust1 allpa conchuy 7allpa1 earth1 dust72 ,holguin1 ,vocabulario ,qquichua1 s4v4 ,antay conchuy4 ,footnote #b3 ,le ,perou et ,bolivie1 p4 #fid4 7,paris1 #ahhj47 ,the legend would seem to indicate that he was supposed to have been defeated and quite driven away4 ,but the study of the monuments indicates that this was not the case4 ,one of the most remarkable antiquities in ,peru is at a place called ,concacha1 three leagues south of ,abancay1 on the road from ,cuzco to ,lima4 ,m4 ,leonce ,angrand has observed that this was evidently one of the great religious centres of the primitive peoples of ,peru4 ,here is found an enormous block of granite1 very curiously carved to facilitate the dispersion of a liquid poured on its summit into varied streams and to quaint receptacles4 ,whether the liquid was the blood of victims1 the intoxicating beverage of the country1 or pure water1 all of which have been suggested1 we do not positively know1 but ,i am inclined to believe1 with ,m4 ,wiener1 that it was the last mentioned1 and that it was as the beneficent deity of the rains that ,con was worshiped at this sacred spot4 ,its name con cacha1 the ,messenger of ,con1 points to this4#a ,footnote #a3 ,these remains are carefully described by ,charles ,wiener1 ,perou et ,bolivie1 p4 #bhb1 seq2 from the notes of ,m4 ,angrand1 by ,desjardins1 ,le ,perou avant la ,conqute ,espagnole1 p4 #acb2 and in a superficial manner by ,squier1 ,peru1 p4 #eee4 ,the words ,pacha camac mean animating or giving life to the world4 ,it is said by ,father ,acosta to have been one of the names of ,viracocha1#a and in a sacred song preserved by ,garcilasso de la ,vega he is appealed to by this title4#b ,the identity of these two divinities seems1 therefore1 sufficiently established4 ,footnote #a3 ,historia ,natural y ,moral de las ,indias1 ,lib4 v1 cap4 iii4 ,footnote #b3 ,comentarios ,reales1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 xxviii4 ,the worship of ,pachacamac is asserted by competent antiquarian students to have been more extended in ancient ,peru than the older historians supposed4 ,this is indicated by the many remains of temples which local tradition attribute to his worship1 and by the customs of the natives4#a ,for instance1 at the birth of a child it was formally offered to him and his protection solicited4 ,on reaching some arduous height the toiling ,indian would address a few words of thanks to ,pachacamac2 and the piles of stones1 which were the simple signs of their gratitude1 are still visible in all parts of the country4 ,footnote #a3 ,von ,tschudi1 who in one part of his work maintains that sun-worship was the prevalent religion of ,peru1 modifies the assertion considerably in the following passage3 ,el culto de ,pachacamac se hallaba mucho mas extendido de lo que suponen los historiadores2 y se puede sin error aventurar la opinion de que era la ,deidad popular y acatada por las masas peruanas2 mientras que la religion del ,sol era la de la corte1 culto que1 por mas adoptado que fuese entre los ,indios1 nunca lleg desarraigar la fe y la devocion al ,numen primitivo4 ,en effecto1 en todas las relaciones de la vida de los ,indios1 resalta la profunda veneracion que tributavan ,pachacamac4 ,antiguedades ,peruanas1 p4 #adi4 ,inasmuch as elsewhere this author takes pains to show that the ,incas discarded the worship of the ,sun1 and instituted in place of it that of ,viracocha1 the above would seem to diminish the sphere of ,sun-worship very much4 ,this variation of the story of ,viracocha aids to an understanding of his mythical purport4 ,the oft-recurring epithet ,contice ,viracocha shows a close relationship between his character and that of the divinity ,con1 in fact1 an identity which deserves close attention4 ,it is explained1 ,i believe1 by the supposition that ,viracocha was the ,lord of the ,wind as well as of the ,light4 ,like all the other light gods1 and deities of the cardinal points1 he was at the same time the wind from them4 ,what has been saved from the ancient mythology is enough to show this1 but not enough to allow us to reconcile the seeming contradictions which it suggests4 ,moreover1 it must be ever remembered that all religions repose on contradictions1 contradictions of fact1 of logic1 and of statement1 so that we must not seek to force any one of them into consistent unity of form1 even with itself4 ,i have yet to add another point of similarity between the myth of ,viracocha and those of ,quetzalcoatl1 ,itzamna and the others1 which ,i have already narrated4 ,as in ,mexico1 ,yucatan and elsewhere1 so in the realms of the ,incas1 the ,spaniards found themselves not unexpected guests4 ,here1 too1 texts of ancient prophecies were called to mind1 words of warning from solemn and antique songs1 foretelling that other ,viracochas1 men of fair complexion and flowing beards1 would some day come from the ,sun1 the father of existent nature1 and subject the empire to their rule4 ,when the great ,inca1 ,huayna ,capac1 was on his death-bed1 he recalled these prophecies1 and impressed them upon the mind of his successor1 so that when ,de ,soto1 the lieutenant of ,pizarro1 had his first interview with the envoy of ,atahuallpa1 the latter humbly addressed him as ,viracocha1 the great ,god1 son of the ,sun1 and told him that it was ,huayna ,capac's last command to pay homage to the white men when they should arrive4#a ,footnote #a3 ,garcilasso de ,la ,vega1 ,comentarios ,reales1 ,lib4 ix1 caps4 xiv1 xv2 ,cieza de ,leon1 ,relacion1 ,,ms4 in ,prescott1 ,conquest of ,peru1 ,vol4 i1 p4 #cbi4 ,the latter is the second part of ,cieza de ,leon4 ,we need no longer entertain about such statements that suspicion or incredulity which so many historians have thought it necessary to indulge in4 ,they are too generally paralleled in other ,american hero-myths to leave the slightest doubt as to their reality1 or as to their significance4 ,they are again the expression of the expected return of the ,light-,god1 after his departure and disappearance in the western horizon4 ,modifications of what was originally a statement of a simple occurrence of daily routine1 they became transmitted in the limbeck of mythology to the story of the beneficent god of the past1 and the promise of golden days when again he should return to the people whom erstwhile he ruled and taught4 ,the ,qquichuas expected the return of ,viracocha1 not merely as an earthly ruler to govern their nation1 but as a god who1 by his divine power1 would call the dead to life4 ,precisely as in ancient ,egypt the literal belief in the resurrection of the body led to the custom of preserving the corpses with the most sedulous care1 so in ,peru the cadaver was mummied and deposited in the most secret and inaccessible spots1 so that it should remain undisturbed to the great day of resurrection4 ,and when was that to be8 ,we are not left in doubt on this point4 ,it was to be when ,viracocha should return to earth in his bodily form4 ,then he would restore the dead to life1 and they should enjoy the good things of a land far more glorious than this work-a-day world of ours4#a ,footnote #a3 ,dijeron quellos oyeron decir a sus padres y pasados que un ,viracocha habia de revolver la tierra1 y habia de resucitar esos muertos1 y que estos habian de bibir en esta tierra44 ,information de las ,idolatras de los ,incas ,indios1 in the ,coll4 de ,docs4 ineditos del ,archivo de ,indias1 vol4 xxi1 p4 #aeb4 ,as at the first meeting between the races the name of the hero-god was applied to the conquering strangers1 so to this day the custom has continued4 ,a recent traveler tells us1 ,among ,los ,indios del ,campo1 or ,indians of the fields1 the llama herdsmen of the punas1 and the fishermen of the lakes1 the common salutation to strangers of a fair skin and blue eyes is ',tai-tai ,viracocha4'#a ,even if this is used now1 as ,m4 ,wiener seems to think1#b merely as a servile flattery1 there is no doubt but that at the beginning it was applied because the white strangers were identified with the white and bearded hero and his followers of their culture myth1 whose return had been foretold by their priests4 ,footnote #a3 ,e4,g4 ,squier1 ,travels in ,peru1 p4 #dad4 ,footnote #b3 ,c4 ,wiener1 ,perou et ,bolivie1 p4 #gag4 ,are we obliged to explain these similarities to the ,mexican tradition by supposing some ancient intercourse between these peoples1 the arrival1 for instance1 and settlement on the highlands around ,lake ,titicaca1 of some ,toltec colony1 as has been maintained by such able writers on ,peruvian antiquities as ,leonce ,angrand and ,j4,j4 von ,tschudi8#a ,i think not4 ,the great events of nature1 day and night1 storm and sunshine1 are everywhere the same1 and the impressions they produced on the minds of this race were the same1 whether the scene was in the forests of the north temperate zone1 amid the palms of the tropics1 or on the lofty and barren plateaux of the ,andes4 ,these impressions found utterance in similar myths1 and were represented in art under similar forms4 ,it is1 therefore1 to the oneness of cause and of racial psychology1 not to ancient migrations1 that we must look to explain the identities of myth and representation that we find between such widely sundered nations4 ,footnote #a3 ,l4 ,angrand1 ,lettre sur les ,antiquits de ,tiaguanaco et l',origine prsumable de la plus ancienne civilisation du ,haut-,perou4 ,extrait du #bd;eme vol4 de la ,revue ,generale d',architecture1 #ahff4 ,von ,tschudi1 ,das ,ollantadrama1 p4 #agg-i4 ,the latter says3 ,der von dem ,plateau von ,anahuac ausgewanderte ,stamm verpflanzte seine ,gesittung und die ,hauptzge seiner ,religion durch das westliche ,sdamerica1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,extension ,,and ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,typical ,,hero-,,myth4 ,,the ,,typical ,,myth ,,found ,,in ,,many ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,continent--,,difficulties ,,in ,,tracing ,,it--,,religious ,,evolution ,,in ,,america ,,similar ,,to ,,that ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,world--,,failure ,,of ,,christianity ,,in ,,the ,,red ,,race4 ,,the ,,culture ,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,tarascos ,,of ,,mechoacan--,,that ,,of ,,the ,,riches ,,of ,,guatemala--,,the ,,votan ,,myth ,,of ,,the ,,tzendals ,,of ,,chiapas--,a ,,fragment ,,of ,a ,,mixe ,,myth--,,the ,,hero-,,god ,,of ,,the ,,muyscas ,,of ,,new ,,granada--,,of ,,the ,,tupi-,,guaranay ,,stem ,,of ,,paraguay ,,and ,,brazil--,,myths ,,of ,,the ,d,n ,,of ,,british ,,america4 ,,sun ,,worship ,,in ,,america--,,germs ,,of ,,progress ,,in ,,american ,,religions--,,relation ,,of ,,religion ,,and ,,morality--,,the ,,light-,,god ,a ,,moral ,,and ,,beneficent ,,creation--,,his ,,worship ,,was ,,elevating--,,moral ,,condition ,,of ,,native ,,societies ,,before ,,the ,,conquest--,,progress ,,in ,,the ,,definition ,,of ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,god ,,in ,,peru1 ,,mexico1 ,,and ,,yucatan--,,erroneous ,,statements ,,about ,,the ,,morals ,,of ,,the ,,natives--,,evolution ,,of ,,their ,,ethical ,,principles4 ,in the foregoing chapters ,i have passed in review the hero-myths of five nations widely asunder in location1 in culture and in language4 ,i have shown the strange similarity in their accounts of their mysterious early benefactor and teacher1 and their still more strange1 because true1 presentiments of the arrival of pale-faced conquerors from the ,east4 ,i have selected these nations because their myths have been most fully recorded1 not that they alone possessed this striking legend4 ,it is1 ,i repeat1 the fundamental myth in the religious lore of ,american nations4 ,not1 indeed1 that it can be discovered in all tribes1 especially in the amplitude of incident which it possesses among some4 ,but there are comparatively few of the native mythologies that do not betray some of its elements1 some fragments of it1 and1 often enough to justify us in the supposition that had we the complete body of their sacred stories1 we should find this one in quite as defined a form as ,i have given it4 ,the student of ,american mythology1 unfortunately1 labors under peculiar disadvantages4 ,when he seeks for his material1 he finds an extraordinary dearth of it4 ,the missionaries usually refused to preserve the native myths1 because they believed them harmful1 or at least foolish2 while men of science1 who have had such opportunities1 rejected all those that seemed the least like a ,biblical story1 as they suspected them to be modern and valueless compositions1 and thus lost the very life of the genuine ancient faiths4 ,a further disadvantage is the slight attention which has been paid to the aboriginal ,american tongues1 and the sad deficiency of material for their study4 ,it is now recognized on all hands that the key of a mythology is to be found in the language of its believers4 ,as a ,german writer remarks1 the formation of the language and the evolution of the myth go hand in hand4#a ,we must know the language of a tribe1 at least we must understand the grammatical construction and have facilities to trace out the meaning and derivation of names1 before we can obtain any accurate notion of the foundation in nature of its religious beliefs4 ,no convenient generality will help us4 ,footnote #a3 ,in der ,sprache herrscht immer und erneut sich stets die sinnliche ,anschauung1 die vor ,jahrtausenden mit dem glubigen ,sinn vermhlt die ,mythologien schuf1 und gerade durch sie wird es am klarsten1 wie ,sprachenschpfung und mythologische ,entwicklung1 der ,ausdruck des ,denkens und ,glaubens1 einst ,hand in ,hand gegangen4 ,dr4 ,f4,l4,w4 ,schwartz1 ,der ,ursprung der ,mythologie dargelegt an ,griechischer und ,deutscher ,sage1 p4 #bc 7,berlin1 #ahfj74 ,i make these remarks as a sort of apology for the shortcomings of the present study1 and especially for the imperfections of the fragments ,i have still to present4 ,they are1 however1 sufficiently defined to make it certain that they belonged to cycles of myths closely akin to those already given4 ,they will serve to support my thesis that the seemingly confused and puerile fables of the native ,americans are fully as worthy the attention of the student of human nature as the more poetic narratives of the ,veda or the ,edda4 ,the red man felt out after ,god with like childish gropings as his white brother in ,central ,asia4 ,when his course was interrupted1 he was pursuing the same path toward the discovery of truth4 ,in the words of a thoughtful writer3 ,in a world wholly separated from that which it is customary to call the ,old ,world1 the religious evolution of man took place precisely in the same manner as in those surroundings which produced the civilization of western ,europe4#a ,footnote #a3 ,girard de ,rialle1 ,la ,mythologie ,compare1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #cfc 7,paris1 #ahgh74 ,but this religious development of the red man was violently broken by the forcible imposition of a creed which he could not understand1 and which was not suited to his wants1 and by the heavy yoke of a priesthood totally out of sympathy with his line of progress4 ,what has been the result8 ,has ,christianity1 asks the writer ,i have just quoted1 exerted a progressive action on these peoples8 ,has it brought them forward1 has it aided their natural evolution8 ,we are obliged to answer1 ,no4#a ,this sad reply is repeated by careful observers who have studied dispassionately the natives in their homes4#b ,the only difference in the results of the two great divisions of the ,christian world seems to be that on ,catholic missions has followed the debasement1 on ,protestant missions the destruction of the race4 ,footnote #a3 ,girard de ,rialle1 ibid1 p4 #hfb4 ,footnote #b3 ,those who would convince themselves of this may read the work of ,don ,francisco ,pimentel1 ,memoria sobre las ,causas que han originado la ,situation ,actual de la ,raza ,indigena de ,mexico 7,mexico1 #ahfd71 and that of the ,licentiate ,apolinar ,garcia y ,garcia1 ,historia de la ,guerra de ,castas de ,yucatan1 ,prologo 7,mrida1 #ahfe74 ,that the ,indians of the ,united ,states have directly and positively degenerated in moral sense as a race1 since the introduction of ,christianity1 was also very decidedly the opinion of the late ,prof4 ,theodor ,waitz1 a most competent ethnologist4 ,see ,die ,indianer ,nordamerica's4 ,eine ,studie1 von ,theodor ,waitz1 p4 #ci1 etc4 7,leipzig1 #ahfe74 ,this opinion was also that of the visiting committee of the ,society of ,friends who reported on the ,indian ,tribes in #ahdb2 see the ,report of a ,visit to ,some of the ,tribes of ,indians ,west of the ,mississippi ,river1 by ,john ,d4 ,lang and ,samuel ,taylor1 ,jr4 7,new ,york1 #ahdc74 ,the language of this ,report is calm1 but positive as to the increased moral degradation of the tribes1 as the1 direct result of contact with the whites4 ,it may be objected to this that it was not ,christianity1 but its accompaniments1 the greedy horde of adventurers1 the profligate traders1 the selfish priests1 and the unscrupulous officials1 that wrought the degradation of the native race4 ,be it so4 ,then ,i merely modify my assertion1 by saying that ,christianity has shown itself incapable of controlling its inevitable adjuncts1 and that it would have been better1 morally and socially1 for the ,american race never to have known ,christianity at all1 than to have received it on the only terms on which it has been possible to offer it4 ,with the more earnestness1 therefore1 in view of this acknowledged failure of ,christian effort1 do ,i turn to the native beliefs1 and desire to vindicate for them a dignified position among the faiths which have helped to raise man above the level of the brute1 and inspired him with hope and ambition for betterment4 ,for this purpose ,i shall offer some additional evidence of the extension of the myth ,i have set forth1 and then proceed to discuss its influence on the minds of its believers4 ,the ,tarascos were an interesting nation who lived in the province of ,michoacan1 due west of the valley of ,mexico4 ,they were a polished race1 speaking a sonorous1 vocalic language1 so bold in war that their boast was that they had never been defeated1 and yet their religious rites were almost bloodless1 and their preference was for peace4 ,the hardy ,aztecs had been driven back at every attempt they made to conquer ,michoacan1 but its ruler submitted himself without a murmur to ,cortes1 recognizing in him an opponent of the common enemy1 and a warrior of more than human powers4 ,among these ,tarascos we find the same legend of a hero-god who brought them out of barbarism1 gave them laws1 arranged their calendar1 which1 in principles1 was the same as that of the ,aztecs and ,mayas1 and decided on the form of their government4 ,his name was ,surites or ,curicaberis1 words which1 from my limited resources in that tongue1 ,i am not able to analyze4 ,he dwelt in the town ,cromuscuaro1 which name means the ,watch-tower or ,look-out1 and the hour in which he gave his instructions was always at sunrise1 just as the orb of light appeared on the eastern horizon4 ,one of the feasts which he appointed to be celebrated in his honor was called ,zitacuarencuaro1 which melodious word is said by the ,spanish missionaries to mean the resurrection from death4 ,when to this it is added that he distinctly predicted that a white race of men should arrive in the country1 and that he himself should return1#a his identity with the light-gods of similar ,american myths is too manifest to require argument4 ,footnote #a3 ,p4 ,francisco ,xavier ,alegre1 ,historia de la ,compaia de ,jesus en la ,nueva ,espaa1 ,tomo i1 pp4 #ia1 #ib 7,mexico1 #ahda74 ,the authorities whom ,alegre quotes are ,p4,p4 ,alonso de la ,rea1 ,cronica de ,mechoacan 7,mexico1 #afdh71 and ,d4 ,basalenque1 ,cronica de ,san ,augustin de ,mechoacan 7,mexico1 #afgc74 ,i regret that ,i have been unable to find either of these books in any library in the ,united ,states4 ,it is a great pity that the student of ,american history is so often limited in his investigations in this country1 by the lack of material4 ,it is sad to think that such an opulent and intelligent land does not possess a single complete library of its own history4 ,the king of the ,tarascos was considered merely the vicegerent of the absent hero-god1 and ready to lay down the sceptre when ,curicaberis should return to earth4 ,we do not know whether the myth of the ,four ,brothers prevailed among the ,tarascos2 but there is hardly a nation on the continent among whom the number ,four was more distinctly sacred4 ,the kingdom was divided into four parts 7as also among the ,itzas1 ,qquichuas and numerous other tribes71 the four rulers of which constituted1 with the king1 the sacred council of five1 in imitation1 ,i can hardly doubt1 of the hero-god1 and the four deities of the winds4 ,the goddess of water and the rains1 the female counterpart of ,curicaberis1 was the goddess ,cueravaperi4 ,she is named1 says the authority ,i quote1 in all their fables and speeches4 ,they say that she is the mother of all the gods of the earth1 and that it is she who bestows the harvests and the germination of seeds4 ,with her ever went four attendant goddesses1 the personifications of the rains from the four cardinal points4 ,at the sacred dances1 which were also dramatizations of her supposed action1 these attendants were represented by four priests clad respectively in white1 yellow1 red and black1 to represent the four colors