,,the ,,soul ,,of ,,democracy ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,war ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,human ,,liberty ,,by ,,edward ,,howard ,,griggs ,man for the ,state means autocracy and imperialism2 ,,man ,,for ,,mankind is the soul of democracy4 #aiah ,,contents ,i ,,the ,,world ,,tragedy ,,ii ,,the ,,conflict ,,of ,,ideas ,,in ,,the ,,war ,,iii ,,the ,,ideas ,,for ,,which ,,the ,,allied ,,nations ,,fight ,,iv ,,moral ,,standards ,,and ,,the ,,moral ,,order ,v ,,the ,,present ,,state ,,of ,,international ,,relations ,,vi ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,international ,,relationship ,,vii ,,america',s ,,duty ,,in ,,international ,,relations ,,viii ,,the ,,gospel ,,and ,,the ,,superstition ,,of ,,non-,,resistance ,,ix ,,preparedness ,,for ,,self-,,defense ,x ,,reconstruction ,,from ,,the ,,war ,,xi ,,the ,,war ,,and ,,education ,,xii ,,socialism ,,and ,,the ,,war ,,xiii ,,the ,,war ,,and ,,feminism ,,xiv ,,the ,,transformation ,,of ,,democracy ,,xv ,,democracy ,,and ,,education ,,xvi ,,menaces ,,of ,,democracy ,,xvii ,,the ,,dilemma ,,of ,,democracy ,,xviii ,,paternalism ,,versus ,,democracy ,,xix ,,the ,,solution ,,for ,,democracy ,,xx ,,training ,,for ,,moral ,,leadership ,,xxi ,,democracy ,,and ,,sacrifice ,,xxii ,,the ,,hour ,,of ,,sacrifice ,,the ,,soul ,,of ,,democracy ,i ,,the ,,world ,,tragedy ,we are living under the shadow of the greatest world tragedy in the history of mankind4 ,not even the overthrow of the old ,roman empire was so colossal a disaster as this4 ,inevitably we are bewildered by it4 ,utterly unanticipated1 at least in its world extent1 for we had believed mankind too far advanced for such a chaos of brute force to recur1 it overwhelms our vision4 ,man had been going forward steadily1 inventing and discovering1 until in the last hundred years his whole world had been transformed4 ,suddenly the entire range of invention is turned against ,man4 ,the machinery of comfort and progress becomes the enginery of devastation4 ,under such a shock1 we ask1 ,has civilization over-reached itself8 ,has the machine run away with its maker8 ,the imagination is staggered4 ,we are too much in the storm to see across the storm4 ,when the ,war began1 it was over our minds as a dark cloud4 ,it was the last conscious thought as we went to sleep at night1 and the first to which we awakened in the morning3 wakening with a dumb sense of something wrong1 as if we had suffered a personal tragedy1 and then as we came to clear consciousness we said1 ,o yes1 the ,war6 ,the days have passed into weeks1 the weeks into months and years3 inevitably we become benumbed to the long continued disaster4 ,it is impossible to think deaths and mutilations in terms of millions4 ,even those who stand in the immediate presence of it and suffer most terribly become calloused to it3 much more must we who stood so long apart and have not yet felt the brunt of it4 ,even our entrance into the whirling vortex1 drawing ever nearer our shores1 has failed to waken us to a realizing sense of it4 ,nevertheless1 these years through which we are now living are the most important in the entire history of the world4 ,it is probable that the future will look back upon them as the years determining the destiny of mankind for ages to come4 ,how this terrible fact of ,war falls across all philosophies6 ,complacent optimisms1 so widely current recently1 are put out of court by it4 ,the pleasant interpretations mediocrity formulates of the universe are torn to tatters4 ,there is at least the refreshment of standing face to face with brute actuality1 though it crash all our little systems to the ground4 ,philosophy must wait4 ,the interpretations cannot be hastened1 while the facts are multiplying with such bewildering rapidity4 ,the one certainty is that an entirely new world is being born--what it will be1 no one knows4 ,nevertheless1 we have gone far enough to recognize that all our thinking will be transformed under the influence of the struggle4 ,it will be impossible for us1 after the ,war1 to do what we have done so widely hitherto3 proclaim one range of ethical ideals and standards1 and live to something widely different in practice4 ,either we shall have to abandon the standards1 or bring our conduct measurably into harmony with them4 ,we shall be unable longer to hold unconsciously in solution ,christianity and the gospel of brute force4 ,one or the other must be rejected1 or both consciously reconstructed4 ,the effect on the thought life of the world will be even greater--vastly greater--than that of the ,french ,revolution4 ,the twentieth century will differ from the nineteenth more than that did from the eighteenth4 ,the effect on the relations of different social groups throughout the world will be so far-reaching that possibly the democracy and socialism of the nineteenth century may look like remote historic phenomena1 such as the ,athenian tribal system or mediaeval feudalism4 ,thus our whole social philosophy will have to be remolded4 ,we ,americans are still in the patent medicine period of politics1 trusting to political devices on the surface for the cure of any evils that arise4 ,all across the country1 like an epidemic of disease has gone the notion --if anything is the matter with us1 just pass another law4 ,thus we are suffering under an ill-considered mass of legislation1 while blindly trusting to it to solve all problems4 ,legislation is no solution for moral evils4 ,it is possible1 to some extent1 to suppress vice by legislation1 but not to create virtue4 ,virtue can be developed only by conduct and education4 ,you cannot drive men into the kingdom of heaven with the whip of legislation2 and if you could1 you would so change the atmosphere of the place that one would prefer to take the other road4 ,if our democracy is to survive1 we must think it through2 carrying it down1 from these superficial political devices1 into our industry and commerce1 still so largely dominated by feudal ideas of the middle age1 into our science and art1 far more completely into our education1 into our social relationship1 and beyond all else1 into our fundamental attitude of mind4 ,democracy is1 at bottom1 not a series of political forms1 but a way of life4 ,thus the ,war will be the supreme test of democracy4 ,the question it will settle is this3 can free men1 by voluntary cooperation1 develop an efficiency and an endurance which will make it possible for them to stand and protect their liberties against the machinery and aggressive ambitions of autocratic empires where everything is done paternally from the top8 ,if they can1 then democracy will survive and grow as the highest form of society for ages to come2 if not1 then democracy will pass and be succeeded by some other social order4 ,that is why this ,war has been our war from the beginning1 though we have entered it so late4 ,as we look back upon the struggle of ,athens and the other free ,greek cities with the overwhelming hordes of ,asia1 at ,marathon and ,salamis1 as the conflict that saved democracy for ,europe and made possible the civilization of the ,occident1 so it is probable that the world will look back upon this colossal ,war as the same struggle1 multiplied a thousand times in the men and munitions employed1 the struggle determining the future of democracy and civilization for generations1 perhaps for all time4 ,,ii ,,the ,,conflict ,,of ,,ideas ,,in ,,the ,,war ,the world has been confused as to the issue in this ,war1 because of the multitude of its causes and of the antagonisms it involves2 yet under all the national and racial hatreds1 the economic jealousies1 certain great ideas are being tested out4 ,apologists for ,germany have told us1 even with pride1 that in ,germany the supreme conception is the dedication of ,man to the ,state4 ,this was not true of old ,germany4 ,before the formation of the ,prussian empire1 her spirit was intensely individualistic4 ,she stood preeminently for freedom of thought and action4 ,it was this that gave her noble spiritual heritage4 ,goethe is the most individualistic of world masters4 ,froebel developed1 in the ,kindergarten1 one of the purest of democracies4 ,luther and ,german protestantism represented the affirmation of individual conscience as against hierarchical control4 ,it was this spirit that gave ,germany her golden age of literature1 her unmatched group of spiritual philosophers1 her religious teachers1 her pre-eminence in music4 ,nevertheless1 the ,prussian state1 autocratic from its inception1 received philosophic justification in a series of thinkers1 culminating in ,hegel1 who regarded the individual as a capricious egotist1 the state1 incarnate in its sovereign1 as the supreme spiritual entity4 ,he justified war1 regarding it as a permanent necessity1 and practically made might1 right1 in arguing that a conquering nation is justified by its more fruitful idea in annexing the weaker1 while the conquered1 in being conquered1 is judged of ,god4 ,here is the philosophic justification of that ,prussian arrogance which in ,nietzsche is carried into glittering rhetoric4 ,thus the ,prussian state from afar back was opposed to the general spirit of old ,germany4 ,since #ahgj1 it must be admitted1 that spirit is gone4 ,with the formation of the ,prussian empire and for the half century of its existence1 every force of social control--press1 church1 state1 education1 social opinion--was deliberately employed to stamp on the ,german people one idea--the subordination of the individual to the state1 as the supreme and only virtue4 ,how far has the policy succeeded8 ,apparently absolutely4 ,to the outside observer the old spirit seems utterly gone4 ,how far this policy has been helped by the cultivation of the fear of the ,slav1 one cannot say4 ,looking at the map of ,europe1 one sees that the geographical relation of ,germany to the great ,slavic empire is not unlike the relation of ,holland to ,germany4 ,thus the deliberate fostering of fear of the vast empire of the ,east has done much to strengthen the hands of the ,prussian regime in its chosen task4 ,nevertheless1 when one recalls the spiritual heritage of ,germany3 when one thinks of ,herder1 ,schiller and ,goethe2 ,tauler1 ,luther and ,schleiermacher2 ,froebel1 ,herbart and ,richter2 ,kant1 ,fichte and ,novalis2 ,mozart1 ,beethoven and ,wagner2 one feels that something of the old ,german heritage must survive4 ,when the ,german people find out what has happened to them and why1 that heritage surely ought to show in some reaction against the present autocratic regime1 after the ,war closes1 if not before1 perhaps even to the extent of making ,germany a republic4 ,that would be some compensation for the waste and destruction of the ,war4 ,meantime ,germany stands now1 ruthlessly1 for the dedication of ,man to the ,state4 ,one can understand why a ,prussian minister forbade the teaching of ,froebel's ideas in ,prussia during the latter period of the educator's life4 ,so one understands the hatred of ,goethe because he refused allegiance to a narrow nationalism and remained cosmopolitan in his world-view4 ,similarly ,hegel1 with his justification of absolute monarchy and his theory of the ,german state as the acme of all spiritual evolution1 was the acclaimed orthodox philosopher of ,prussia1 while the individualist1 ,schopenhauer1 was neglected and despised4 ,one must have lived in ,germany to realize the absolute control of the ,state over the individual--the incessant surveillance1 the petty regulations1 the constant interference with private life4 ,it was to escape just this vexatious control1 with the arduous militarism in which it culminates1 that so vast a multitude of ,germans left their native land and came to the ,united ,states--not all of whom have shown appreciation and loyalty to the free land that welcomed them4 ,,iii ,,the ,,ideas ,,for ,,which ,,the ,,allied ,,nations ,,fight ,in contrast to the idea for which ,germany now stands1 the ,anglo-,saxon instinctively and tenaciously believes in the liberty and initiative of the individual4 ,we1 of course1 are no longer ,anglo-,saxon4 ,when ,de ,tocqueville in #ahca visited our country1 surveyed our institutions and1 after returning home1 made his trenchant diagnosis of our democracy1 he could justly designate us ,anglo-,americans4 ,that time is past2 we are to-day everything and nothing3 a great nation in the womb of time1 struggling to be born4 ,nevertheless1 ,anglo-,american ideas still dominate and inspire our civilization4 ,it is1 indeed1 remarkable to what an extent this is true1 in the face of the mingling of heterogeneous races in our population4 ,as ,english is our speech1 so ,anglo-,american ideas are still the soul of our life and institutions4 ,this is evident in the jealousy of authority4 ,we resent the intrusion of the government into affairs of private life1 and prefer to submit to annoyances and even injustice on the part of other individuals1 rather than to have protection at the price of paternalistic regulation by the state4 ,we resent any law that we do not see is necessary to the general welfare1 and are rather lawless even then4 ,this shows clearly in our reaction on legislation in regard to drink4 ,the prohibition of intoxicating liquor is about the surest way to make an ,anglo-,saxon want to go out and get drunk1 even when he has no other inclination in that direction4 ,in ,boston1 under the eleven o'clock closing law1 men in public restaurants will at times order1 at ten minutes of eleven1 eight or ten glasses of beer or whiskey1 for fear they might want them1 whereas1 if the restriction had not been present1 two or three would have sufficed4 ,not long ago we saw the very labor leaders who forced the ,adamson law through congress1 threatening to disobey any legislation limiting their own freedom of action1 even though vitally necessary to the freedom of all4 ,the general behavior under automobile and traffic regulation illustrates the tendency evenmore clearly4 ,thinking over the list of acquaintances who own automobiles1 one finds it hard to recall one who would not break the speed law