of the clouds4#a ,in other words1 she doubtless bore the same relation to ,curicaberis that ,ixchel did to ,itzamna in the mythology of the ,mayas1 or the rainbow goddess to ,arama in the religious legends of the ,moxos4#b ,she was the divinity that presided over the rains1 and hence over fertility and the harvests1 standing in intimate relation to the god of the sun's rays and the four winds4 ,footnote #a3 ,relacion de las ,ceremonias y ,ritos1 etc41 de ,mechoacan1 in the ,coleccion de ,documentos para la ,historia de ,espaa1 vol4 liii1 pp4 #ac1 #ai1 #bj4 ,this account is anonymous1 but was written in the sixteenth century1 by some one familiar with the subject4 ,a handsome ,,ms4 of it1 with colored illustrations 7these of no great value1 however71 is in the ,library of ,congress1 obtained from the collection of the late ,col4 ,peter ,force4 ,footnote #b3 ,see above1 chapter iv1 #a ,the ,kiches of ,guatemala were not distant relatives of the ,mayas of ,yucatan1 and their mythology has been preserved to us in a rescript of their national book1 the ,popol ,vuh4 ,evidently they had borrowed something from ,aztec sources1 and a flavor of ,christian teaching is occasionally noticeable in this record2 but for all that it is one of the most valuable we possess on the subject4 ,it begins by connecting the creation of men and things with the appearance of light4 ,in other words1 as in so many mythologies1 the history of the world is that of the day2 each begins with a dawn4 ,thus the ,popol ,vuh reads3-- ,this is how the heaven exists1 how the ,heart of ,heaven exists1 he1 the god1 whose name is ,qabauil4 ,his word came in the darkness to the ,lord1 to ,gucumatz1 and it spoke with the ,lord1 with ,gucumatz4 ,they spoke together2 they consulted and planned2 they understood2 they united in words and plans4 ,as they consulted1 the day appeared1 the white light came forth1 mankind was produced1 while thus they held counsel about the growth of trees and vines1 about life and mankind1 in the darkness1 in the night 7the creation was brought about71 by the ,heart of ,heaven1 whose name is ,hurakan4#a ,footnote #a3 ,popol ,vuh1 le ,livre ,sacr des ,quichs1 p4 #i 7,paris1 #ahfa74 ,but the national culture-hero of the ,kiches seems to have been ,xbalanque1 a name which has the literal meaning1 ,little ,tiger ,deer1 and is a symbolical appellation referring to days in their calendar4 ,although many of his deeds are recounted in the ,popol ,vuh1 that work does not furnish us his complete mythical history4 ,from it and other sources we learn that he was one of the twins supposed to have been born of a virgin mother in ,utatlan1 the central province of the ,kiches1 to have been the guide and protector of their nation1 and in its interest to have made a journey to the ,underworld1 in order to revenge himself on his powerful enemies1 its rulers4 ,he was successful1 and having overcome them1 he set free the ,sun1 which they had seized1 and restored to life four hundred youths whom they had slain1 and who1 in fact1 were the stars of heaven4 ,on his return1 he emerged from the bowels of the earth and the place of darkness1 at a point far to the east of ,utatlan1 at some place located by the ,kiches near ,coban1 in ,vera ,paz1 and came again to his people1 looking to be received with fitting honors4 ,but like ,viracocha1 ,quetzalcoatl1 and others of these worthies1 the story goes that they treated him with scant courtesy1 and in anger at their ingratitude1 he left them forever1 in order to seek a nobler people4 ,i need not enter into a detailed discussion of this myth1 many points in which are obscure1 the less so as ,i have treated them at length in a monograph readily accessible to the reader who would push his inquiries further4 ,enough if ,i quote the conclusion to which ,i there arrive4 ,it is as follows3-- ,suffice it to say that the hero-god1 whose name is thus compounded of two signs in the calendar1 who is one of twins born of a virgin1 who performs many surprising feats of prowess on the earth1 who descends into the world of darkness and sets free the sun1 moon and stars to perform their daily and nightly journeys through the heavens1 presents in these and other traits such numerous resemblances to the ,divinity of ,light1 the ,day-maker of the northern hunting tribes1 reappearing in so many ,american legends1 that ,i do not hesitate to identify the narrative of ,xbalanque and his deeds as but another version of this wide-spread1 this well-nigh universal myth4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the ,names of the ,gods in the ,kiche ,myths1 ,central ,america1 by ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton1 ,m4,d41 in the ,proceedings of the ,american ,philosophical ,society for #ahha4 ,few of our hero-myths have given occasion for wilder speculation than that of ,votan4 ,he was the culture hero of the ,tzendals1 a branch of the ,maya race1 whose home was in ,chiapas and ,tabasco4 ,even the usually cautious ,humboldt suggested that his name might be a form of ,odin or ,buddha6 ,as for more imaginative writers1 they have made not the least difficulty in discovering that it is identical with the ,odon of the ,tarascos1 the ,oton of the ,othomis1 the ,poudan of the ,east ,indian ,tamuls1 the ,vaudoux of the ,louisiana negroes1 etc4 ,all this has been done without any attempt having been made to ascertain the precise meaning and derivation of the name ,votan4 ,superficial phonetic similarities have been the only guide4 ,we are not well acquainted with the ,votan myth4 ,it appears to have been written down some time in the seventeenth century1 by a ,christianized native4 ,his manuscript of five or six folios1 in the ,tzendal tongue1 came into the possession of ,nuez de la ,vega1 ,bishop of ,chiapas1 about #afij1 and later into the hands of ,don ,ramon ,ondonez y ,aguiar1 where it was seen by ,dr4 ,paul ,felix ,cabrera1 about #agij4 ,what has become of it is not known4 ,no complete translation of it was made2 and the extracts or abstracts given by the authors just named are most unsatisfactory1 and disfigured by ignorance and prejudice4 ,none of them1 probably1 was familiar with the ,tzendal tongue1 especially in its ancient form4 ,what they tell us runs as follows3-- ,at some indefinitely remote epoch1 ,votan came from the far ,east4 ,he was sent by ,god to divide out and assign to the different races of men the earth on which they dwell1 and to give to each its own language4 ,the land whence he came was vaguely called ualum uotan1 the land of ,votan4 ,his message was especially to the ,tzendals4 ,previous to his arrival they were ignorant1 barbarous1 and without fixed habitations4 ,he collected them into villages1 taught them how to cultivate the maize and cotton1 and invented the hieroglyphic signs1 which they learned to carve on the walls of their temples4 ,it is even said that he wrote his own history in them4 ,he instituted civil laws for their government1 and imparted to them the proper ceremonials of religious worship4 ,for this reason he was also called ,master of the ,sacred ,drum1 the instrument with which they summoned the votaries to the ritual dances4 ,they especially remembered him as the inventor of their calendar4 ,his name stood third in the week of twenty days1 and was the first ,dominical sign1 according to which they counted their year1 corresponding to the ,kan of the ,mayas4 ,as a city-builder1 he was spoken of as the founder of ,palenque1 ,nachan1 ,huehuetlan--in fact1 of any ancient place the origin of which had been forgotten4 ,near the last mentioned locality1 ,huehuetlan in ,soconusco1 he was reported to have constructed an underground temple by merely blowing with his breath4 ,in this gloomy mansion he deposited his treasures1 and appointed a priestess to guard it1 for whose assistance he created the tapirs4 ,votan brought with him1 according to one statement1 or1 according to another1 was followed from his native land by1 certain attendants or subordinates1 called in the myth tzequil1 petticoated1 from the long and flowing robes they wore4 ,these aided him in the work of civilization4 ,on four occasions he returned to his former home1 dividing the country1 when he was about to leave1 into four districts1 over which he placed these attendants4 ,when at last the time came for his final departure1 he did not pass through the valley of death1 as must all mortals1 but he penetrated through a cave into the under-earth1 and found his way to the root of heaven4 ,with this mysterious expression1 the native myth closes its account of him4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the references to the ,votan myth are ,nuez de la ,vega1 ,constituciones ,diocesanas1 ,prologo 7,romae1 #agjb72 ,boturini1 ,idea de una ,nueva ,historia de la ,america septentrional1 pp4 #aad1 et seq41 who discusses the former2 ,dr4 ,paul ,felix ,cabrera1 ,teatro ,critico ,americano1 translated1 ,london1 #ahbb2 ,brasseur de ,bourbourg1 ,hist4 des ,nations ,civilises de ,mexique1 vol4 i1 chap1 ii1 who gives some additional points from ,ordoez2 and ,h4 de ,charencey1 ,le ,mythe de ,votan2 ,etude sur les ,origines ,asiatiques de la ,civilization ,amricaine4 7,alencon1 #ahga74 ,he was worshiped by the ,tzendals as their principal deity and their beneficent patron4 ,but he had a rival in their religious observances1 the feared ,yalahau ,lord of ,blackness1 or ,lord of the ,waters4 ,he was represented as a terrible warrior1 cruel to the people1 and one of the first of men4#a ,footnote #a3 ,yalahau is referred to by ,bishop ,nuez de la ,vega as venerated in ,occhuc and other ,tzendal towns of ,chiapas4 ,he translates it ,seor de los ,negros4 ,the terminal ahau is pure ,maya1 meaning king1 ruler1 lord2 ,yal is also ,maya1 and means water4 ,the god of the waters1 of darkness1 night and blackness1 is often one and the same in mythology1 and probably had we the myth complete1 he would prove to be ,votan's brother and antagonist4 ,according to an unpublished work by ,fuentes1 ,votan was one of four brothers1 the common ancestors of the southwestern branches of the ,maya family4#a ,footnote #a3 ,quoted in ,emeterio ,pineda1 ,descripcion ,geografica de ,chiapas y ,soconusco1 p4 #i 7,mexico1 #ahde74 ,all these traits of this popular hero are too exactly similar to those of the other representatives of this myth1 for them to leave any doubt as to what we are to make of ,votan4 ,like the rest of them1 he and his long-robed attendants are personifications of the eastern light and its rays4 ,though but uncritical epitomes of a fragmentary myth about him remain1 they are enough to stamp it as that which meets us so constantly1 no matter where we turn in the ,new ,world4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the title of the ,tzendal ,,mss41 