at a convenient opportunity4 ,even a staid college professor1 who has walked the walled-in path all his life3 let him get a ,ford runabout1 and in three months he is exultant in running as close as possible to every foot traveler and in exceeding the speed limit at any favorable chance4 ,these are not beautiful expressions of our national spirit1 but they serve to illustrate our instinctive individualism4 ,especially are we jealous of highly centralized authority4 ,de ,tocqueville argued that we would never be able to develop a strong central government1 and that our democracy would be menaced with failure by that lack4 ,that his prophecy has proved false and our federal government has become so strong is due only to the accidents of our history and the exigency of the tremendous problems we have had to solve4 ,the same individualistic spirit is strong in ,england4 ,it has been particularly evident1 during the ,war1 in the resentment of military authority as applied to labor conditions4 ,the artisans and their leaders dreaded to give up liberties for which they had struggled through generations1 for fear that those rights would not be readily accorded them again after the ,war4 ,it must be admitted that this fear is justified4 ,the same spirit was evident in the fight on conscription4 ,this attitude has been a handicap to ,england in successfully carrying on the ,war1 as it is to us2 but it shows how strong is the essential spirit of democracy in both lands4 ,in ,france1 the ,revolution was at bottom an affirmation of individualism --of the right of the people1 as against classes and kings1 to seek life1 liberty and happiness4 ,the great words1 ,liberty1 ,equality1 ,fraternity1 that the ,french placed upon their public buildings in the period of the ,revolution1 are the essential battle-cry of true democracy1--as it is to be1 rather than as it is at present4 ,through her peculiar situation1 threatened and overshadowed by potential enemies1 ,france has been forced to a policy of militarism1 with a large subordination of the individual to the state4 ,the subordination1 however1 is voluntary4 ,that is touchingly evident in the beautiful fraternization of ,french officers and men in the present ,war4 ,with our ,anglo-,saxon reserve1 we smile at the pictures of grave generals kissing bearded soldiers1 in recognition of valor1 but it is a significant expression of the voluntary equality and brotherhood of ,frenchmen in this ,war4 ,the reason ,france has risen with such splendid courage and unity is the consciousness of every ,frenchman that complete defeat in this ,war would mean that there would be no ,france in the future1 that ,paris would be a larger ,strassburg1 and ,france a greater ,alsace-,lorraine4 ,while the subordination has been thus voluntary1 surely the ,french soldiers1 man for man1 have proved themselves the equal of any soldiers on earth4 ,the anomaly of the first two years of the ,war was the presence of the vast ,russian autocratic empire on the side of the allied democracies4 ,for ,russia1 however1 the ,war was of the people1 rather than of the autocracy at the top1 and one saw that ,russia would emerge from the ,war changed and purified4 ,what one could not foresee was that1 under the awakening of the people1 ,russia could pass1 in a day1 through a ,revolution as profound in its character and consequences as the great explosion in ,france4 ,it would be almost a miracle if so complete a ,revolution1 in such a vast1 benighted empire1 were not followed by decades of recurrent chaos and anarchy4 ,if ,russia avoids this fate1 she will present a unique experience in history4 ,the tendency to abrogate all authority1 the spectacle of regiments of soldiers becoming debating societies to discuss whether or not they shall obey orders and fight1 are ominous signs for the next period4 ,emancipated ,russia must learn1 if necessary through bitter suffering1 that liberty is not license1 that democracy is not anarchy1 but voluntary and intelligent obedience to just laws and the chosen executors of those laws4 ,meantime1 whatever her immediate future may be1 ,russia's transformation has clarified the issue and justified her place with the allied democracies4 ,however long and confused her struggle1 there can be no return to the past1 and1 in the end1 her ,revolution means democracy4 ,thus1 in democracy1 the ,state exists for ,man4 ,other forms of society seek the interest or welfare of an individual1 a group or a class1 democracy aims at the welfare1 that is1 the liberty1 happiness1 growth1 intelligence1 helpfulness of all the people4 ,under all the welter of this world struggle1 it is therefore these great contrasting ideas that are being tested out1 perhaps for all time4 ,what is their relative value for efficiency1 initiative1 invention1 endurance1 permanence2 beneath all1 what is their final value for the happiness and helpfulness of all human beings8 ,,iv ,,moral ,,standards ,,and ,,the ,,moral ,,order ,there is only one moral order of the universe--one range of moral as of physical law4 ,for instance1 the law of gravitation--simplest of physical principles--holds the last star in the abyss of space1 rounds the dew-drop on the petal of a spring violet and determines the symmetry of living organisms2 but it is one and unchanging1 a fundamental pull in the nature of matter itself4 ,so with moral laws3 they are not superadded to life by some divine or other authority4 ,they are simply the fundamental principles in the nature of life itself1 which we must obey to grow and be happy4 ,if the moral order is one and unchanging1 man does change in relation to it1 and moral standards are relative to the stage of his growth4 ,history is filled with illustrations of this relativity of ethical standards4 ,for instance3 human slavery doubtless began as an act of beneficence on the part of some philanthropist well in advance of his age4 ,the first man who1 in the dim dawn of history1 said to the captive he had made in war1 ,i will not kill you and eat you2 ,i will let you live and work for me the rest of your life3 that man instituted human slavery2 but it was distinctly a step upward1 from something that had been far worse4 ,homer represents ,ulysses as the favorite pupil of ,pallas ,athena1 goddess of wisdom3 why8 ,baldly stated1 because ,ulysses was the shrewdest and most successful liar in classic antiquity4 ,if ,ulysses were to appear in a society of decent men to-day1 he would be excluded from their companionship1 and for the same reason that led ,homer to glorify him as the favorite pupil of the goddess of wisdom4 ,thus what is a virtue at one stage of development becomes a vice as man climbs to higher recognition of the moral order4 ,just because the moral standard is relative1 it is absolutely binding where it applies4 ,in other words1 if you see the light shining on your path1 you owe obedience to the light2 one who does not see it1 does not owe obedience in the same way4 ,if you do not obey your light1 your punishment is that you lose the light--degenerate to a lower plane1 and it is the worst punishment imaginable4 ,thus the same act may be for the undeveloped life1 non-moral1 for the developed1 distinctly immoral4 ,before the instincts of personal modesty and purity were developed1 careless sex-promiscuity meant something entirely different from what a descent to it means in our society4 ,when a man of some primitive tribe went out and killed a man of another tribe1 the action was totally different morally from 4the murder by a man of one community of a citizen of a neighboring town to-day4 ,this gradual elevation of moral standards1 or growth in the recognition of the sacredness of life and the obligation to other individuals1 can be traced historically as a long and confused process4 ,there was a time1 in the remote past1 when no law was recognized except that of the strong arm4 ,the man who wanted anything1 took it1 if he was strong enough1 and others submitted to his superior force4 ,then follows an age when the family is the supreme social unit4 ,each member of the family group feels the pain or pleasure of all the others as something like his own1 but all outside this circle are as the beasts4 ,this is the condition among the ,veddahs of ,ceylon1 studied so interestingly by ,haeckel4 ,living in isolated family groups1 scattered through the tropical wilderness3 one man1 one woman and their children forming the social unit3 they as nearly represent primitive life as any other body of people now on the earth4 ,then follows a long roll of ages when the tribe is the highest social unit4 ,each member of the tribe is conscious of the sacredness of life of all the other members and of some obligation toward them2 but men of other tribes may be slain as freely as the beasts4 ,then comes a period when appreciation of the sacredness of life is extended over all those of the same race1 tested generally by their speaking somewhat the same language4 ,that was the condition in classic antiquity3 it was ,jew and ,gentile1 ,greek and barbarian--the very word barbarous coming from the unintelligible sounds1 to the ,greeks1 of those who spoke other than the ,hellenic tongue4 ,even ,plato1 with all his far-sighted humanism1 says1 in the ,republic1 that in the ideal state1 ,greeks should deal with barbarians as ,greeks now deal with one another4 ,if one remembers what occurred in the ,peloponnesian war--how ,greek men voted to kill all the men of military age in a conquered ,greek city and sell all the women and children into slavery--one will see that ,plato's dream of humanity was not so very wide4 ,from that time on1 there has been further extension of the appreciation of the sacredness of life and of the consciousness of moral obligation toward other human beings4 ,we are far from the end of the path4 ,our sympathies are still limited by accidents of time and place1 race and color2 but we have gone far enough to see what the end would be1 were we to reach it3 a sympathy so wide1 an appreciation of the sacredness of life so universal1 that each of us would feel the joy or sorrow of every other human being1 alive to-day or to be alive to-morrow1 as something like his own4 ,moreover1 in all civilized society1 we have gone far enough to renounce the right to private vengeance and adjustment of quarrels3 we live under established courts of law1 with organized civil force to carry out their judgments4 ,this gives relative peace and security1 and a general1 if imperfect1 application of the moral law4 ,v ,,the ,,present ,,state ,,of ,,international ,,relations ,the astounding anomaly of modern civilization is the way we have lagged behind in applying to groups and nations of men the moral laws1 universally recognized as binding over individuals4 ,for instance1 about twenty years ago we coined and used widely the phrase1 soulless corporation1 to designate our great combinations of capital in industry and commerce4 ,why was that phrase used so widely8 ,the answer is illuminating3 we took it for granted that an individual employer would treat his artisans to some extent as human beings and not merely as cog-wheels in a productive machine2 but we also took it for granted that an impersonal corporation1 where no individual was dominantly responsible1 would regard its artisans merely as pieces of machinery1 with no respect whatever for their humanity4 ,the supreme paradox1 however1 is in the relation of nations3 it is there that we have most amazingly lagged behind in applying the moral laws universally accepted in the relations of individuals4 ,for instance1 long before this ,war began we heard it proclaimed1 even proudly1 by certain philosophers1 in more than one nation1 that the state is the supreme spiritual unit1 that there is no law higher than its interest1 that the state makes the law and may break it at will4 ,when a great statesman in ,germany1 doubtless in a moment of intense anger and irritation1 used the phrase that has gone all across the earth1 scrap of paper1 for a sacred treaty between nations1 he was only making a pungent practical application of the philosophy in question4 ,do we regard self-preservation as the highest law for the individual8 ,distinctly not4 ,here is a crowded theater and a sudden cry of fire1 with the ensuing panic3 if strong men trample down and kill women and children1 in the effort to save their own lives1 we regard them with loathing and contempt4 ,on the other hand1 it is just this plea of national self-preservation that the ,german regime has used in cynical justification of its every atrocity--the initial violation of ,belgium1 the making war ruthlessly on civil populations1 the atrocious spying and plotting in the bosom of neutral and friendly nations1 the destruction of monuments of art and devastation of the cities1 fields1 orchards and forests of northern ,france1 and finally the submarine warfare on the world's shipping4 ,no civilized human being would1 for a moment1 think of using the plea of self-preservation to justify comparable conduct in individual life4 ,consider international diplomacy3 much of it has been merely shrewd and skillful lying4 ,if you will review the list of the most famous diplomats of ,europe for the last thousand years1 you will find that a considerable portion of them won their fame and reputation by being a little more shrewd and successful liars than the diplomats with whom they had to deal in other lands4 ,in other words1 their conduct has been exactly on the plane that ,ulysses represented in personal life1 afar back in classic antiquity4 ,take an illustration a little nearer home4 ,if you were doing business on one side of the street and had two competitors in the same line1 across the way1 and a cyclone swept the town1 destroying their establishments and sparing yours3 you1 as an individual1 would be ashamed to take advantage of the disaster under which your rivals were suffering1 using the time while they were out of business to lure their customers away from them and bind those customers to you so securely that your competitors would never be able to get them back4 ,you would scorn such conduct as an