is said by ,cabrera to be ,proof that ,i am a ,chan4 ,the author writes in the person of ,votan himself1 and proves his claim that he is a ,chan1 because he is a ,chivim4 ,chan has been translated serpent2 on chivim the commentators have almost given up4 ,supposing that the serpent was a totem of one of the ,tzendal clans1 then the effort would be to show that their hero-god was of that totem2 but how this is shown by his being proved a chivim is not obvious4 ,the term ualum chivim1 the land of the chivim4 appears to be that applied1 in the ,,ms41 to the country of the ,tzendals1 or a part of it4 ,the words chi uinic would mean1 men of the shore1 and might be a local name applied to a clan on the coast4 ,but in default of the original text we can but surmise as to the precise meaning of the writer4 ,it scarcely seems necessary for me to point out that his name ,votan is in no way akin to ,othomi or ,tarasco roots1 still less to the ,norse ,wodan or the ,indian ,buddha1 but is derived from a radical in pure ,maya4 ,yet ,i will do so1 in order1 if possible1 to put a stop to such visionary etymologies4 ,as we are informed by ,bishop ,nuez de la ,vega1 uotan in ,tzendal means heart4 ,votan was spoken of as the heart or soul of his people4 ,this derivation has been questioned1 because the word for the heart in the other ,maya dialects is different1 and it has been suggested that this was but an example of otosis1 where a foreign proper name was turned into a familiar common noun4 ,but these objections do not hold good4 ,in regard to derivation1 uotan is from the pure ,maya root-word tan1 which means primarily the breast1 or that which is in front or in the middle of the body2 with the possessive prefix it becomes utan4 ,in ,tzendal this word means both breast and heart4 ,this is well illustrated by an ancient manuscript1 dating from #agjg1 in my possession4 ,it is a guide to priests for administering the sacraments in ,spanish and ,tzendal4 ,i quote the passage in point#a3-- ,footnote #a3 ,modo de ,administrar los ,sacramentos en ,castellano y ,tzendal1 #agjg4 #dto ,,ms41 p4 #ac4 ,con todo tu corazn1 hiriendote en los pechos1 di1 conmigo4 ,ta zpizil auotan1 xatigh zny auotan1 zghoyoc1 alagh ghoyoc4-- ,here1 a is the possessive of the second person1 and uotan is used both for heart and breast4 ,thus the derivation of the word from the ,maya radical is clear4 ,the figure of speech by which the chief divinity is called the heart of the earth1 the heart of the sky1 is common in these dialects1 and occurs repeatedly in the ,popol ,vuh1 the sacred legend of the ,kiches of ,guatemala4#b ,footnote #b3 ,thus we have 7,popol ,vuh1 ,part i1 p4 #b7 u qux cho1 ,heart of the ,lakes1 and u qux palo1 ,heart of the ,ocean1 as names of the highest divinity2 later1 we find u qux cah1 ,heart of the ,sky 7p4 #h71 u qux uleu1 ,heart of the ,earth1 p4 #ab1 #ad1 etc4 ,i may here repeat what ,i have elsewhere written on this figurative expression in the ,maya languages3 ,the literal or physical sense of the word heart is not that which is here intended4 ,in these dialects this word has a richer metaphorical meaning than in our tongue4 ,it stands for all the psychical powers1 the memory1 will and reasoning faculties1 the life1 the spirit1 the soul4 ,it would be more correct to render these names the ',spirit' or ',soul' of the lake1 etc41 than the ',heart4' ,they indicate a dimly understood sense of the unity of spirit or energy in all the various manifestations of organic and inorganic existence4 ,the ,names of the ,gods in the ,kiche ,myths1 ,central ,america1 by ,daniel ,g4 ,brinton1 in ,proceedings of the ,american ,philosophical ,society1 vol4 xix1 #ahha1 p4 #fbc4 ,the immediate neighbors of the ,tzendals were the ,mixes and ,zoques1 the former resident in the central mountains of the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec1 the latter rather in the lowlands and toward the eastern coast4 ,the ,mixes nowadays number but a few villages1 whose inhabitants are reported as drunken and worthless1 but the time was when they were a powerful and warlike nation4 ,they are in nowise akin to the ,maya stock1 although they are so classed in ,mr4 ,h4,h4 ,bancroft's excellent work4#a ,they have1 however1 a distinct relationship with the ,zoques1 about thirty per cent of the words in the two languages being similar4#b ,the ,zoques1 whose mythology we unfortunately know little or nothing about1 adjoined the ,tzendals1 and were in constant intercourse with them4 ,footnote #a3 ,mijes1 ,maya nation1 ,the ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states1 ,vol4 v1 p4 #gab4 ,footnote #b3 ,apuntes sobre la ,lengua ,mije1 por ,c4,h4 ,berendt1 ,m4,d41 ,,ms41 in my hands4 ,the comparison is made of #aeh words in the two languages1 of which #dd have marked affinity1 besides the numerals1 eight out of ten of which are the same4 ,many of the remaining words are related to the ,zapotec1 and there are very few and faint resemblances to ,maya dialects4 ,one of them may possibly be in this name1 ,votan 7uotan71 heart1 however4 ,in ,mixe the word for heart is hot4 ,i note this merely to complete my observations on the ,votan myth4 ,we have but faint traces of the early mythology of these tribes2 but they preserved some legends which show that they also partook of the belief1 so general among their neighbors1 of a beneficent culture-god4 ,this myth relates that their first father1 who was also their ,supreme ,god1 came forth from a cave in a lofty mountain in their country1 to govern and direct them4 ,he covered the soil with forests1 located the springs and streams1 peopled them with fish and the woods with game and birds1 and taught the tribe how to catch them4 ,they did not believe that he had died1 but that after a certain length of time1 he1 with his servants and captives1 all laden with bright gleaming gold1 retired into the cave and closed its mouth1 not to remain there1 but to reappear at some other part of the world and confer similar favors on other nations4 ,the name1 or one of the names1 of this benefactor was ,condoy1 the meaning of which my facilities do not enable me to ascertain4#a ,footnote #a3 ,juan ,b4 ,carriedo1 ,estudios ,historicos y ,estadisticos del ,estado ,libre de ,oaxaca1 p4 #c 7,oaxaca1 #ahdg74 ,there is scarcely enough of this to reveal the exact lineaments of their hero2 but if we may judge from these fragments as given by ,carriedo1 it appears to be of precisely the same class as the other hero-myths ,i have collected in this volume4 ,historians of authority assure us that the ,mixes1 ,zoques and ,zapotecs united in the expectation1 founded on their ancient myths and prophecies1 of the arrival1 some time1 of men from the ,east1 fair of hue and mighty in power1 masters of the lightning1 who would occupy the land4#a ,footnote #a3 ,ibid41 p4 #id1 note1 quoting from the works of ,las ,casas and ,francisco ,burgoa4 ,on the lofty plateau of the ,andes1 in ,new ,granada1 where1 though nearly under the equator1 the temperature is that of a perpetual spring1 was the fortunate home of the ,muyscas4 ,it is the true ,el ,dorado of ,america2 every mountain stream a ,pactolus1 and every hill a mine of gold4 ,the natives were peaceful in disposition1 skilled in smelting and beating the precious metal that was everywhere at hand1 lovers of agriculture1 and versed in the arts of spinning1 weaving and dying cotton4 ,their remaining sculptures prove them to have been of no mean ability in designing1 and it is asserted that they had a form of writing1 of which their signs for the numerals have alone been preserved4 ,the knowledge of these various arts they attributed to the instructions of a wise stranger who dwelt among them many cycles before the arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,he came from the ,east1 from the llanos of ,venezuela or beyond them1 and it was said that the path he made was broad and long1 a hundred leagues in length1 and led directly to the holy temple at his shrine at ,sogamoso4 ,in the province of ,ubaque his footprints on the solid rock were reverently pointed out long after the ,conquest4 ,his hair was abundant1 his beard fell to his waist1 and he dressed in long and flowing robes4 ,he went among the nations of the plateaux1 addressing each in its own dialect1 taught them to live in villages and to observe just laws4 ,near the village of ,coto was a high hill held in special veneration1 for from its prominent summit he was wont to address the people who gathered round its base4 ,therefore it was esteemed a sanctuary1 holy to the living and the dead4 ,princely families from a distance carried their dead there to be interred1 because this teacher had said that man does not perish when he dies1 but shall rise again4 ,it was held that this would be more certain to occur in the very spot where he announced this doctrine4 ,every sunset1 when he had finished his discourse1 he retired into a cave in the mountain1 not to reappear again until the next morning4 ,for many years1 some said for two thousand years1 did he rule the people with equity1 and then he departed1 going back to the ,east whence he came1 said some authorities1 but others averred that he rose up to heaven4 ,at any rate1 before he left1 he appointed a successor in the sovereignty1 and recommended him to pursue the paths of justice4#a ,footnote #a3 ,afirman que fue trasladado al cielo1 y que al tiempo de su partida dex al ,cacique de aquella ,provincia por heredero de su santidad i poderio4 ,lucas ,fernaudez ,piedrahita1 ,historia ,general de las ,conquistas del ,nueoo ,reyno de ,granada1 ,lib4 i1 cap4 iii 7,amberes1 #afhh74 ,what led the ,spanish missionaries to suspect that this was one of the twelve apostles1 was not only these doctrines1 but the undoubted fact that they found the symbol of the cross already a religious emblem among this people4 ,it appeared in their sacred paintings1 and especially1 they erected one over the grave of a person who had died from the bite of a serpent4 ,a little careful investigation will permit us to accept these statements as quite true1 and yet give them a very different interpretation4 ,that this culture-hero arrives from the ,east and returns to the ,east are points that at once excite the suspicion that he was the personification of the ,light4 ,but when we come to his names1 no doubt can remain4 ,these were various1 but one of the most usual was ,chimizapagua1 which1 we are told1 means a messenger from ,chiminigagua4 ,in the cosmogonical myths of the ,muyscas this was the home or source of ,light1 and was a name applied to the demiurgic force4 ,in that mysterious dwelling1 so their account ran1 light was shut up1 and the world lay in primeval gloom4 ,at a certain time the light manifested itself1 and the dawn of the first