individual2 but when it comes to a relation of the nations3 during the first two years of the ,war1 from the highest government circles down to the smallest country newspaper1 we were urged to take advantage of the disaster under which our ,european rivals were suffering1 win their international customers away from them and bind those customers to us so securely that ,europe would never be able to get them back4 ,not that we were urged to industry and enterprise--that is always right--but actually to seek to profit by the sufferings of others--conduct we would regard as utterly unworthy in personal life4 ,if your neighbor were to say1 ,my personal aspirations demand this portion of your front yard1 and he were to attempt to fence it in3 the situation is unimaginable2 but when a nation says1 ,my national aspirations demand this portion of your territory1 and proceeds to annex it3 if the nation is strong enough to carry it out1 a large part of the world acquiesces4 ,the relations of nations are thus still largely on the plane of primitive life among individuals1 or1 since nations are made up of civilized and semi-civilized persons1 it would be fairer to say that the relations of nations are comparable to those prevailing among individuals when a group of men goes far out from civil society1 to the frontier1 beyond the reach of courts of law and their police forces3 then nearly always there is a reversion to the rule of the strong arm4 ,that is what ,kipling meant in exclaiming1 ,there's never a law of ,god or man runs north of fifty-three4 ,that condition prevailed all across our frontier in the early days4 ,for instance1 the cattle men came1 pasturing their herds on the hills and plains1 using the great expanse of land not yet taken up by private ownership4 ,a little later came the sheep men1 with vast flocks of sheep1 which nibbled every blade of grass and other edible plant down to the ground1 thus starving out the cattle4 ,what followed8 ,the cattle men got together by night1 rode down the sheep-herders1 shot them or drove them out1 or were themselves driven out4 ,so on the frontier1 in the early days1 a weakling staked out an agricultural or mining claim4 ,a ruffian appears1 who is a sure shot1 jumps the claim and drives the other out4 ,it was the rule of the strong arm1 and it was evident on the frontier all across the country4 ,this is exactly the state that a considerable part of the world has reached in international relationship to-day4 ,claim-jumping is still accepted and widely practised among the nations4 ,that is1 in fact1 the way in which all empires have been built--by a succession of successful claim-jumpings4 ,consider the most impressive of them all1 the old ,roman empire4 ,rome was a city near the mouth of the ,tiber4 ,she reached out and conquered a few neighboring cities in the ,latin plain1 binding them securely to herself by domestic and economic ties4 ,then she extended her power south and north1 crossed into northern ,africa1 conquered ,gaul and ,spain1 swept ,asia ,minor1 until a territory three thousand by two thousand miles in extent was under the sway of her all-conquering arm4 ,what justified ,rome1 as far as she had justification1 was the remarkable strength and wisdom with which she established law and order and the protections of civil society over all the conquered territory1 until often the subject populations were glad they had come under the all-dominant sway of ,rome1 since their situation was so much more peaceful and happy than before4 ,such justification1 however1 is after the fact3 it is not moral justification of the building of the empire4 ,that represented a succession of claim-jumpings4 ,for an illustration from more modern history1 take the greatest international crime of the last five hundred years1 with one exception-- the partition of ,poland4 ,it is true the ,polish nobles were a nuisance to their neighbors1 ever quarreling among themselves1 with no central authority powerful enough to restrain them1 but that did not justify the action taken4 ,three nations1 or rather the autocratic sovereigns of those nations1 powerful enough to accomplish the crime1 agreed to partition ,poland among themselves4 ,they did it1 with the result that there are plenty of ,poles in the world to-day1 but there is no ,poland4 ,consider the possession of ,silesia by ,prussia4 ,silesia was an integral part of the ,austrian domain1 long so recognized4 ,friedrich the ,great wanted it4 ,he annexed it4 ,the deed caused him many years of recurring1 devastating wars2 again and again he was near the point of utter defeat2 but he succeeded in bringing the war to a successful conclusion1 and ,silesia is part of ,prussia to-day4 ,the strong arm conquest is the only reason4 ,so is it with ,germany's possession of ,schleswig-,holstein1 with ,austria in ,herzegovina and ,bosnia1 ,france in ,algiers1 ,italy in ,tripoli3 they are all instances of claim-jumping1 reprehensible in varying degrees4 ,i suppose no thoughtful ,englishman would attempt to justify1 on high moral grounds1 the building up of the ,british empire3 for instance1 the possession of ,egypt and ,india by ,britain4 ,how does ,india happen to be a part of the ,british realm8 ,every one knows the answer4 ,the ,east ,india ,company was simply the most adventurous and enterprising trading company then in the world4 ,it grew rich trading with the ,orient1 established the supremacy of the ,british merchant marine1 got into difficulties with ,french rivals and native rulers1 fought brilliantly for its rights1 as it had every reason to do1 conquered territory and consolidated its possessions1 ruling chiefly through native princes4 ,it became so powerful that it did not seem wise to the ,british government to permit a private corporation to exercise such ever-growing political authority4 ,it was regulated1 and in the end abolished1 by act of ,parliament2 its possessions were taken over by the ,crown2 the conquests were extended and completed1 and ,india today is a gem in the crown of the ,british empire4 ,what justifies ,britain1 as far as she has justification1 is the remarkable wisdom and generosity with which she has extended1 not onlylaw and order and protection to life and property1 but freedom and autonomous self-government1 to her colonies and subject populations1 with certain tragic exceptions1 about as fast as this could safely be done4 ,it is that which holds the ,british empire together4 ,great irregular empire1 stretching over a large part of the globe3 but for this it would fall to pieces over night4 ,it would be impossible for force1 administered at the top1 to hold it together4 ,the splendid response of her colonies in this ,war has been purely voluntary4 ,that ,canada has four hundred thousand trained men at the front1 or ready to go1 is due wholly to her free response to the wise generosity of ,england's policy1 and in no degree to compulsion1 which would have been impossible4 ,this justification of the ,british empire is1 nevertheless1 as in the case of ,rome1 after the fact1 and does not justify morally the building up of the empire4 ,our own hands are not entirely clean4 ,it is true we came late on the stage of history1 and1 starting as a democracy1 were instinctively opposed to empire building4 ,thus our brief record is cleaner than that of the older nations4 ,nevertheless1 there are examples of claim-jumping in our history4 ,the most tragic of all is a large part of our treatment of the ,american ,indians4 ,it is true1 with ,anglo-,saxon hypocrisy1 we tried to make every steal a bargain4 ,many an expanse of territory has been bought with a jug of rum4 ,the ,indian knew nothing about the ownership of land2 we did4 ,so we made the deed1 and he accepted it4 ,then1 to his surprise1 he found he had to move off from land where for generations his ancestors had hunted and fought1 with no idea of private ownership4 ,so we pushed him on and on4 ,of late decades we have become ashamed1 tried in awkward fashion to render some compensation for the wrongs done1 but the larger part of the story is sad indeed4 ,there is1 of course1 another side to all this3 the more highly developed nations do owe leadership and service in helping those below to climb the path of civilization2 but let one answer fairly how much of empire building has been due to this altruistic spirit1 and how much to selfishness and the lust for power and possession4 ,,vi ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,international ,,relationship ,we have seen that all empires have been built up by a series of successful aggressions1 and that claim-jumping still characterizes the relations of the nations4 ,nevertheless1 there has been some progress in applying to groups and nations the moral principles we recognize as binding upon individuals4 ,consider again our internal life3 it was twenty years ago that we coined and used so widely the phrase soulless corporations for our great combinations of capital in industry4 ,to-day that phrase is rarely heard4 ,one sees it seldom even in the pages of surviving muck-raking magazines4 ,why has a phrase1 used so widely in the past1 all but disappeared8 ,again the answer is illuminating3 there has been tremendous growth in twenty years1 on the part of our great corporations1 in treating their employees as human beings and not merely as cog-wheels in a productive machine4 ,when the greatest corporation in the ,united ,states voluntarily raises the wages of all its employees in the country ten per cent41 five several times1 within a few months1 as the ,steel trust has recently done1 something has happened4 ,it may be said1 they did it because it was good business3 twenty years ago they would not have recognized that it was good business4 ,it may be said1 they did it to avoid strikes3 twenty years ago they would have welcomed the strikes1 fought them through and gained what selfish advantage was possible4 ,the point is1 there has been vast increase in the consciousness of moral responsibility on the part of corporations toward their artisans4 ,this has been due partly to legislation1 but mainly to education and the awakening of public conscience4 ,if you wish to find the greatest arrogance and selfishness now1 you will discover it1 not among the capitalists3 they are timid and submissive--strangely so4 ,you will find it rather in certain leaders of the labor movement1 with their consciousness of newly-gained powers4 ,some growth there has been in the application of the same moral principles even to the relations of the nations4 ,for instance3 a hundred years ago the ,napoleonic wars had just come to an end4 ,in the days of ,napoleon men generally gloried in war2 to-day most of them bitterly regret it1 and fight because they believe they are fighting for high moral aims or for national self-preservation1 whether they are right or wrong4 ,when ,napoleon conquered a country1 often he pushed the weakling king off the throne1 and replaced him with a member of his own family--at times a worse weakling4 ,think of such a thing being attempted to-day3 it is unimaginable1 unless the worst tyranny on earth got the upper hand for the next three hundred years of human history4 ,a more pungent illustration of progress is the feverish desire1 shown by each of the combatants in this world struggle1 to prove that he did not begin it4 ,now some one began it4 ,a hundred years ago belligerents would not have been so anxious to prove their innocence3 then victory closed all accounts and no one went behind the returns4 ,the feverish anxiety each combatant has shown to establish his innocence of initiating this devastating ,war is conclusive proof that even the worst of them recognizes that they all must finally stand before the moral court of the world's conscience and be judged4 ,the same tendency is shown in the efforts of ,germany--grotesquely and tragically sophistical as they are-- to justify her ever-expanding1 freshly-invented atrocities4 ,at least she is aware that they require justification4 ,this explains why we react so bitterly even on what would have been accepted a century ago4 ,what was taken for granted yesterday is not tolerated to-day1 and what is taken for granted to-day will not be tolerated in a to-morrow that maybe is not so distant as in our darker moments we imagine4 ,what would be the conclusion of this process8 ,it would be1 would it not1 the complete application to the relations of the nations1 of the moral principles universally accepted as binding upon individuals8 ,if it is true that the moral order of the universe is one and unchanging1 then what is right for a man is right for a nation of men1 and what is wrong for a man is wrong for a nation2 and no fallacious reasoning should be allowed to blind us to that basic truth4 ,this would mean the end of all diplomacy of lying and deceit4 ,the relations of the nations would be placed on the same plane of relative honesty and frankness now prevailing among individuals3 not absolute truth--few of us practice that--but that general ability to trust each other1 in word and conduct1 that is the foundation of our business and social life4 ,it would mean the end of empire building4 ,those empires that exist would fall naturally into their component parts4 ,if those parts remained affiliated with the central government1 it would be only through the voluntary choice of the majority of the population dwelling upon the territory4 ,thus every people would be affiliated with the government to which it naturally belonged and with which it wished to be affiliated4 ,it would mean finally a voluntary federation of the nations1 with the establishment of a world court of justice2 but no weak-kneed1 spineless arbitration court3 rather a court of justice1 comparable to those established over individuals1 whose judgments would be enforced by an international military and naval police1 contributed by the federated nations4 ,people misunderstand this proposal4 ,they imagine it would mean the giving over of the entire military and naval equipment of each federated nation to the central court4 ,far from it3 each nation would retain1 for defense purposes1 the mass of its manhood and the larger fraction of its limited equipment1 while a minor fraction would be contributed to the world court4 ,when this is achieved there will be1 for the first time in the history of the world1 the dawn of the longed-for era of universal and relatively permanent peace for mankind4 ,it is a far-off dream1 is it not8 ,let us admit it frankly1 and it seems further off than it did four years ago2 for the approximations to it1 achieved through international law1 we have seen go down in a blind welter1 through the invention of new instruments of destruction and the willful perpetration of illegal and immoral atrocities in this horrible ,war4 ,nevertheless1 it is not so far off as in ourdarker moments we fear4 ,if this world ,war ends justly2 which means if it ends so that the people dwelling on any territory are affiliated with the government to which they naturally belong and with which they wish to be affiliated1 the dream will be brought appreciably nearer4 ,if the ,war ends unjustly1 which means if it ends with the gratification of the ambitions of aggressive tyranny1 the dream will be put remotely far off4 ,if a peace is patched up meantime1 with no solution1 it will mean ,europe sleeping on its arms1 and the breaking out of the war with multiplied devastation within twenty years4 ,that is why these blithely undertaken peace missions and other efforts at peace without victory1 even when not cloaks for pro-,german movements1 are such preposterous absurdities or else play directly into the hands of tyranny4 ,at best1 however1 the dream is a long way ahead4 ,men dislike to give up power1 nations equally4 ,it will take a long process of international moral education to induce the nations to renounce their arbitrary powers1 their right to adjust all their own quarrels1 and lead them to enter voluntarily a federation under a world court of ,justice4 ,this1 nevertheless1 is the hope of the world1 toward which we should work with all our might4 ,,vii ,,america',s ,,duty ,,in ,,international ,,relations ,since the world solution is1 at best1 so remote1 our question is3 what are we to do meantime8 ,our entrance into the ,war partially answers the question4 ,we have before us the immediate task of aiding in overthrowing autocracy and tyranny and of defending our liberties and those of the nations that stand for democracy4 ,this is the first duty1 but not the only one4 ,more definitely than any other nation we have thrown down to the world the challenge of democracy4 ,we have said1 ,away with kings1 we will have no more of them6 ,away with castes and ruling classes1 we will have no more of them6 ,as a matter of fact1 democracies have no rulers--the word survives from an older order of society--they have guides1 leaders and representatives4 ,if you wish to use the word1 in a democracy every man is the ruler--and every woman too1 we hope1 before long4 ,to this ideal we are committed and it carries certain obligations2 for every right carries a duty1 and every duty1 a right4 ,often the best way to get a privilege is by assuming a responsibility4 ,that is a truth it would be well for the leaders of the feminist and labor movements to recognize4 ,the obligations carried by the challenge of our democracy are clear4 ,we ,americans should have done1 once and for all time1 with the diplomacy of lying and deceit4 ,fortunately our recent traditions are in harmony with this demand2 but we should not depend upon the happy accident of an administration which takes the right attitude4 ,it should be the open and universal demand of the ,american people that those who represent us shall place the relations we sustain to other nations permanently on the same plane of frank honesty1 generally prevailing among individuals4 ,incidentally1 any politician or statesman who1 at this heart-breaking crisis of the world's life1 dares play party politics with our international relations1 should be damned forever by the vote of the ,american people4 ,further1 it is our duty to have done with all dream of empire building4 ,it is not for us3 let us abandon it frankly and forever4 ,those dependencies which have come to us through the accidents of our history should be granted autonomous self-government at the earliest moment at which they can safely take it over--which does not necessarily mean to-morrow4 ,if they remain affiliated with us it should be only through the voluntary choice of the majority of the population dwelling upon them4 ,it is1 moreover1 our duty to lead the world in the effort to form a federation of the nations and establish the aforesaid world court of justice1 with the international military and naval police to enforce its judgments4 ,more than this is demanded3 on the basis of the challenge of our democracy1 it is our duty to rise to the point of placing justice higher than commercial interest4 ,it is a hard demand2 but1 with the latent idealism in our ,american life1 surely we can rise to it4 ,for instance1 the vexed puzzle of the tariff will never be justly and permanently settled1 till it is settled primarily as a problem of moral international relationship1 and not as one merely of economic interest and advantage4 ,for example1 a tariff wall between the ,united ,states and ,canada is as preposterous an absurdity as would be a long line of bristling fortifications along the three thousand and more miles of international boundary4 ,we are not protecting ourselves from slave labor over there4 ,they are not protecting themselves from slave labor here4 ,barring a few lines of industry1 there are the same conditions of labor1 production and distribution both sides of the line4 ,the only reason for a tariff wall is their wish1 or our wish1 or the wish of each1 to gain some advantage at the expense of the other party4 ,now every business man knows that any trade that benefits one and injures the other party to it is bad business1 as well as bad ethics1 in the long run4 ,good business benefits both traders all the time4 ,on the other hand1 when it comes to protecting our labor from competition with slave labor in other quarters of the earth1 we have not only the right1 but the duty to do it4 ,so when it is a matter of protecting our industries from being swamped by the unloading of vast quantities of goods1 produced under the feverish and abnormal conditions1 sure to prevail in ,europe after the ,war1 we have again1 not only the right1 but the duty to do it4 ,finally1 a still higher call is upon us3 we must somehow rise to the point of placing humanity above the nation4 ,it is true1 ,charity begins at home1 certainly justice should4 ,one should educate one's own children1 before worrying over the children of the neighborhood2 clean up one's own town1 before troubling about the city further away4 ,often the whole is helped best by serving the part2 but it is with national patriotism as it is with family affection4 ,the latter is a lovely quality and the source of much that is best in the world2 but when family affection is an instrument for gaining special privilege at the expense of the good of society1 a means of attaining debauching luxury and selfish aggrandisement1 it is an abomination4 ,the man who prays ,god's blessing on himself1 his wife and his children1 and nobody else1 is a mean man1 and he never gets blessed--not from ,god4 ,similarly1 the man who seeks the interest of his own nation1 against the welfare of mankind1 who prays ,god's blessing only on his own people1 is equally a mean man1 and his prayer1 also1 is never answered from the ,most ,high4 ,the world has advanced too far for the spirit of a narrow nationalism4 ,the recrudescence of such a spirit is one of the sad consequences of this world ,war4 ,only in a spirit of international brotherhood1 in dedication to the welfare of humanity1 can democracy go towards its goal4 ,these are the obligations following upon the challenge of democracy we have proclaimed to the nations4 ,,viii ,,the ,,gospel ,,and ,,the ,,superstition ,,of ,,non-,,resistance ,the first condition of fulfilling the responsibilities imposed upon us by the challenge of our democracy is1 now and hereafter1 readiness and willingness for self-respecting self-defense1 defense of our liberties and of the principles and ideals for which we stand4 ,there is much nonsense talked about non-resistance to evil4 ,it is a lovely thing in certain high places of the moral life4 ,it was well that ,socrates remained in the common criminal prison in ,athens and drank the hemlock poison2 but nine times out of ten it would have been better to run away1 as he had an opportunity to do4 ,it was good that ,jesus healed the ear of the servant of the high priest1--and good that ,st4 ,peter cut it off4 ,in other words1 acts of non-resistance and self-sacrifice are fine flowers of the moral life2 but you cannot have flowers unless their roots are below ground1 otherwise they quickly wither4 ,thus1 to have sound value1 these acts of non-resistance and self-sacrifice must rest on a solid foundation of self-affirmation and resistance to evil4 ,as with the individual1 so with the nation3 there come high moments in a nation's life1 when a strong people might resist and deliberately chooses not to4 ,as an illustration1 take our ,mexican problem4 ,the announcement that under no circumstances would we intervene1 may have led to misunderstanding4 ,our purpose to let the ,mexican people work out their own problem may have been taken to mean that we would not justly protect ourselves1 with consequent encouragement to border raiding4 ,nevertheless1 if there has been any error in handling the situation1 it has been on the better side--on the side of patience1 generosity1 long-suffering1 giving the other fellow another chance1 and another and another1 even though he does not deserve them4 ,now that is not the side on which human nature usually errs4 ,the common temptation is to selfishness and unjust aggression4 ,since that is the case1 if we cannot strike the just balance1 it is better to push too far on the other side and avoid the common mistake4 ,suppose1 after the ,war1 ,japan1 alone or in conjunction with one or another ,european power1 closes the door to ,china3 one can imagine circumstances where we1 with the right to insist that the door be kept open1 and perhaps1 by that time1 something of the strength to enforce that right1 might deliberately say1 ,no1 we will not resist4 ,not that1 with our present situation1 such action is desirable1 but that one can imagine conditions arising where it might be the higher choice4 ,let me repeat that1 for the nation as with the individual1 these high moments must rest on something else4 ,they are the high mountain peaks of the moral life2 but detached mountain peaks are impossible1--except as a mirage4 ,they must rest upon the granite foundation of the hills and plateaus below4 ,so these high virtues of non-resistance1 magnanimity and self-sacrifice must always rest upon the granite foundation of the masculine virtues of self-affirmation1 endurance1 heroism1 strong conflict with evil4 ,it takes strength to make magnanimity and self-sacrifice possible1 if their lesson is not lost4 ,a weak man cannot be magnanimous1 since his generosity is mistaken for servile cowardice4 ,after all1 the best time to forgive your enemy1 for his good and yours1 is not when he has his foot on your neck3 he is apt to misunderstand and think you are afraid4 ,it is often better to wait until you can get on your feet and face him1 man to man1 and then if you can forgive him1 it is so much the better for you1 for him and for all concerned4 ,thus there are two opposite lines of error in the moral life4 ,the philosophy of the one is given by ,nietzsche1 while ,tolstoy1 in certain extremes of his teaching1 represents the other4 ,nietzsche1 ,i suppose1 should be regarded as a symptom1 rather than a cause of anything important2 but the ancestors of ,nietzsche were ,goethe and ,ibsen1 with their splendid gospel of self-realization4 ,nietzsche1 on the contrary1 with his contempt for the morality of ,christianity as the morality of slaves and weaklings1 with his eulogy of the blond brute striding over forgotten multitudes of his weaker fellows to a stultifying isolation apart--,nietzsche is self-realization in the mad-house4 ,it has always seemed to me not without significance that his own life ended there4 ,on the other hand1 when ,tolstoy responded to an inquirer that1 if he saw a child being attacked by a brutal ruffian1 he would not use force to intervene and protect the child3 that1 too1 is non-resistance fit for the insane asylum4 ,one of these is just as far from sane1 balanced human morality as the other4 ,it is a terrible thing to suffer injustice2 it is far worse to perpetrate it4 ,if one had to choose between being victim or tyrant1 one would always choose to be victim3 it is safer for the moral life and there is more recovery afterward4 ,if1 however1 it is better to suffer injustice than to perpetrate it1 better than either is to resist it1 fight it and1 if possible1 overthrow it4 ,it has been said so many times by extreme pacifists that even sane human beings sometimes take it for granted1 that force never accomplished anything permanent in human history4 ,it is false1 and the reasoning by which it is supported involves the most sophistical of fallacies4 ,all depends on who uses the force and the purpose for which it is used4 ,the force employed by tyranny and injustice accomplishes nothing permanent in history4 ,why8 ,because tyranny and injustice are in their very nature transient1 they are opposed to the moral order of the universe and1 in the end1 must pass4 ,on the other hand1 the force employed on the part of liberty and justice has attained most of the ends of civilization we cherish to-day4 ,the force of the million of mercenaries1 collected through ,asia and ,africa by ,darius and ,xerxes1 to overwhelm a few ,greek cities1 accomplished nothing permanent in history2 but the force of the ten thousand ,athenians who fought at ,marathon and of the other thousands at ,salamis1 saved democracy for ,europe and made possible the civilization of the ,occident4 ,the force employed by ,king ,louis of ,france to support a tottering throne and continue the exploitation of the people by an idle and selfish aristocratic caste1 accomplished nothing permanent in history2 but the force of those ,frenchmen who marched upon ,paris1 singing the ,marseillaise1 made possible the freedom and culture of the last hundred years4 ,the force employed by ,king ,george of ,england1 to wring taxes without representation from reluctant colonies1 accomplished nothing permanent in history1 but the force which1 at ,bunker ,hill and ,concord ,bridge1 fired the shot heard round the world1 achieved the liberty and democracy of the ,american continent4 ,it may be freely admitted that all use of force is a confession of failure to find a better way4 ,if you use force in the education of a child1 it is such a confession of failure4 ,so is it if force is used in controlling defectives and criminals1 or in adjusting the relations of the nations2 but note that the failure may be one for which the individual parent1 teacher1 society1 state or nation is in no degree responsible4 ,force is a tragic weapon--and the ultimate one4 ,,ix ,,preparedness ,,for ,,self-,,defense ,since force is still the weapon of international justice1 readiness and willingness to use it for defense1 when necessary1 is then the first condition of fulfilling the aims and serving the causes for which ,america stands4 ,in other words1 since the relations of the nations are still so largely those of individuals under the conditions of frontier life1 as with the honest man on the frontier1 so for the self-respecting1 peace-loving nation to-day1 it is well to carry a gun and know how to shoot4 ,carrying a gun is a dangerous practice1 for two reasons3 it may go off in your pocket2 you may get drunk and shoot when you ought not4 ,those are the only two rational arguments against national preparation for defense1 in the present state of the world4 ,let us see4 ,the gun may go off in your pocket3 that is1 if a strong armament for defense is built up1 there is always danger that it may be used internally1 against the people1 unjustly4 ,that1 indeed1 has been one of the curses of ,europe for a thousand years4 ,it is a grave danger1 but recognizing it is partly forestalling it2 moreover1 we would better face that danger than one far worse4 ,so with the other menace3 you may get drunk and shoot when you ought not4 ,nations get drunk3 they get drunk with pride1 arrogance1 aggressive ambition1 revenge1 even with panic terror1 and so shoot when they should not4 ,this1 also1 is a grave danger2 but here1 as well1 recognizing it is part way forestalling it1 and this danger1 too1 we would better face than one far more terrible4 ,moreover1 it is armament for the gratification of aggressive ambition1 and under the control of the arbitrary authority of a despotic individual or group1 that tends to initiate war1 not armament solely to defend the liberties of a people4 ,thus1 under the conditions cited1 it is well to be armed and prepared4 ,if a wolf is at large1 if a mad dog is loose1 if a madman is abroad with an ax1 it is the part of wisdom to have an adequate weapon and be prepared to use it4 ,if the ,athenians had not resisted the hordes of ,asia1 what would have been the history of ,europe8 ,if the ,french had not resisted tyranny and injustice in the ,revolution1 what would have been the civilization of the last hundred years8 ,if the ,english colonists had not resisted taxation without representation1 what would be the present status of ,america8 ,if the artisan groups had not united and fought economic exploitation1 what would be their life to-day8 ,if ,belgium had not resisted ,germany1 what would be the future of democracy in ,europe8 ,thus1 now and after the ,war1 the need is for all necessary armament for self-respecting self-defense and not an atom to gratify aggressive ambition4 ,this does not mean that1 once involved in war1 the military tactics of democracy should be merely defensive4 ,as has often and wisely been said1 in war the best defense is a swift and hard attack4 ,it is widely argued1 however1 since our aim is peace and a world-court of justice to settle the disputes among the nations1 making general disarmament possible1 should not one great nation1 fortunately free from the quarrels of ,europe1 occupying the major portion of a continent1 its shores washed by two great oceans1 with peaceful friendship on the north and weak anarchy on the south--should not such a nation take the lead1 disarm and set an example to mankind8 ,it is a beautiful dream6 ,would that those who really believe in non-resistance to evil would be logical1 and apply it to internal as well as external policy4 ,what is a police force8 ,it is a body of men1 trained1 employed and paid to use force in resisting evil4 ,if you wish to try out non-resistance1 why not let some city apply it8 ,let ,chicago do it3 abolish its police force and set the example to the rest of the benighted cities of the country4 ,what would happen8 ,as long as there are criminals in all cities of the land1 how they would flock to that fat pasturage4 ,what devastation of property1 destruction of life1 injury to innocent women and children6 ,until the best men of ,chicago would get together1 form a vigilance committee1 shoot some of the criminals1 hang others1 drive the rest out2 and ,chicago would get back to law and order1 with courts of justice and a regular police body1 composed of men trained1 employed and paid to use force in resisting evil4 ,the example of ,canada and the ,united ,states is cited1 and a noble example it is3 three thousand and more miles of international boundary1 with never a shining gun or bristling fortress on the entire frontier4 ,a glorious example1 prophetic of what is coming all over the world1 perhaps more quickly than we dare hope to-day2 but what made it possible8 ,agreement in advance1 and that at a time when one of the parties was too weak to be feared4 ,canada is getting strong3 she has at present four hundred thousand trained men at the front or ready to go4 ,before the ,war closes she will have over a half million4 ,now suppose ,canada fortified3 we would be compelled to1 there would be no other way4 ,thus one nation cannot disarm while the others are strongly armed1 and among them are those whose autocratic rulers and imperialistic castes are watching for signs of weakness in order to perpetrate international claim-jumping4 ,it is true that1 on the frontier1 in the early days1 there were individuals who went about unarmed among the gun men1 did it successfully1 and some of them died peacefully in their beds3 ,christian ministers--sky-pilots1 they were called4 ,please note1 however1 that the sky-pilot never had any money4 ,he had no claims to be jumped4 ,we are not sky-pilots--far from it4 ,as to money3 the wealth of the world has been flowing into our coffers in a golden stream1 to the embarrassment of our financial institutions1 to the exaltation of the cost of living to such a point that1 with more money than we ever dreamed of having1 we find it more difficult to buy enough to eat and wear4 ,as for claims to be jumped3 they are on every hand3 ,panama ,canal1 ,hawaiian ,islands1 ,philippine ,islands1 ports of ,new ,york and ,san ,francisco1 vast reaches of unprotected coast4 ,no1 we are not sky-pilots1 we cannot claim exemption on that ground4 ,suppose1 after the ,war1 we attempted to disarm1 without the protection of a world court and international police1 while the other nations retained war armament4 ,they1 the victors and perhaps the defeated1 would possess a great army and navy1 manned with seasoned veterans1 and be burdened with an intolerable debt2 for the ,war has gone too far for any one to be able to pay adequate indemnity4 ,we1 rich1 young1 heedless1 sure that no one on earth could ever whip us1 chiefly because no one worth while has ever seriously tried3 suppose we were completely disarmed4 ,it would require only a little meddling with ,mexico or ,brazil1 and we should have to give up the ,monroe ,doctrine or fight4 ,well1 perhaps we shall give it up3 it has even been suggested in the halls of ,congress that we should--to the shame of the suggester1 be it said4 ,people do not understand the ,monroe ,doctrine3 they talk of it as if it were a law4 ,it is in no sense a law1 but is merely a rather arrogant expression of our desires4 ,we said to the other nations3 ,we desire that none of you henceforth shall fence in any part of our front or back yard1 or the front or back yard of any of our neighbors1 dwelling on the ,north and ,south ,american continents4 ,that is the ,monroe ,doctrine1 and that is all that it is3 an expression of our wishes4 ,all very well if others choose to respect them1 but suppose some one does not8 ,perhaps1 as stated1 we may abandon the ,monroe ,doctrine3 that is the easiest way1 and the easiest way1 for a nation or an individual1 is usually the way of damnation4 ,even so1 suppose the nation in question to say1 ,my national aspirations demand the ,panama ,canal1 the ,philippine ,islands1 or ,long ,island and the ,port of ,new ,york4 ,why not8 ,the ,atlantic ,ocean is only a mill-pond4 ,it is not half so wide as ,lake ,erie was fifty years ago1 in relation to modern means of transportation and communication4 ,people say1 ,do we want to give up our traditional isolation8 ,they are too late in asking the question3 that isolation is irrecoverably gone4 ,that should be now evident even to people dwelling in fatuously fancied security between the ,alleghenies and the ,rockies4 ,we are inevitably drawn into relation with the rest of mankind4 ,the question is no longer1 ,shall we take a part in world problems81 but ,what part shall we take8 ,the point is1 that if1 under the circumstances cited1 any one wished to do so1 we could quickly be driven to such a condition of abject humiliation that we should be compelled to fight4 ,now suppose1 disarmed1 we should enter the conflict utterly unprepared8 ,the result would be1 hundreds of thousands of young men1 going out bravely in obedience to an ideal--untrained and half equipped--to be butchered1 a humiliating peace1 and an indemnity of many billions to be groaned under for fifty years4 ,on the other hand1 if we were adequately armed for defense1 there would be much less temptation to any one to trouble us2 and if we were compelled to fight1 would it not be better to fight reasonably prepared8 ,there is a story1 going the rounds of the press1 about the bandit1 ,jesse ,james3 telling how1 on one occasion1 he went to a lonely farm house to commandeer a meal4 ,entering1 he found one woman1 a widow1 alone and weeping bitterly4 ,he asked her what was the matter1 and she replied that1 in one hour1 the landlord was coming1 and if she did not have her mortgage money1 she would lose her little farm and home and be out in the world1 shelterless4 ,the heart of the bandit was touched4 ,he gave her the money to pay off the mortgage1 hid in the brush and held up the landlord on the way back4 ,need the moral be pointed8 ,we have been getting the mortgage money4 ,during the first years of the ,war it rolled in1 an ever-increasing golden stream1 until we held a mortgage on numerous ,european nations4 ,we have the mortgage money1 but beware of the way back6 ,thus the agitation1 in one nation1 for disarmament1 unpreparedness and a patched up peace1 while the other nations are armed and embittered1 not only renders the situation of the one people critically perilous1 but actually cripples its power to serve the cause of world peace and humanity4 ,if only the peace-at-any-price people had to pay the price1 one would be willing to wait and see what happened2 but they never pay it1 they take to cover4 ,it is those hundreds of thousands of splendid young men1 going out blithely in obedience to duty1 to be butchered1 it is the millions of women and children1 who cannot escape from a devastated area1 who pay that price4 ,every people in the past that turned to money and mercenaries for defense has gone down4 ,no people ever survived that was unable and unwilling to fight for its liberties and spend1 if necessary1 the last drop of its blood for the principles it believed4 ,x ,,reconstruction ,,from ,,the ,,war ,we have seen how impossible it is to forecast the new world that will follow the ,war1 we know merely that it will be utterly new4 ,nevertheless1 the great tendencies already at work we can partly discern and recognize something of what they promise4 ,it is well to try to see them1 that we may be not too unready to welcome the opportunity and accept the burden of the world that is being born in pain4 ,peace and prosperity produce a peculiar type of conservatism4 ,people are then relatively free in action and expression1 things are going well with them1 and they are instinctively inclined to let well enough alone4 ,thus in thought they tend to a conservative inertia4 ,on the other hand1 in periods of great strain and suffering1 as in war time1 thought is stimulated1 all ordinary views are broken down and the most radical notions are widely disseminated and even taken for granted by those who1 shortly before1 would have been scandalized by them4 ,action and certain phases of free speech are1 in such a period1 much more widely restrained by authority4 ,there is a swift and strong development of social control1 urged by necessity4 ,thus1 in war time1 there is the curious paradox of ever widening radicalism in thought1 with constantly decreasing freedom in action and expression4 ,when the discrepancy becomes too great1 you have the explosion--,revolution4 ,this cause hastened and made more extreme the ,russian ,revolution1 which had been simmering for a century4 ,it has not yet appeared in ,germany because of the forty years of successful work in drilling the mind of the ,german people to march in goose-step2 yet the increasing signs of questioning the infallibility of the existing regime and system in ,germany give evidence that there1 too1 the conflict is at work4 ,with ourselves1 the opposition appears1 as yet1 only in minor degree4 ,nevertheless1 