morning appeared1 the light being carried to the four quarters of the earth by great black birds1 who blew the air and winds from their beaks4 ,modern grammarians profess themselves unable to explain the exact meaning of the name ,chiminigagua1 but it is a compound1 in which1 evidently1 appear the words chie1 light1 and gagua1 ,sun4#a ,footnote #a3 ,uricoechea says1 al principio del mundo la luz estaba encerrada en una cosa que no podian describir i que llamaban ,chiminigague1 ,el ,criador4 ,gramatica de la ,lengua ,chibcha1 ,introd41 p4 xix4 ,chie in this tongue means light1 moon1 month1 honor1 and is also the first person plural of the personal pronoun4 ,ibid41 p4 #id4 ,father ,simon says gagua is el nombre del mismo sol1 though ordinarily ,sun is ,sua4 ,other names applied to this hero-god were ,nemterequeteba1 ,bchica1 and ,zuhe1 or ,sua1 the last mentioned being also the ordinary word for the ,sun4 ,he was reported to have been of light complexion1 and when the ,spaniards first arrived they were supposed to be his envoys1 and were called sua or gagua1 just as from the memory of a similar myth in ,peru they were addressed as ,viracochas4 ,in his form as ,bchica1 he is represented as the supreme male divinity1 whose female associate is the ,rainbow1 ,cuchaviva1 goddess of rains and waters1 of the fertility of the fields1 of medicine1 and of child-bearing in women1 a relationship which ,i have already explained4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the principal authority for the mythology of the ,mayscas1 or ,chibchas1 is ,padre ,pedro ,simon1 ,noticias ,historiales de las ,conquistas de ,tierra ,firme en el ,nuevo ,reyno de ,granada1 ,pt4 iv1 caps4 ii1 iii1 iv1 printed in ,kingsborough1 ,mexican ,antiquities1 vol4 viii1 and ,piedrahita as above quoted4 ,wherever the widespread ,tupi-,guaranay race extended--from the mouth of the ,rio de la ,plata and the boundless plains of the ,pampas1 north to the northernmost islands of the ,west ,indian ,archipelago--the early explorers found the natives piously attributing their knowledge of the arts of life to a venerable and benevolent old man whom they called ,our ,ancestor1 ,tamu1 or ,tume1 or ,zume4 ,the early ,jesuit missionaries to the ,guaranis and affiliated tribes of ,paraguay and southern ,brazil1 have much to say of this personage1 and some of them were convinced that he could have been no other than the ,apostle ,st4 ,thomas on his proselytizing journey around the world4 ,the legend was that ,pay ,zume1 as he was called in ,paraguay 7,pay magician1 diviner1 priest71 came from the ,east1 from the ,sun-rising1 in years long gone by4 ,he instructed the people in the arts of hunting and agriculture1 especially in the culture and preparation of the manioca plant1 their chief source of vegetable food4 ,near the city of ,assumption is situated a lofty rock1 around which1 says the myth1 he was accustomed to gather the people1 while he stood above them on its summit1 and delivered his instructions and his laws1 just as did ,quetzalcoatl from the top of the mountain ,tzatzitepec1 the ,hill of ,shouting4 ,the spot where he stood is still marked by the impress of his feet1 which the pious natives of a later day took pride in pointing out as a convincing proof that their ancestors received and remembered the preachings of ,st4 ,thomas4#a ,this was not a suggestion of their later learning1 but merely a christianized term given to their authentic ancient legend4 ,as early as #aeeb1 when ,father ,emanuel ,nobrega was visiting the missions of ,brazil1 he heard the legend1 and learned of a locality where not only the marks of the feet1 but also of the hands of the hero-god had been indelibly impressed upon the hard rock4 ,not satisfied with the mere report1 he visited the spot and saw them with his own eyes1 but indulged in some skepticism as to their origin4#b ,footnote #a3 ,juxta ,paraquariae metropolim rupes utcumque cuspidata1 sed in modicam planitiem desinens cernitur1 in cujus summitate vestigia pedum humanorum saxo impressa adhuc manent1 affirmantibus constanter indigenis1 ex eo loco ,apostolum ,thomam multitudini undequaque ad eum audiendum confluenti solitum fuisse legem divinam tradere3 et addunt mandiocae1 ex qua farinam suam ligneam conficiunt1 plantandae rationem ab eodem accepisse4 ,p4 ,nicolao del ,techo1 ,historia ,provincial ,paraquariae ,societatis ,jesu1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 iv 7folio1 ,leodii1 #afgc74 ,footnote #b3 ,ipse abii1 he writes in his well known ,letter1 et propriis oculis inspexi1 quatuor pedum et digitorum satis alt impressa vestigia1 quae nonnunquam aqua excrescens cooperit4 ,the reader will remember the similar event in the history of ,quetzalcoatl 7see above1 chapter iii1 #c7 ,the story was that wherever this hero-god walked1 he left behind him a well-marked path1 which was permanent1 and as the ,muyscas of ,new ,granada pointed out the path of ,bochica1 so did the ,guaranays that of ,zume1 which the missionaries regarded not without astonishment4#a ,he lived a certain length of time with his people and then left them1 going back over the ocean toward the ,east1 according to some accounts4 ,but according to others1 he was driven away by his stiff-necked and unwilling auditors1 who had become tired of his advice4 ,they pursued him to the bank of a river1 and there1 thinking that the quickest riddance of him was to kill him1 they discharged their arrows at him4 ,but he caught the arrows in his hand and hurled them back1 and dividing the waters of the river by his divine power he walked between them to the other bank1 dry-shod1 and disappeared from their view in the distance4 ,footnote #a3 ,e ,brasili in ,guairaniam euntibus spectabilis adhuc semita viditur1 quam ab ,sancto ,thoma ideo incolae vocant1 quod per eam ,apostolus iter fecisse credatur2 quae semita quovis anni tempore eumdem statum conservat1 modic in ea crescendibus herbis1 ab adjacenti campo multum herbescenti prorsus dissimilibus1 praebetque speciem viae artificios ductae2 quam ,socii nostri ,guairaniam excolentes persaepe non sine stupore perspexisse se testantur4 ,nicolao del ,techo1 ubi supr1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 iv4 ,the connection of this myth with the course of the sun in the sky1 the path of the bright ,god1 as it is called in the ,veda1 appears obvious4 ,so also in later legend we read of the wonderful slot or trail of the dragon ,fafnir across the ,glittering ,heath1 and many cognate instances1 which mythologists now explain by the same reference4 ,like all the hero-gods1 he left behind him the well-remembered promise that at some future day he should return to them1 and that a race of men should come in time1 to gather them into towns and rule them in peace4#a ,these predictions were carefully noted by the missionaries1 and regarded as the unconscious prophecies of heathendom of the advent of ,christianity2 but to me they bear too unmistakably the stamp of the light-myth ,i have been following up in so many localities of the ,new ,world for me to entertain a doubt about their origin and meaning4 ,footnote #a3 ,ilium quoque pollicitum fuisse1 se aliquando has regiones revisurum4 ,father ,nobrega1 ubi supr4 ,for the other particulars ,i have given see ,nicolao del ,techo1 ,historia ,provinciae ,paraquariae1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 iv1 ,de ,d4 ,thomae ,apostoli itineribus2 and ,p4 ,antonio ,ruiz1 ,conquista ,espiritual hecha por los ,religiosos de la ,compaia de ,jesus en las ,provincias del ,paraguay1 ,parana1 ,uruguay y ,tape1 fol4 #bi1 #cj 7#dto41 ,madrid1 #afci74 ,the remarkable identity of the words relating to their religious beliefs and observances throughout this widespread group of tribes has been demonstrated and forcibly commented on by ,alcide ,d',orbigny1 ,l',homme ,americain1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bgg4 ,the ,vicomte de ,porto ,seguro identifies ,zume with the ,cemi of the ,antilles1 and this etymology is at any rate not so fanciful as most of those he gives in his imaginative work1 ,l',origine ,touranienne des ,americaines ,tupis-,caribes1 p4 #fb 7,vienna1 #ahgf74 ,i have not yet exhausted the sources from which ,i could bring evidence of the widespread presence of the elements of this mythical creation in ,america4 ,but probably ,i have said enough to satisfy the reader on this point4 ,at any rate it will be sufficient if ,i close the list with some manifest fragments of the myth1 picked out from the confused and generally modern reports we have of the religions of the ,athabascan race4 ,this stem is one of the most widely distributed in ,north ,america1 extending across the whole continent south of the ,eskimos1 and scattered toward the warmer latitudes quite into ,mexico4 ,it is low down in the intellectual scale1 its component tribes are usually migratory savages1 and its dialects are extremely synthetic and of difficult phonetics1 requiring as many as sixty-five letters for their proper orthography4 ,no wonder1 therefore1 that we have but limited knowledge of their mental life4 ,conspicuous in their myths is the tale of the ,two ,brothers4 ,these mysterious beings are upon the earth before man appears4 ,though alone1 they do not agree1 and the one attacks and slays the other4 ,another brother appears on the scene1 who seems to be the one slain1 who has come to life1 and the two are given wives by the ,being who was the ,creator of things4 ,these two women were perfectly beautiful1 but invisible to the eyes of mortals4 ,the one was named1 ,the ,woman of the ,light or ,the ,woman of the ,morning2 the other was the ,woman of ,darkness or the ,woman of ,evening4 ,the brothers lived together in one tent with these women1 who each in turn went out to work4 ,when the ,woman of ,light was at work1 it was daytime2 when the ,woman of ,darkness was at her labors1 it was night4 ,in the course of time one of the brothers disappeared and the other determined to select a wife from one of the two women1 as it seems he had not yet chosen4 ,he watched what the ,woman of ,darkness did in her absence1 and discovered that she descended into the waters and enjoyed the embraces of a monster1 while the ,woman of ,light passed her time in feeding white birds4 ,in course of time the former brought forth black man-serpents1 while the ,woman of ,light was delivered of beautiful boys with white skins4 ,the master of the house killed the former with his arrows1 but preserved the latter1 and marrying the ,woman of ,light1 became the father of the human race1 and especially of the ,dn ,dindji1 who have preserved the memory of him4#a ,footnote #a3 ,monographie des ,dn ,dindji1 par ,c4,r4,p4,e4 ,petitot1 pp4 #hd-hg 7,paris1 #ahgf74 ,elsewhere the writer says3 ,tout d'abord je dois