it is here4 ,on the one hand1 are the registration1 conscription and espionage measures1 the effort to control news1 the governmental supervision of food supplies1 transportation1 production and corporation earnings1 the war taxes4 ,on the other hand1 thought is so stimulated that everything is questioned3 our political system1 our social institutions--marriage1 the family1 education4 ,as some one says1 ,nothing is radical now4 ,we probably shall escape a sudden revolution1 but the conflict must produce profound readjustment in every aspect of our life2 for thought and action must come measurably together1 since they are related as soul and body4 ,there are singular eddies in the main current both ways4 ,for instance1 the exigencies and sufferings of war produce a reaction toward narrower1 orthodox forms of religion and a harsher spirit of nationalism2 while in fields of action apart from the struggle1 freedom and even license may increase1 as in sex-relations4 ,nevertheless these cross-currents1 while they may obscure1 do not alter the main tendencies1 which move swiftly and increasingly toward the essential conflict4 ,even before our actual entrance into the ,war1 its profound influence upon both our thinking and our conduct and institutions was evident4 ,now that we are in the conflict that influence is multiplied4 ,we are aroused to new seriousness of thought4 ,the frivolity and selfish pleasure-seeking that have marked our life for recent decades are decreasing4 ,we may reasonably hope that the literature of superficial cleverness and smart cynicism1 which has been in vogue for the last period1 will have had its day1 that the perpetrators of such literature will be1 measurably speaking1 without audience at the conclusion of the ,war4 ,the philosophy of complacency1 at least1 will be at an end1 and the world will face with new earnestness the problem of life4 ,this generation will be tired1 perhaps exhausted1 by the titanic struggle2 but youth comes on1 fresh and eager1 with exhaustless vital energy1 and the generations to come will take the heritage and work out the new philosophy4 ,as ,nature quickly and quietly covers the worst scars we make in her breast1 so ,man has a power of recovery1 beyond all that we could dream4 ,it is to that we must look1 across the time of demoniac destruction4 ,we may even dare to hope that the next half-century will see a great development of noble literature in our own land4 ,war for liberty1 justice and humanity always tends to create such a productive period in literature and the other fine arts4 ,the struggle with ,persia was behind the ,periclean age in ,athens4 ,it was the conflict of ,england with the overshadowing might of ,spain that so vitalized the ,elizabethan period4 ,the ,revolution was behind the one important school of literature our own country has produced hitherto4 ,since this ,war is waged on a scale far more colossal than any other in human history1 and since liberty and democracy are at stake1 not only in one land1 but throughout the world and for the entire future of humanity1 it is reasonable to expect that the stimulation to the creation of art and literature will be far greater than that following any previous struggle4 ,where the sacrifice for high aims has been greatest1 the inspiration should be greatest1 as in ,france4 ,the literature currently produced1 as in the books of ,loti1 ,maeterlinck and ,rolland1 is scrappy and disappointing1 it is true2 but that is to be expected when the whole nation is strained to its last energy and gasping for breath1 under the titanic struggle1 and is no test of what will be4 ,in spite of the destruction of so large a fraction of her manhood1 ,france will surely rise from the ashes of this world conflagration regenerated and reinspired4 ,the pessimism of her late decades will be gone4 ,the literature and other art she will produce will be instinct with new earnestness and exalted vision1 and she may excel even her own great past4 ,we too are awakening4 ,since the ,war began1 all over the ,united ,states1 men and women have been thinking more earnestly and have been more willing to listen to the expression of serious thought than ever before for the last quarter century4 ,now that the hour of sacrifice has struck1 this earnestness must greatly deepen4 ,perhaps we1 too1 may have our golden age of art4 ,the same inspiration carries naturally into the religious life4 ,it is true1 as we have seen1 that there is a cross-current of reversion to narrower orthodoxy1 caused by the ,war4 ,the ,gods of ,war are all national and tribal divinities4 ,while they rule1 the face of the ,god of ,humanity is veiled4 ,the ,kaiser's possessive attitude toward the ,divine is but the extreme case of what ,war does to the religious life4 ,even among ourselves the tendency shows in such phenomena as the current popular evangelism--an eloquent1 if artfully calculated and vulgarized preaching of the purely personal virtues1 with an ignorance that there is a social problem in modern civilization1 profound as that displayed by a mediaeval churchman4 ,the evangelist's list of inmates1 whom he relegates to the kingdom of the lost1 makes the place singularly attractive to the lover of good intellectual society4 ,nevertheless1 the reversion to narrower creeds but indicates the newly awakened hunger of the religious life4 ,men who sacrifice live with graver earnestness than those who are carelessly prosperous4 ,cynicism and pessimism are children of idleness and frivolity1 never of heroic sacrifice and nobly accepted pain4 ,these latter foster faith in life and its infinite and eternal meaning4 ,thus1 with all the tragic submerging of our spiritual heritage the ,war involves1 we may hope that it will cause a revival1 not of emotional hysteria1 but of deepened faith in the spirit1 in the supreme worth of life1 until at last we may see the dawn of the religion of humanity4 ,,xi ,,the ,,war ,,and ,,education ,equally far-reaching are the changes the ,war must produce in our education4 ,temporarily1 our higher institutions will be crippled by the drawing off of the youth of the land for war4 ,this is one of the unfortunate sacrifices such a struggle involves4 ,we must see to it that it is not carried too far4 ,one still hears old men in the ,south pathetically say1 ,i missed my education because of the ,civil ,war4 ,let us strive to keep open our educational institutions and continue all our cultural activities1 in spite of the drain and strain of the ,war4 ,for never was intellectual guidance and leadership more needed than in the present crisis4 ,the paramount effect of the ,war on education is1 however1 in the multiplied demand for efficiency4 ,this is the cry all across the country to-day1 and1 in the main1 it is just4 ,our education has been too academic1 too much molded by tradition4 ,it must be more closely related to life and to the changed conditions of industry and commerce4 ,each boy and girl1 youth and maiden1 must leave the school able to take hold somewhere and make a significant contribution to the society of which he or she is an integral part4 ,vocational training must be greatly increased4 ,the problems of the school must be increasingly practical problems1 and thought and judgment must be trained to the solution of those problems4 ,this is all a part of that socialization of democracy which must be achieved if democracy is to survive in the new world following the ,war4 ,there is1 nevertheless1 an element of emotional hysteria in the demand for efficiency and only efficiency4 ,efficiency is too narrow a standard by which to estimate anything concerning human conduct and character4 ,in the effort to meet and conquer ,germany1 let us beware of the mistake of ,germany4 ,one of the world tragedies of this epoch is the way in which ,germany has sacrificed her spiritual heritage1 first for economic1 then for purely military efficiency4 ,when we recall that spiritual heritage1 as previously described1 when we think of ,schiller1 ,herder and ,goethe1 ,froebel1 ,herbart and ,richter1 ,tauler1 ,luther and ,schleiermacher1 ,kant1 ,fichte and ,schopenhauer1 ,mozart1 ,beethoven and ,wagner1 we stand aghast at the way in which she has plunged it all into the abyss1--for what8 ,shall it profit a people1 more than a man1 if it gain the whole world and lose its own soul8 ,in such a time1 then1 all of us who believe in the spirit must hold high the torch of humanistic culture4 ,education is for life and not merely for efficiency4 ,of what worth is life1 if one is only a cog-wheel in the economic machine8 ,it is to save the spiritual heritage of humanity that we are fighting1 and it is that heritage that education must bring to every child and youth1 if it fulfills its supreme trust4 ,education for the purposes of autocratic imperialism seeks to make a people a perfect economically productive and militarily aggressive machine4 ,education for democracy means the development of each individual to the most intelligent1 self-directed and governed1 unselfish and devoted1 sane1 balanced and effective humanity4 ,,xii ,,socialism ,,and ,,the ,,war ,one of the surprises of the ,war was the complete breakdown of international socialism4 ,not only socialists1 but those of us who had been thoughtfully watching the movement from without1 had come to believe that the measure of consciousness of international brotherhood it had developed in the artisan groups of many lands1 would be a powerful lever against war4 ,we were wrong3 the superficial international sympathy evaporated like mist under the rays of a revived nationalism4 ,the socialists fell in line1 almost as completely as any other group1 with the purely nationalist aims in each land4 ,this must have gratified certain despots2 for one cause of the ,war1 not the cause1 was undoubtedly the preference on the part of various autocrats1 to face an external war rather than the rising tide of democracy within the nation4 ,temporarily1 they have been successful1 but surely only for a brief time4 ,the victory of democracy will vastly accelerate the growth of the spirit of brotherhood throughout the world4 ,the terrible waste of the ,war must of itself produce a reaction of the people on kings and castes in all lands4 ,the suffering that will follow the ,war1 in the period of economic readjustment1 will accentuate this4 ,surely the people1 in ,england1 ,france1 ,america1 ,italy1 ,russia1 and among the neutral nations1 will strive that no such war may come again4 ,even in ,germany1 when the people find out what they have paid and why1 inevitably they must struggle so to reform their institutions that no ruler or class may again plunge them into such disaster for the selfish benefit or ambitions of that ruler or class4 ,how our hearts have warmed to ,liebknecht6 ,the realignment of nations must work to the same end4 ,war1 like politics1 makes strange bed-fellows4 ,germany and ,austria1 for centuries rivals1 and1 at times1 enemies1 we behold united so completely that it is difficult to imagine them disentangled after the ,war4 ,france and ,england1 long regarding each other as natural enemies1 are fused heart and soul4 ,strangest of all1 we have seen ,england struggling to win for ,russia that prize of ,constantinople1 which for generations it has been a main object of ,british diplomacy to keep from ,russian grasp4 ,most impressive of all1 has been the new consciousness of unity and common cause among the nations of the earth1 and the groups within all nations1 standing for democracy4 ,thus the tide1 checked for a time1 will inevitably break forth with renewed force4 ,it is probable that the next fifty years will be a period of great change--even of revolutions1 peaceful or otherwise1 throughout the earth4 ,to understand the effect on the whole socialist movement1 one must distinguish clearly the two contrasting types of socialism4 ,it is the curse of the orthodox1 or ,marxian1 type of socialism1 that it was made in ,germany4 ,its economic state is modeled directly on the ,prussian bureaucratic and paternalistic state4 ,its dream realized1 would mean ,prussian efficiency carried to the nth power1 in a society of as merciless slavery as that prevailing among the ants and the bees4 ,it is doubtless this characteristic that has made so many bureaucratic or orthodox socialists instinctively ,pro-,german in sentiment and sympathy during the ,war4 ,the contrasting type of socialism is that which is really the full development of democracy1 its movement from a narrow individualism to ever wider voluntary co-operation4 ,it moves1 not toward government ownership1 but toward ownership by the people1 of natural monopolies4 ,it means1 not the turning over to a bureaucratic government1 of plants and instruments of production1 but the progressive cooperative ownership of them by the workers themselves4 ,it will end1 not in the overthrow of the capitalist regime1 but in all workers becoming co-operative capitalists1 and all capitalists1 productive workers1 since no idle rich--or poor1 will be tolerated4 ,such socialism1 if it be so called1 will depend upon the highest individual initiative1 the most voluntary co-operation and will include the individualism which is the cherished boon of democracy4 ,it is significant that those who represent this type of socialism and who think for themselves1 are breaking away from the orthodox party1 under the courageous leadership and example of ,john ,spargo1 in increasing numbers1 since our entrance into the ,war4 ,they are as instinctively ,american and democratic in sympathy1 as those of the opposite type are ,pro-,german4 ,even in the most democratic countries1 however1 the ,war has caused a vast increase of the undesirable type of socialism3 that is one of its temporary penalties4 ,to carry on such a war successfully1 it is necessary to multiply the authority of the central government4 ,that has been the experience of ,england1 now being repeated here4 ,men1 who were citizens of a democracy1 become1 as soldiers1 and in part as workers1 subjects of the government in war4 ,to some extent we are forced to imitate the tendencies we deplore and seek to overthrow in ,germany1 to be able to meet and defeat ,germany4 ,even so1 the difference is profound4 ,the subordination to the government is1 for the people as a whole1 voluntary1 achieved through laws passed by chosen representatives of the people1 and not by the arbitrary will of a kaiser and ruling caste4 ,thus the freedom1 voluntarily relinquished for a time1 can be quickly regained when the crisis is past4 ,subjects will become citizens again1 when soldiers return to civil life4 ,nevertheless1 there will be no return to the old1 selfishly individualistic regime4 ,the lesson of organized action will have been learned1 and a vast increase of voluntary co-operation1 that is1 of the socialism that is true democracy may be anticipated as a beneficent result of the ,war4 ,this will be one of the great compensations for the waste of our heritage1 spiritual and material1 through the ,war4 ,the voluntary socialization of previously individualistic democracy will be the next great forward movement of the human spirit4 ,,xiii ,,the ,,war ,,and ,,feminism ,of all consequences of the ,war1 perhaps none is more significant than its effect upon the position of women4 ,militarism and feminism are counter currents in the tide of history4 ,all recrudescence of brute force carries the subjugation of women4 ,in the degree to which professional militarism prevails in any society1 women are forced into hard industrial activities1 despised because fulfilled by women4 ,on the other hand1 a group of carefully protected women is held apart as a fine adornment of life4 ,both ways militarism accentuates the property idea in reference to women3 the one type1 useful1 the other1 adorning1 property4 ,the one shows in marriage by purchase1 the other in the dowry system4 ,it is hard to say which is more dishonoring to women4 ,it would1 perhaps1 seem preferable and less offensive to be bought as useful1 rather than accepted with a money payment1 as an adorning but expensive possession1 where1 as with the automobile1 it is the upkeep that counts4 ,surely1 however1 either attitude is degrading enough4 ,the accentuation1 in the present ,war1 of the notion of women as property1 is evident in more brutal form in the horrors of rape1 in the deliberate and organized use of women as breeders1 with the same efficiency with which ,germany breeds her swine4 ,nevertheless1 here1 too1 strong counter currents are at work4 ,as this is a war of nations1 not of armies1 it is the whole people that1 in each instance1 has had to be mobilized and organized4 ,in all the democracies women have voluntarily risen to this need1 just as citizens have voluntarily become soldiers4 ,thus women1 by the legion1 are working in munition factories1 on the farms1 in productive plants of every kind1 in public service and commerce organizations4 ,the noble way in which women have accepted the double burden has created a wave of reverent admiration throughout the world4 ,thus where professional militarism tends to despise the industrial activities into which it forces women1 war for defense and justice causes reverence for the same socially necessary activities and for the women who so courageously undertake them for the sake of all4 ,moreover1 the increased freedom of action for women will outlast its temporary cause4 ,once so admitted to new fields of industrial1 business and professional activity1 women can never be generally excluded from them again4 ,thus when the soldiers become citizens1 many of the women will remain producers1 working beside men under new conditions of equality4 ,the result1 with the general stimulation of radical thinking that the ,war involves1 will be a profound acceleration of the feminist movement throughout1 at least1 the democracies of the world4 ,already it is being recognized that all valid principles of democracy apply to women equally with men4 ,regenerated1 if chaotic1 ,russia takes for granted the farthest reaches of feminism4 ,the regime in ,england1 that bitterly opposed suffrage for women1 is now voluntarily granting it before the close of the ,war4 ,thus the victory of the allied nations will mean the fruition of much of the feminism that is a phase of humanism4 ,it will mean freeing women from outgrown custom and tradition1 from unjust limitations in industrial1 social and political life4 ,it will mean men and women working together1 on a plane of moral equality1 with free initiative and voluntary co-operation1 for the fruition of democracy4 ,just as that fruition will see the end of idle rich and poor1 so there will be no more women slaves or parasites1 none regarded or possessed as property1 but only free human beings1 each self-directed and self-controlled1 and responsible for his or her own personality and conduct4 ,,xiv ,,the ,,transformation ,,of ,,democracy ,the nineteenth century was the period of rapid growth in adhesion to those ideals of democracy for which the ,war is being fought4 ,it is not so well recognized that during the same hundred years democracy was so transformed as to be to-day a new thing under the sun4 ,up to the time of the ,french and ,american revolutions democracy rested largely upon certain abstract ideas of human nature4 ,rousseau could argue that in primitive times men sat down together to form a state1 each giving up a part of his natural right to a central authority1 and thus justifying it4 ,we now know that nothing of the kind ever happened1 that society had undergone a long process of development before men began to think about it at all4 ,we continue to repeat the splendid at all4 ,i refer1 of course1 to the women of antiquity4 ,where respectable1 these were the head of the household slaves1 scarcely removed from the condition of the latter4 ,the few women who did achieve freedom of thought and action1 and became the companions of cultivated men--the ,aspasias of antiquity--bought their freedom at a sad price4 ,so ,rome is called a republic1 and it is true that1 during the first half of her long history1 freedom gradually broadened down from the patrician class to the plebeian multitude4 ,when ,rome reached out1 however1 to the mastery of the most impressive empire the world has seen1 she never dreamed of extending that freedom to the conquered populations4 ,if she did grant ,roman citizenship to an occasional community1 to enjoy the rights and exercise the privileges of that citizenship1 it was necessary to journey to ,rome4 ,it was the city and the world3 the city ruling the world as subject4 ,the same principle holds with the republics developing at the close of the middle age1 in ,italy1 in the towns of the ,hanseatic ,league and elsewhere4 ,always the freedom achieved was for a city1 a group or a class1 never for all the people4 ,our dream1 on the contrary1 is to take all the men and women in the land1 ultimately in the world1 and help them1 through the free and cooperative activity of each with all the rest1 on toward life1 liberty1 happiness1 intelligence--all the ends of life that are worth while4 ,if we demand life for ourselves1 we ask it only in harmony with the best life for all4 ,we want no special privilege1 no benefit apart1 bought at the price of the best welfare of humanity4 ,we1 unfortunately1 does not yet mean all of us1 but it does signify an increasing multitude1 rallying to this that is the standard of to-morrow4 ,a third transformation1 at least equally important with these1 is in the invention1 for it is no less1 of representative government4 ,political thinkers1 such as ,john ,fiske1 have tried to make us understand what this invention means3 we do not yet realize it4 ,the development of representative government is the cause1 first of all1 of the tremendous expansion of the area over which we apply democracy4 ,plato1 in the ,laws1 limits the size of the ideal state--the one realizable in this world--to #ejdj citizens4 ,why8 ,well1 the exact number has a certain mystical significance1 but the main reason is1 ,plato could not imagine a much larger body of citizens than #ejjj meeting together in public assembly and fulfilling the functions of citizenship4 ,we have extended democracy over a hundred millions of population1 dwelling on the larger part of a continent2 and if one travels ,north1 ,south1 ,east1 ,west1 to-day1 one is impressed that1 in spite of unassimilated elements1 everywhere men and women are proud1 first of all1 of being ,american citizens1 and only in subordinate ways devoted to the section or community to which they belong4 ,this has been made possible by the invention and development of representative government4 ,that is not all3 it is representative government that takes the sting out of all the older criticisms of democracy4 ,plato devotes one of the saddest portions of his ,republic to showing how in a brief time1 democracy must inevitably fall and be replaced by tyranny4 ,with the democracy ,plato knew this was true4 ,it was impossible for ,athens to protect and make permanent her constitution4 ,she might pass a law declaring the penalty of death on any one proposing a change in the constitution4 ,it did no good4 ,let some demagogue arise1 sure of the suffrage of a majority of the citizens3 he could call them into public assembly1 cause a repeal of the law1 and make any change in the constitution he desired4 ,there was no way to prevent it4 ,it is the invention and development of representative government that has changed all that4 ,we chafe under the slow-moving character of our democracy--over the time it takes to get laws enacted and the longer time to get them executed4 ,we may well be patient3 this slow-moving character of democracy is the other side of its greatest safe-guard4 ,it is because we cannot immediately express in action the popular will and opinion1 but must think two1 three1 many times1 working through chosen and responsible representatives of the people1 that our democracy is not subject to the perils and criticisms of those of antiquity4 ,the voice of the people in the day and hour1 under the impulse of sudden caprice or passion1 is anything but the voice of ,god3 it is much more apt to be the voice of all the powers of darkness4 ,it is common thought1 sifted through uncommon thought1 that approaches as near the voice of ,god as we can hope to get in this world4 ,it is not the surface whim of public opinion1 it is its greatest common denominator that approximates the truth4 ,it behooves us to remember this at a time when changes are coming with such swiftness4 ,our life has developed so rapidly that the old political forms proved inadequate to the solution of the new problems4 ,as a practical people1 we therefore quickly adopted or invented new forms4 ,doubtless this is1 in the main1 right1 but we should understand clearly what we are doing4 ,for instance1 one of the great changes1 recently inaugurated1 is the election of national senators by popular vote4 ,our forefathers planned that the national upper house should represent a double sifting of popular opinion4 ,we elected state legislatures2 they1 in turn1 chose the national senators3 thus these were twice removed from the popular will4 ,it proved easy to corrupt state legislatures2 the national senate came to represent too much the moneyed interests2 and so1 through an amendment to the constitution1 we changed the process1 and now elect our senators by direct vote of the people4 ,this makes them more immediately representative of the popular will1 and perhaps the change was wise2 but we should recognize that we have removed one more safe-guard of democracy4 ,a story1 told for a generation1 and fixed upon various ,british statesmen1 will illustrate my meaning4 ,the last repetition attributed it to ,john ,burns4 ,on one occasion1 while he was a member of ,parliament1 it is said he was at a tea-party in the ,west ,end of ,london4 ,the hostess1 pouring his cup of tea1 anxious to make talk and show her deep interest in politics1 said1 ,mr4 ,burns1 what is the use of the house of ,lords anyway8 ,the statesman1 without replying1 poured his tea from the cup into the saucer4 ,the hostess1 surprised at the breach of etiquette1 waited1 and then said1 but ,mr4 ,burns1 you didn't answer my question4 ,he pointed to the tea1 cooling in the saucer3 that was the function1 to cool the tea of legislation4 ,that was the function intended for our national senate4 ,the trouble was1 the tea of legislation often became so stone cold in the process that it was fit only for the political slop-pail1 and that was not what we wanted4 ,so we have changed it all1 but one more safe-guard of democracy is gone4 ,so with other reforms1 loudly acclaimed1 as the initiative and referendum4 ,with the new problems and complications of an extraordinarily developed life1 it is doubtless wise that the people should be able to initiate legislation and should have the final word as to what legislation shall stand4 ,on the other hand1 if we are not to suffer under a mass of hasty and ill-considered legislation1 if laws are to stand1 they must always be formulated by a body of trained legislators1 and not by the changing whim of popular opinion4 ,so with the recall1 now so widely demanded in many sections of the country4 ,in the old days1 our candidates were most obsequious and profuse in promises to their constituents before election2 but once elected1 only too often they turned their backs on their constituents1 went merrily their own way1 making deals and bargains1 in the spirit that to the victor belong the spoils4 ,therefore we justly demanded some control of them1 after1 as before1 election3 hence the recall4 ,again the movement is right2 but if the fundamentals of democracy are to be permanent1 that body of men1 concerned with the interpretation of the constitution and the fundamental law of the land1 must not be subject to the immediate whim of mob mind1 and the power to recall those judges occupied with this task would be a graver danger than advantage4 ,they will make mistakes1 at times they will be ultra conservative and servants of special interests1 but that is one of the incidental prices we have to pay for the permanence of free institutions4 ,the problem is to