rappeler mon observation que presque toujours1 dans les traditions ,dn1 le couple primitif se compose de deux frres4 ,ibid41 p4 #fb4 ,in another myth of this stock1 clearly a version of the former1 this father of the race is represented as a mighty bird1 called ,yl1 or ,yale1 or ,orelbale1 from the root ell1 a term they apply to everything supernatural4 ,he took to wife the daughter of the ,sun 7the ,woman of ,light71 and by her begat the race of man4 ,he formed the dry land for a place for them to live upon1 and stocked the rivers with salmon1 that they might have food4 ,when he enters his nest it is day1 but when he leaves it it is night2 or1 according to another myth1 he has the two women for wives1 the one of whom makes the day1 the other the night4 ,in the beginning ,yl was white in plumage1 but he had an enemy1 by name ,cannook1 with whom he had various contests1 and by whose machinations he was turned black4 ,yl is further represented as the god of the winds and storms1 and of the thunder and lightning4#a ,footnote #a3 ,for the extent and particulars of this myth1 many of the details of which ,i omit1 see ,petitot1 ubi supr1 pp4 #fh1 #hg1 note2 ,matthew ,macfie4 ,travels in ,vancouver ,island and ,british ,columbia1 pp4 #deb-dee 7,london1 #ahfe72 and ,j4,k4 ,lord1 ,the ,naturalist in ,vancouver ,island and ,british ,columbia 7,london1 #ahff74 ,it is referred to by ,mackenzie and other early writers4 ,thus we find1 even in this extremely low specimen of the native race1 the same basis for their mythology as in the most cultivated nations of ,central ,america4 ,not only this2 it is the same basis upon which is built the major part of the sacred stories of all early religions1 in both continents2 and the excellent ,father ,petitot1 who is so much impressed by these resemblances that he founds upon them a learned argument to prove that the ,dn are of oriental extraction1#a would have written more to the purpose had his acquaintance with ,american religions been as extensive as it was with those of ,asiatic origin4 ,footnote #a3 ,see his ,essai sur l',origine des ,dn-,dindji1 in his ,monographie1 above quoted4 ,there is one point in all these myths which ,i wish to bring out forcibly4 ,that is1 the distinction which is everywhere drawn between the ,god of ,light and the ,sun4 ,unless this distinction is fully comprehended1 ,american mythology loses most of its meaning4 ,the assertion has been so often repeated1 even down to the latest writers1 that the ,american ,indians were nearly all sun-worshipers1 that ,i take pains formally to contradict it4 ,neither the ,sun nor the ,spirit of the ,sun was their chief divinity4 ,of course1 the daily history of the appearance and disappearance of light is intimately connected with the apparent motion of the sun4 ,hence1 in the myths there is often a seeming identification of the two1 which ,i have been at no pains to avoid4 ,but the identity is superficial only2 it entirely disappears in other parts of the myth1 and the conceptions1 as fundamentally distinct1 must be studied separately1 to reach accurate results4 ,it is an easy1 but by no means a profound method of treating these religions1 to dismiss them all by the facile explanations of animism1 and sun and moon worship4 ,i have said1 and quoted strong authority to confirm the opinion1 that the native tribes of ,america have lost ground in morals and have retrograded in their religious life since the introduction of ,christianity4 ,their own faiths1 though lower in form1 had in them the germs of a religious and moral evolution1 more likely1 with proper regulation1 to lead these people to a higher plane of thought than the ,aryan doctrines which were forced upon them4 ,this may seem a daring1 even a heterodox assertion1 but ,i think that most modern ethnologists will agree that it is no more possible for races in all stages of culture and of widely different faculties to receive with benefit any one religion1 than it is for them to thrive under one form of government1 or to adopt with advantage one uniform plan of building houses4 ,the moral and religious life is a growth1 and the brash wood of ancient date cannot be grafted on the green stem4 ,it is well to remember that the heathendoms of ,america were very far from wanting living seeds of sound morality and healthy mental education4 ,i shall endeavor to point this out in a few brief paragraphs4 ,in their origin in the human mind1 religion and morality have nothing in common4 ,they are even antagonistic4 ,at the root of all religions is the passionate desire for the widest possible life1 for the most unlimited exercise of all the powers4 ,the basis of all morality is self-sacrifice1 the willingness to give up our wishes to the will of another4 ,the criterion of the power of a religion is its ability to command this sacrifice2 the criterion of the excellence of a religion is the extent to which its commands coincide with the good of the race1 with the lofty standard of the categorical imperative4 ,with these axioms well in mind1 we can advance with confidence to examine the claims of a religion4 ,it will rise in the scale just in proportion as its behests1 were they universally adopted1 would permanently increase the happiness of the human race4 ,in their origin1 as ,i have said1 morality and religion are opposites2 but they are opposites which inevitably attract and unite4 ,the first lesson of all religions is that we gain by giving1 that to secure any end we must sacrifice something4 ,this1 too1 is taught by all social intercourse1 and1 therefore1 an acute ,german psychologist has set up the formula1 ,all manners are moral1#a because they all imply a subjection of the personal will of the individual to the general will of those who surround him1 as expressed in usage and custom4 ,footnote #a3 ,alle ,sitten sind sittlich4 ,lazarus1 ,ursprung der ,sitte1 ,s4 #e1 quoted by ,roskoff4 ,i hardly need mention that our word morality1 from mos1 means by etymology1 simply what is customary and of current usage4 ,the moral man is he who conforms himself to the opinions of the majority4 ,this is also at the basis of ,robert ,browning's definition of a people3 ,a people is but the attempt of many to rise to the completer life of one 7,a ,soul's ,tragedy74 ,even the religion which demands bloody sacrifices1 which forces its votaries to futile and abhorrent rites1 is at least training its adherents in the virtues of obedience and renunciation1 in endurance and confidence4 ,but concerning ,american religions ,i need not have recourse to such a questionable vindication4 ,they held in them far nobler elements1 as is proved beyond cavil by the words of many of the earliest missionaries themselves4 ,bigoted and bitter haters of the native faiths1 as they were1 they discovered in them so much that was good1 so much that approximated to the purer doctrines that they themselves came to teach1 that they have left on record many an attempt to prove that there must1 in some remote and unknown epoch1 have come ,christian teachers to the ,new ,world1 ,st4 ,thomas1 ,st4 ,bartholomew1 monks from ,ireland1 or ,asiatic disciples1 to acquaint the natives with such salutary doctrines4 ,it is precisely in connection with the myths which ,i have been relating in this volume that these theories were put forth1 and ,i have referred to them in various passages4 ,the facts are as stated1 but the credit of developing these elevated moral conceptions must not be refused to the red race4 ,they are its own property1 the legitimate growth of its own religious sense4 ,the hero-god1 the embodiment of the ,light of ,day1 is essentially a moral and beneficent creation4 ,whether his name be ,michabo1 ,ioskeha1 or ,quetzalcoatl1 ,itzamna1 ,viracocha or ,tamu1 he is always the giver of laws1 the instructor in the arts of social life1 the founder of commonwealths1 the patron of agriculture4 ,he casts his influence in favor of peace1 and against wars and deeds of violence4 ,he punishes those who pursue iniquity1 and he favors those who work for the good of the community4 ,in many instances he sets an example of chaste living1 of strict temperance1 of complete subjection of the lusts and appetites4 ,i have but to refer to what ,i have already said of the ,maya ,kukulcan and the ,aztec ,quetzalcoatl1 to show this4 ,both are particularly noted as characters free from the taint of indulgence4 ,thus it occurred that the early monks often express surprise that these1 whom they chose to call savages and heathens1 had developed a moral law of undeniable purity4 ,the matters that ,bochica taught1 says the chronicler ,piedrahita1 were certainly excellent1 inasmuch as these natives hold as right to do just the same that we do4 ,the priests of these ,muyscas1 he goes on to say1 lived most chastely and with great purity of life1 insomuch that even in eating1 their food was simple and of small quantity1 and they refrained altogether from women and marriage4 ,did one transgress in this respect1 he was dismissed from the priesthood4#a ,footnote #a3 ,las cosas que el ,bochica les enseaba eran buenas1 siendo assi1 que tenian por malo lo mismo que nosotros tenemos por tal4 ,piedrahita1 ,historia ,general de las ,conquistas del ,nuevo ,reyno de ,granada1 ,lib4 i1 ,cap4 iii4 ,the prayers addressed to these deities breathe as pure a spirit of devotion as many now heard in ,christian lands4 ,change the names1 and some of the formulas preserved by ,christobal de ,molina and ,sahagun would not jar on the ears of a congregation in one of our own churches4 ,although sanguinary rites were common1 they were not usual in the worship of these highest divinities1 but rather as propitiations to the demons of the darkness1 or the spirits of the terrible phenomena of nature4 ,the mild god of light did not demand them4 ,to appreciate the effect of all this on the mind of the race1 let it be remembered that these culture-heroes were also the creators1 the primal and most potent of divinities1 and that usually many temples and a large corps of priests were devoted to their worship1 at least in the nations of higher civilization4 ,these votaries were engaged in keeping alive the myth1 in impressing the supposed commands of the deity on the people1 and in imitating him in example and precept4 ,thus they had formed a lofty ideal of man1 and were publishing this ideal to their fellows4 ,certainly this could not fail of working to the good of the nation1 and of elevating and purifying its moral conceptions4 ,that it did so we have ample evidence in the authentic accounts of the ancient society as it existed before the ,europeans destroyed and corrupted it1 and in the collections of laws1 all distinctly stamped with the seal of religion1 which have been preserved1 as they were in vogue in ,anahuac1 ,utatlan1 ,peru and other localities4#a ,any one who peruses these will see that the great moral principles1 the radical doctrines of individual virtue1 were clearly recognized and deliberately enforced as divine and civil precepts in these communities4 ,moreover1 they were generally and cheerfully obeyed1 and the people of many of these lands were industrious1 peaceable1 moral1 and happy1 far more so than they have ever been since4 ,footnote #a3 ,the reader willing to pursue the argument further can find these collections of ancient ,american laws in ,sahagun1 ,historia de ,nueva ,espaa1 for ,mexico2 in ,geronimo ,roman1 ,republica de las ,indias ,occidentales1 for ,utatlan and other nations2 for ,peru in the ,relacion del ,origen1 ,descendencia1 ,politica1 y ,gobierno de los ,incas1 por el licenciado ,fernando de ,santillan 7published at ,madrid4 #ahgi72 and for the ,muyscas1 in ,piedrahita1 ,hist4 ,gen4 del ,nuevo ,reyno de ,granada1 ,lib4 ii1 cap4 v4 ,there was also a manifest progress in the definition of the idea of ,god1 that is1 of a single infinite intelligence as the source and controlling power of phenomena4 ,we have it on record that in ,peru this was the direct fruit of the myth of ,viracocha4 ,it is related that the ,inca ,yupangui published to his people that to him had appeared ,viracocha1 with admonition that he alone was lord of the world1 and creator of all things2 that he had made the heavens1 the sun1 and man2 and that it was not right that these1 his works1 should receive equal homage with himself4 ,therefore1 the ,inca decreed that the image of ,viracocha should thereafter be assigned supremacy to those of all other divinities1 and that no tribute nor sacrifice should be paid to him1 for ,he was master of all the earth1 and could take from it as he chose4#a ,this was evidently a direct attempt on the part of an enlightened ruler to lift his people from a lower to a higher form of religion1 from idolatry to theism4 ,the ,inca even went so far as to banish all images of ,viracocha from his temples1 so that this1 the greatest of gods1 should be worshiped as an immaterial spirit only4 ,footnote #a3 ,p4 ,joseph de ,acosta1 ,historia ,natural y ,moral de las ,indias1 ,lib4 vi1 cap4 #ca 7,barcelona1 #aeia74 ,a parallel instance is presented in ,aztec annals4 ,nezahualcoyotzin1 an enlightened ruler of ,tezcuco1 about #adej1 was both a philosopher and a poet1 and the songs which he left1 seventy in number1 some of which are still preserved1 breathe a spirit of emancipation from the idolatrous superstition of his day4 ,he announced that there was one only god1 who sustained and created all things1 and who dwelt above the ninth heaven1 out of sight of man4 ,no image was fitting for this divinity1 nor did he ever appear bodily to the eyes of men4 ,but he listened to their prayers and received their souls4#a ,footnote #a3 ,see ,fernando de ,alva ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,historica ,chichimeca1 cap4 xlix2 and ,joseph ,joaquin ,granados y ,galvez1 ,tardes ,americanas1 p4 #ij 7,mexico1 #aggh74 ,these traditions have been doubted1 for no other reason than because it was assumed that such thoughts were above the level of the red race4 ,but the proper names and titles1 unquestionably ancient and genuine1 which ,i have analyzed in the preceding pages refute this supposition4 ,we may safely affirm that other and stronger instances of the kind could be quoted1 had the early missionaries preserved more extensively the sacred chants and prayers of the natives4 ,in the ,maya tongue of ,yucatan a certain number of them have escaped destruction1 and although they are open to some suspicion of having been colored for proselytizing purposes1 there is direct evidence from natives who were adults at the time of the ,conquest that some of their priests had predicted the time should come when the worship of one only ,god should prevail4 ,this was nothing more than another instance of the monotheistic idea finding its expression1 and its apparition is not more extraordinary in ,yucatan or ,peru than in ancient ,egypt or ,greece4 ,the actual religious and moral progress of the natives was designedly ignored and belittled by the early missionaries and conquerors4 ,bishop ,las ,casas directly charges those of his day with magnifying the vices of the ,indians and the cruelties of their worship2 and even such a liberal thinker as ,roger ,williams tells us that he would not be present at their ceremonies1 ,lest ,i should have been partaker of ,satan's ,inventions and ,worships4#a ,this same prejudice completely blinded the first visitors to the ,new ,world1 and it was only the extravagant notion that ,christianity had at some former time been preached here that saved us most of the little that we have on record4 ,footnote #a3 ,roger ,williams1 ,a ,key ,into the ,language of ,america1 p4 #aeb4 ,yet now and then the truth breaks through even this dense veil of prejudice4 ,for instance1 ,i have quoted in this chapter the evidence of the ,spanish chroniclers to the purity of the teaching attributed to ,bochica4 ,the effect of such doctrines could not be lost on a people who looked upon him at once as an exemplar and a deity4 ,nor was it4 ,the ,spaniards have left strong testimony to the pacific and virtuous character of that nation1 and its freedom from the vices so prevalent in lower races4#a ,footnote #a3 ,see especially the ,noticias sobre el ,nuevo ,reino de ,granada1 in the ,colleccion de ,documentos ineditos del ,archivo de ,indias1 vol4 v1 p4 #ebi4 ,now1 as ,i dismiss from the domain of actual fact all these legendary instructors1 the question remains1 whence did these secluded tribes obtain the sentiments of justice and morality which they loved to attribute to their divine founders1 and1 in a measure1 to practice themselves8 ,the question is pertinent1 and with its answer ,i may fitly close this study in ,american native religions4 ,if the theory that ,i have advocated is correct1 these myths had to do at first with merely natural occurrences1 the advent and departure of the daylight1 the winds1 the storm and the rains4 ,the beneficent and injurious results of these phenomena were attributed to their personifications4 ,especially was the dispersal of darkness by the light regarded as the transaction of all most favorable to man4 ,the facilities that it gave him were imputed to the goodness of the personified ,spirit of ,light1 and by a natural association of ideas1 the benevolent emotions and affections developed by improving social intercourse were also brought into relation to this kindly ,being4 ,they came to be regarded as his behests1 and1 in the national mind1 he grew into a teacher of the friendly relations of man to man1 and an ideal of those powers which make for righteousness4 ,priests and chieftains favored the acceptance of these views1 because they felt their intrinsic wisdom1 and hence the moral evolution of the nation proceeded steadily from its mythology4 ,that the results achieved were similar to those taught by the best religions of the eastern world should not excite any surprise1 for the basic principles of ethics are the same everywhere and in all time4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,indexes4 ,i4 ,,index ,,of ,,authors4 ,acosta1 ,j4 de ,alegre1 ,f4,x4 ,anales del ,museo ,nacional de ,mejico ,ancona1 ,eligio ,angrand1 ,l4 ,annals of ,cuauhtitlan ,antonio1 ,g4 ,argoll1 ,capt ,avila1 ,francisco de ,bancroft1 ,h4,h4 ,baraga1 ,frederick ,basalenque1 ,d4 ,becerra ,beltran1 de ,santa ,rosa ,berendt1 ,c4,h4 ,bernal ,diaz ,bertonio1 ,l4 ,betanzos1 ,juan de ,bobadilla1 ,f4 de ,boturini1 ,l4 ,bourbourg1 ,brasseur de1 see ,brasseur4 ,brasseur 7de ,bourbourg71 ,c4 ,buschmann1 ,j4,c4,e4 ,buteux1 ,father ,cabrera1 ,p4,f4 ,campanius1 ,thomas ,campbell1 ,john ,carriedo1 ,j4,b4 ,carrillo1 ,crescencio ,charency1 ,h4 de ,charlevoix1 ,pre ,chavero1 ,alfredo ,chaves1 ,gabriel de ,chilan ,balam1 ,books of ,clavigero1 ,francesco ,s4 ,codex ,borgianus ,codex ,telleriano-,remensis ,codex ,troano ,codex ,vaticanus ,cogolludo1 ,d4,l4 de ,comte1 ,auguste ,cortes1 ,hernan ,cox1 ,sir ,george ,w4 ,cuoq1 ,j4,a4 ,cusic1 ,david ,desjardins1 ,e4 ,d',orbigny1 ,a4 ,duran1 ,diego ,elder1 ,f4,x4 ,fischer1 ,heinrich ,franco1 ,p4 ,fuen-,leal1 ,ramirez de ,gabriel de ,san ,buenaventura ,garcia1 ,g4 ,garcia y ,garcia1 ,a4 ,gatschet1 ,a4,s4 ,gomara1 ,f4,l4 ,granados y ,galvez1 ,j4,j4 ,hale1 ,horatio ,haupt1 ,paul ,hernandez1 ,francisco ,hernandez1 ,m4 ,herrera1 ,antonio de ,holguin1 ,d4,g4 ,humbolt1 ,a4,v4 ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,f4,a4 de ,jourdanet1 ,m4 ,keary1 ,charles ,f4 ,kingsborough1 ,lord ,lalemant1 ,father ,landa1 ,d4 de ,lang1 ,j4,d4 ,las ,casas1 ,b4 de ,lazarus1 ,prof4 ,leon1 ,cieza de ,le ,plongeon1 ,dr4 ,lizana1 ,b4 ,lord1 ,j4,k4 ,lubbock1 ,sir ,john ,macfie1 ,m4 ,mangan1 ,clarence ,markham1 ,c4,r4 ,melgar1 ,j4,m4 ,mendieta1 ,geronimo de ,mendoza1 ,g4 ,molina1 ,alonso de ,molina1 ,c4 de ,montejo1 ,francisco de ,motolinia1 ,padre ,motul1 ,diccionario de ,mller1 ,max ,nieremberg1 ,e4 de ,nobrega1 ,e4 ,ollanta1 drama of ,olmos1 ,andre de ,orozco y ,berra1 ,seor ,oviedo1 ,g4,f4 de ,pachacuti1 ,j4 de ,pech1 ,nakuk ,perrot1 ,nicholas ,petitot1 ,p4,e4 ,piedrahita1 ,l4,t4 ,pimentel1 ,f4 ,pinart1 ,a4,l4 ,pineda1 ,e4 ,pio ,perez1 ,j4 ,popol ,vuh1 the ,porto ,seguro1 ,v4 de ,prescott1 ,w4,h4 ,rau1 ,charles ,rea1 ,a4 de la ,rialle1 ,g4 de ,roman1 ,h4 ,roskoff1 ,gustav ,ruiz1 ,a4 ,sagard ,pre ,sahagun1 ,b4 de ,sanchez1 ,jesus ,santillan1 ,f4 de ,schoolcraft1 ,h4 ,r4 ,schultz-,sellack1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,schwartz1 ,f4,l4,w4 ,short1 ,j4,t4 ,simeon1 ,remi ,simon1 ,p4 ,sotomayor1 ,j4 de ,v4 ,squier1 ,b4 ,g4 ,stephens1 ,j4,l4 ,strachey1 ,william ,tanner1 ,john ,taylor1 ,s4 ,techo1 ,n4 de ,ternaux-,compans1 ,m ,tezozomoc1 ,a4 ,tiele1 ,c4,p4 ,tobar1 ,juan de ,toledo1 ,f4 de ,torquemada1 ,juan de ,trumbull1 ,j4,h4 ,tschudi1 ,j4,j4 von ,uricoechea1 ,e4 ,valera1 ,blas ,vega1 ,garcillaso1 de la ,vega1 ,nuez de la ,veitia ,waitz1 ,th4 ,wiener1 ,c4 ,williams1 ,roger ,xahila1 ,f4,e4,a4 ,zegarra1 ,g4,p4 ,,ii4 ,,index ,,of ,,subjects4 ,abancay1 in ,peru ,abstract expressions ,acan1 ,maya god of wine ,acantun1 ,maya deities ,ages of the world ,ah-kiuic1 deity of the ,mayas ,ah-puchah1 deity of the ,mayas ,air1 gods of2 see ,wind ,algonkins1 their location their hero-myth ,amun1 ,egyptian deity ,anahuac ,animiki1 the thunder god ,arawack language ,ares1 the ,greek ,arnava1 name of ,viracocha ,apotampo ,arama1 deity of the ,moxos ,arrival1 the ,great and ,less ,ataensic1 an ,iroquois deity ,atahualpa ,inca ,atecpanamochco1 the bath of ,quetzalcoatl ,athabascan myths and languages ,aticsi1 epithet of ,viracocha ,aurora1 myths of2 see ,dawn ,ayar1 ,ancca ,ayar ,cachi1 a name of ,viracocha ,ayar ,manco ,ayar ,uchu ,aymaras1 myths of language of ,aztecs1 location of ,aztecs in ,yucatan ,aztlan1 meaning of ,bacabs1 the four ,baldur1 the ,norse ,ball1 the game of ,bearded hero-god ,belly1 the1 in symbolism ,bird1 symbol of ,bisexual deities ,bochica1 hero-god of the ,muyscas ,borrowing in myths ,butterfly1 the1 as a symbol of the wind ,cadmus1 the myth of ,cakchiquels1 myths of ,camaxtli1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,canas tribe ,canil1 a name of ,itzamna ,cannook1 deity of ,dn ,carapaco1 lake of ,carcha1 town of ,cardinal points1 worship of ,caylla1 epithet of ,viracocha ,ce ,acatl1 ,one ,reed1 a name of ,quetzalcoatl ,ce ,acatl ,inacuil ,cemi1 deity of ,arawacks ,chac1 deity of the ,mayas ,chacamarca1 river of ,chac ,mool1 supposed idol ,chalchihuitl ,chalchiuitlicue1 ,aztec goddess ,chalchihuitzli1 ,aztec deity ,chalchiuhapan1 the bath of ,quetzalcoatl ,chasca1 ,qquichua deity ,chem1 ,egyptian deity ,chibchas1 see ,muyscas ,chibilias1 a ,maya goddess ,chichen ,itza ,chichimees1 the ,chickaban1 a festival ,chicomecoatl1 an ,aztec deity ,chicomoztoc ,chimalman ,chimalmatl ,chimizapagua1 name of ,bochica ,chivim1 land of ,chnum1 ,egyptian deity ,choctaws1 myth of ,cholula ,christianity1 effects of ,cincalco1 ,cave of ,cipactli1 in ,aztec myth ,cipactonal1 in ,aztec myth ,citlatonac1 an ,aztec deity ,citlallicue1 an ,aztec deity ,citlaltlachtli ,coatl1 in ,nahuatl ,coatecalli1 the ,aztec ,pantheon ,coatlicue1 ,aztec goddess ,cocoms1 the ,colhuacan ,colla1 a ,peruvian deity ,colors1 symbolism of ,con1 ,peruvian deity ,concacha ,conchuy ,condorcoto1 the mountain ,condoy1 hero-god of ,mixes ,coto1 village ,coyote1 sacred to ,tezcatlipoca ,cozcapan1 fountain of ,cozumel1 cross of ,cross1 the1 symbol of ,cuchaviva1 goddess of ,muyscas ,cueravaperi1 goddess of ,tarascos ,cuernava1 cave of ,cum-ahau1 a ,maya deity ,curicaberis1 deity of ,tarascos ,cuzco1 founding of temple of ,darkness1 powers of ,dawn1 the mansion of the myths of ,dn1 myths of ,drum1 the sacred ,dyaus1 the ,aryan god ,dyonisiac worship1 the ,east1 sacredness of ,echuac1 a ,maya deity ,egyptian mythology ,europe1 carried off by ,zeus ,fafnir1 the dragon ,fatal children1 the myth of ,fire1 origin of ,five eggs1 the ,flint stone1 myths of ,flood myth1 the ,four brothers1 the myths of sacred numbers roads to the underworld ,freya1 ,norse goddess ,frog1 as symbol of water ,genesiac principle1 worship of ,gijigonai1 the day makers ,glittering heath1 the ,golden locks of the hero-god ,great ,bear1 constellation of ,guanacaure1 mountain of ,guaranis tribe ,guaymis1 tribe of ,darien ,guazacoalco ,gucumatz1 god of ,kiches ,hachaccuna ,hanmachis1 the sun-god ,heart1 symbol of ,henotheism in religions ,hermaphrodite deities ,hermes1 ,greek myth of ,hill of ,heaven1 the ,hobnel1 deity of the ,mayas ,homonomy ,huanacauri ,huastecs1 the ,huarachiri ,indians1 myth of ,huayna ,capac1 ,inca ,huehuetlan1 town of ,huemac1 a name of ,quetzalcoatl ,hueytecpatl1 an ,aztec deity ,hue ,tlapallan ,hueytonantzin1 an ,aztec deity ,huitzilopochtli1 ,aztec deity birth of ,huitznahna1 ,aztec deity ,hunchbacks1 attendant on ,quetzalcoatl ,hunhunahpu1 a ,kiche deity ,hunpictok1 a ,maya deity ,hurons1 myth of ,hurukan1 god of ,kiches ,idea of ,god1 evolution of ,illa1 name of ,viracocha ,incas1 empire of ,indra ,ioskeha1 the myth of derivation of ,iroquois1 their location hero myth of ,itzamal1 city of ,itzamna1 the ,maya hero god his names ,itzas1 a ,maya tribe ,itztlacoliuhqui1 ,aztec deity ,ix-chebel-yax1 ,maya goddess ,ixchel1 the rainbow goddess ,ixcuin1 an ,aztec deity ,izona1 error for ,itzamna ,iztac ,mixcoatl ,jupiter1 the planet ,kabironokka1 the ,north ,kabil1 a name of ,itzamna ,kabun1 the ,west ,kiches1 myths of ,kinich ahau1 a name of ,itzamna ,kinich ahau haban ,kinich kakmo1 a name of ,itzamna ,kukulcan1 myth of meaning of name ,languages1 sacred1 of priests ,american ,laws1 native ,american ,lif1 the ,teutonic ,light1 its place in mythology ,light-god1 the color of ,light1 woman of ,lucifer1 worshiped by ,mayas ,maize1 origin of ,manco ,capac ,mani1 province of ,marriage ceremonies ,master of life1 the ,mat1 the virgin goddess ,ma ,tlapallan ,mayapan1 destruction of foundation of ,mayas1 myths of language ancestors of prophecies of ,meconetzin1 a name of ,quetzalcoatl ,meztitlan1 province of ,michabo1 myth of derivation of ,michoacan ,mictlancalco ,mirror1 the magic ,mirrors1 of ,aztecs ,mixcoatl1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,mixes1 tribe ,monenequi1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,monotheism in ,peru ,moon1 in ,algonkin myths in ,aztec myths ,moquequeloa1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,morals and religion ,morning1 house of the ,moxos1 myths of ,moyocoyatzin1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,muskrat1 in ,algonkin mythology ,muyscas1 myths of laws of ,nahuatl1 the language ,nanacatltzatzi1 an ,aztec deity ,nanih ,wayeh ,nanihehecatle1 name of ,quetzalcoatl ,narcissus1 the myth of ,nemterequeteba1 name of ,bochica ,nezahualcoyotzin1 ,aztec ruler ,nezaualpilli1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,nicaraguans1 myths of ,nonoalco ,nuns1 houses of ,oaxaca1 province of ,occhuc1 town ,ocelotl1 the ,odin1 the ,norse ,ojibway dialect1 the myth ,ometochtli1 an ,aztec deity ,orelbale1 ,athabascan1 deity ,osiris1 the myth of ,otomies ,otosis1 in myth building ,ottawas1 an ,algonkin tribe ,owl1 as a symbol of the wind ,oxomuco1 in ,aztec myth ,pacarina1 the1 in ,peru ,pacari tampu ,pachacamac ,pachayachachi1 epithet of ,viracocha ,palenque1 the cross of building of ,pantecatl1 ,aztec deity ,panuco1 province of ,papachtic1 a name of ,quetzalcoatl ,pariacaca1 a ,peruvian deity ,paronyms ,parturition1 symbol of ,paths of the gods ,pay zume1 a hero-god ,perseus ,personification ,peten1 lake ,phallic emblems ,phoebus ,pinahua1 a ,peruvian deity ,pirhua ,pirua ,pochotl son of ,quetzalcoatl ,polyonomy in myth building ,prayers1 purpose of to ,quetzalcoatl to ,viraoocha ,proper names in ,american languages ,prophecies of ,mayas ,prosopopeia ,pulque1 myths concerning ,,qabauil1 god of ,kiches ,qquichua language ,qquonn1 ,peruvian deity ,quateczizque1 priests so-called ,quauhtitlan ,quetzalcoatl identified with the ,east meaning of the name as god contest with ,tezcatlipoca the hero of ,tula worshiped in ,cholula born of a virgin his bath as the planet ,venus as lord of the winds god of thieves representations ,quetzalpetlatl ,ra1 the ,sun-god ,rabbit1 the giant in ,algonkin myths in ,aztec myths ,rainbow1 as a deity ,rains1 gods of ,red ,land1 the1 see ,tlapallan ,religions1 classifications of the essence of and morals ,repose1 the place of ,reproduction1 myths concerning ,resurrection1 belief in ,romulus and ,remus ,sand1 place of ,sarama and ,sarameyas1 a ,sanscrit myth ,serpent symbol1 the ,serpents1 the king of ,seven brothers1 the caves or tribes1 the ,shawano1 the south ,shu1 ,egyptian deity ,skunk1 sacred to ,tezcatlipoca ,snailshell symbol ,sogamoso1 town ,soma1 the intoxicating ,sons of the clouds ,sterility1 relief from ,sua1 name of ,bochica ,sun worship in ,peru in ,america ,sun1 the city of ,suns1 the ,aztec ,surites1 deity of ,tarascos ,tahuantin ,suyu kapac ,tampuquiru ,tamu1 a hero-god ,tapirs ,tarascos ,taripaca1 epithet of ,viracocha ,tawiscara1 in ,iroquois myth ,tecpancaltzin1 a ,toltec king ,tecpatl1 an ,aztec deity ,tehotennhiaron1 ,iroquois deity ,tehunatepec tribes ,teimatini1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,telephassa1 mother of ,cadmus ,telpochtli1 a name of ,tezctlipoca ,tentetemic1 an ,aztec deity ,teocolhuacan ,teometl1 the ,texcalapan ,texcaltlauhco ,teyocoyani1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,tezcatlachco ,tezcatlipoca1 ,aztec deity his names derivation of name as twins contests with ,quetzalcoatl slays ,ometochli dressed in the tiger skin ,tezcatlipoca-,camaxtli ,tezcuco ,tharonhiawakon1 in ,iroquois ,thomas1 ,saint1 in ,america ,thunder1 myth of ,tiahuanaco1 myth concerning ,ticci1 name of ,viracocha ,tiger1 as a symbol ,titicaca lake ,titlacauan1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,tizapan1 the ,white ,land ,tlacauepan ,tlaloc1 ,aztec deity ,tlalocan ,tlamatzincatl1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,tlanqua-cemilhuique1 a name of the ,toltecs ,tlapallan ,tlatlallan1 the fire land ,tlillan1 the dark land ,thllapa1 the murky land ,thlpotonqui1 a name of ,quetzalcoatl ,tocapo1 epithet of ,viracocha ,toh1 a ,kiche deity ,tokay1 epithet of ,viracocha ,tollan1 see ,tula ,tollan-,cholollan ,tollan ,tlapallan ,tollantzinco ,toltecs1 the ,tonalan ,tonatlan ,tonaca cihuatl1 an ,aztec deity ,tonaca tecutli1 ,aztec deity ,topiltzin1 a name of ,quetzalcoatl ,toltec1 an ,aztec deity ,totems1 origin of ,toveyo1 the ,tree of life1 the ,tree of the ,mirror ,tualati1 myth of ,tukupay1 epithet of ,viracocha ,tula1 the mythical city of ,tum1 ,egyptian deity ,tume1 a hero-god ,tunapa1 name of ,viracocha ,tupac ,yupanqui1 ,inca ,tupi-,guaranay tribes ,twins1 in mythology ,two brothers1 myths of ,tzatzitepec1 the hill of shouting ,tzendals1 hero-myth of ,tzinteotl1 ,aztec deity ,ttzitzimime1 ,aztec deities ,uac metun ahau1 a name of ,itzamna ,ualum chivim ,ualum uotan ,urcos1 temple of ,usapu1 epithet of ,viracocha ,utatlan1 province of ,vase1 lord of the ,venus1 the planet1 in myths ,viracocha1 myth of meaning of statues of worship of ,virgin cow1 the1 in ,egypt ,virgin-mother1 myth of ,virgins of the sun1 in ,peru ,votan1 hero-god of ,tzendals ,wabawang1 the morning star ,wabun1 or the ,east ,water1 in mythology gods of ,west1 in mythology ,west wind1 the ,wheel of the months of the winds ,white hero-god1 the land serpent ,winds1 gods of ,world-stream1 the ,xalac ,xbalanque1 hero-god of ,kiches ,xicapoyan1 the bath of ,quetzalcoatl ,xilotzin1 son of ,quetzalcoatl ,xiu1 ,maya family of ,xmukane1 in ,kiche myth ,xochitl1 the maiden ,xochitlycacan1 the rose garden ,xochiquetzal1 an ,aztec deity ,yacacoliuhqui1 ,aztec deity ,yacatecutli1 ,aztec deity ,yahualli ehecatl1 a name of ,quetzalcoatl ,yalahau1 deity of ,tzendals ,yale1 deity of the ,dn ,yamquesupa1 lake of ,yaotlnecoc1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,yaotzin1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,yaqui1 derivation of ,yax-coc-ahmut1 a name of ,itzamna ,yl1 deity of ,dn ,ymamana ,viracocha ,yoalli ehecatl1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,yoamaxtli1 a name of ,tezcatlipoca ,yoel of the winds ,yolcuat ,quetzalcoat ,yucatan ,yunca language ,yupanqui1 ,inca ,zacuan ,zapala1 epithet of ,viracocha ,zapotecs1 tribe ,zeus1 the ,greek ,zipacna1 a ,kiche diety ,zitacuarencuaro1 a festival ,zivena vitzcatl ,zoques1 tribe ,zuhe1 name of ,bochica ,zume1 a hero-god ,zuyva1 ,tollan in