keep the basic principles of democracy unchanged1 the forms on the surface as fluid and adjustable as possible4 ,it is these three transformations--the abandonment of the old abstract notions and the testing of democracy by its results1 the expansion of its application over the entire population1 and the invention and development of representative government--it is these three changes that make our democracy a new order of society1 new in its problems1 its menaces1 its solutions4 ,,xv ,,democracy ,,and ,,education ,all just government is a transient device to make ordered progress possible4 ,in the kingdom of heaven there would be no government1 for if all human beings saw the best1 loved the best and willed the best1 the function of government would be at an end4 ,obviously there is no hope or fear that we shall get into the kingdom of heaven soon1 and the necessity for government will exist for an indefinitely long time4 ,nevertheless1 government is due to the imperfection of human nature and1 as stated1 its aim is ordered progress4 ,progress without order is anarchy2 order without progress is stagnation and death4 ,it must frankly be admitted1 moreover1 that democracy is not the shortest road to good government nor to economic efficiency4 ,that we recognize this as a people is proved by the drift of our opinion and of the changes in our lesser institutions4 ,take1 for instance1 our city government4 ,a few decades ago our cities were so notoriously misgoverned that they were the scandal of the world4 ,our boards of aldermen or councilmen1 representing ward constituencies1 with all sorts of local strings tied to them1 were clumsy and unwieldy and easily subject to corruption4 ,so1 about twenty years ago1 all across the country went the cry1 ,get a good mayor1 and give him a free hand4 ,that is the way our great industries are conducted3 a wise captain of industry is secured and given full control4 ,being a practical people1 and imagining ourselves to be much more practical than really we are1 we said1 let us conduct our city business in the same way4 ,why not8 ,plato showed long ago that you can get the best government in the shortest time by getting a good tyrant1 and giving him a free hand4 ,there arc just two objections4 ,the first is incidental3 it is exceedingly difficult to keep your tyrant good4 ,arbitrary authority over one's fellows is about the most corrupting influence known to man4 ,no one is great and good enough to be entrusted with it4 ,responsible power sobers and educates1 irresponsible power corrupts4 ,nevertheless we pay the price of this error and learn the lesson4 ,the other objection is more significant4 ,it is the effect on the rank and file of the citizenship1 for the meaning of democracy is not immediate results in government1 but the education of the citizen1 and that education can come only by fulfilling the functions of citizenship4 ,thus it is better to be the free citizen of a democracy1 with all the waste and temporary inefficiency democracy involves1 than to be the inert slave of the most perfect paternal despotism ever devised by man4 ,thus the movement away from democratic city government is gravely to be questioned1 no matter what economic results it secures4 ,the same argument applies to more recent changes1 as the commission form of city government4 ,as in the previous case1 reacting upon the scandalous situation1 we said1 ,let us choose the three to five best men in the community1 and let them run the city's business for us4 ,nearly every time this change has been made1 the result has been an immediate cleaning up of the city government2 but why8 ,chiefly because a new broom sweeps clean1--not so much for the reason that it is new1 as because you are interested in the instrument4 ,you can get a dirty room remarkably clean with an old broom1 if you will sweep hard enough4 ,the cleaning up is due1 not primarily to the instrument1 but to the hand that wields it4 ,to speak less figuratively3 the cleaning up of the city government with the inauguration of the commission system1 came because the change was made by an awakening of the good people of the community4 ,good people have a habit1 however1 of going to sleep in an astoundingly short time2 but the gang never sleeps4 ,now suppose1 while the good people are dozing in semi-somnolence1 assured that the new broom will sweep of itself1 the gang gets together and elects the three to five worst gangsters in the city to be the commission8 ,is it not evident that the very added efficiency of the instrument means greater graft and corruption8 ,equally the argument applies to the most recent device suggested--the city manager plan4 ,as we have largely taken our schools out of politics1 and have a non-partisan educational expert as superintendent1 so it is suggested we should conduct our city business4 ,again1 suppose the gang appoints the city manager3 he will be an expert in graft1 rather than in government4 ,the moment a people gets to trusting to a device it is headed for danger4 ,there is just one safeguard of democracy1 and that is to keep the good people awake and at the task all the time4 ,some instruments are better and some are worse1 but the instrument never does the work1 it is the hand and brain that wield it4 ,if there is one field where we could reasonably expect to find pure democracy1 it is in our higher educational institutions4 ,in a college or university1 where a group of young men and women1 and a group of older men and women are gathered apart1 out of the severer economic struggle1 dedicated to ideal ends3 there1 surely1 we could expect pure democracy in organization and relationship2 yet the tendency has been steadily toward autocracy4 ,one can count the fingers of both hands and not cover the list of college and university presidents who have taken office during the last fifteen years1 only on condition that they have complete authority over the educational policy of the institution1 and often over its financial policy as well4 ,the reason is obvious3 we run a railroad efficiently by getting a good president and giving him arbitrary control2 why not a university8 ,there are just the two objections cited above3 even in a university1 it is difficult to keep your tyrant good4 ,this1 again1 is the minor objection4 ,the real evil is in the effect upon the rank and file of those governed by the autocrat4 ,there are men in university faculties to-day who say1 privately1 that if they could get any other opportunity1 they would resign to-morrow1 for they feel like clerks in a department store1 with no opportunity to help determine the educational policy of the institutions of which they are integral parts4 ,the ,german university1 under all the autocracy and bureaucracy of the ,german state1 is more democratic in its organization than our own4 ,its faculty is a self-governing body1 electing to its own membership4 ,the ,rectorship is an honor conferred for the year on some faculty member for superior worth and scholarship4 ,each member of the faculty may thus feel the self-respect and dignity1 resulting from the power and initiative he possesses as a free citizen of the institution4 ,let me suggest what would be the ideal democratic organization of a college or university4 ,why not apply the same division of functions of government that has proved so successful in the state8 ,the board of ,trustees is the natural judiciary2 the ,president1 the executive4 ,the faculty is the legislative body1 with the student body as a sort of lower house1 cooperating in enacting the legislation for its own government4 ,where has such a plan been tried8 ,if the primary purpose of democracy is thus1 not immediate results in government1 but the education of the citizen1 on the other hand1 democracy rests1 for its safety and progress1 on the ever better education of the citizen4 ,under the older forms of human society1 laws may be passed and executed that are far in advance of public opinion4 ,that cannot be done in a democracy4 ,the law may be a slight step in advance1 and so perhaps educate public opinion to its level2 but if it goes beyond that step1 after the first flurry of interest in the law is past1 it remains a dead letter on the statute books--worse than useless1 because cultivating that dangerous disrespect for all law1 which we have seen growing upon us as a people4 ,thus from either side1 the problem of democracy is a problem of education4 ,it rests upon education1 its aim is education4 ,in a democracy1 the supreme function of the state is1 not to establish a military system for defense1 or a police system for protection1 it is not the enforcement of public and private contract3 it is to take the children and youth of each generation and develop them into men and women able to fulfill the responsibility and enjoy the opportunity of free citizenship in a free society4 ,,xvi ,,menaces ,,of ,,democracy ,since modern democracy is a new thing under the sun1 so its menaces are new1 or1 if old1 they take misleadingly new forms4 ,for instance1 the greatest danger in the path of our democracy is the world-old evil of selfishness1 but it does take surprisingly new form4 ,it is not aggressive selfishness that we have primarily to dread4 ,there are those1 it is true1 who believe we may soon be endangered by the ambitions of some arrogant leader in the nation4 ,the fear is unwarranted1 for our people are still so devoted to the fundamental principles of democracy1 that if any leader were to take one clear step toward over-riding the constitution and making himself despot1 that step would be his political death-blow4 ,no1 we are not yet endangered by the aggressive ambitions of those at the front1 but we are in grave danger from the negative selfishness of indifference1 shown in its worst form by just those people who imagine they are good because they are respectable1 whereas they may be merely good--for nothing4 ,plato argued that society could never have patriotism in full measure until the family was abolished4 ,a singular notion that any school boy to-day can readily answer1 yet here is the curious situation4 ,family life1 among ourselves1 in its better aspects1 has reached a higher plane than ever before in any people4 ,more marriages are made on the only decent basts of any marriage4 ,this is the woman's land4 ,children have their rights and privileges1 even to their physical1 mental and moral detriment4 ,it is here that men most willingly sacrifice for their families1 slaving through the hot summer in the cities1 to send wife and children to the seashore or the mountains2 yet it is just here that men most readily unhinge their consciences when they turn from private to public life4 ,some cynic has said that there is not an ,american citizen who would not smuggle to please his wife4 ,of course the statement is not true1 but if you have ever crossed the ocean on a transatlantic liner1 and watched the devices to which ordinarily decent men--men who would be ashamed to steal your pocket handkerchief or to lie to you as an individual--will resort1 in order to lie to the government or steal from the government1 you begin to wonder if the cynic was not right4 ,the law1 obviously1 may be unjust3 if so1 protest against it and seek to have it changed1 but while it is the law1 does it not deserve your respectful obedience1 unless you would add to the dangerously growing disrespect for all law8 ,next to the menace of selfishness is that of ignorance1 and this1 too1 takes confusingly new form4 ,it is not ignorance of scientific fact and law1 dangerous as that is1 that threatens1 but ignorance of what our institutions mean1 of what they have cost1 of the ideal for which we stand among the nations4 ,the celerity with which1 even during the past two decades1 the younger generation has abandoned old standards and ideals1 is an ominous illustration4 ,it is true3 ,new occasions teach new duties1 time makes ancient goods uncouth2 ',they must upward still1 and onward1 who would keep abreast of ,truth4 ,those words of ,lowell's are as fully applicable to the present crisis1 as to that for which ,lowell wrote them2 but to give up the past1 without knowing that you are letting go1 is surely not the part of wisdom4 ,a third menace shows in that fickleness of temper and false standard of life that cause us to admire the wrong type of leader4 ,probably one half of all the attacks on men of unusual wealth and success come from other men1 who would like to be in the same situation with those they attack1 and have failed of their ambition4 ,part of the attack is sincere1 no doubt1 but if you assumed that all the abuse heaped upon conspicuous men came from moral conviction1 you would utterly misread the situation4 ,on the other hand1 men of moral excellence make us ashamed4 ,now it takes a rarely magnanimous spirit to be shamed and not resent it4 ,we are apt to feel that1 if we can pull another down1 we raise ourselves4 ,to realize this1 consider the growl of joy that comes from the worse sort of citizen and newspaper when some public leader is caught in a private scandal4 ,as if pulling him down1 raised us6 ,we are all tarred with his disgrace4 ,there are1 indeed1 two ways of stating the ideal of democracy3 you can say1 ,i am just as good as any one else1 which in the first place1 is not true1 and1 in the second1 would be unlovely of you to express1 were it true4 ,you can say1 on the contrary1 ,every other human being ought to have just as good a chance as ,i have1 which is right2 and yet you will hear the ideal of democracy phrased a dozen times the first way1 where it is expressed once in the second form4 ,that democracies are fickle is one of the oldest criticisms upon them4 ,we had thought that we were not subject to that criticism1 and in the old days we were not4 ,we had the country debating club and the village lyceum4 ,we were an agricultural people1 sober and slow-moving4 ,we had few books1 they were good books and we read them many times4 ,we had few newspapers1 we knew the men who wrote in them1 and when we read an editorial1 our mind was actively challenged by the sincere thinking of another mind4 ,to-day1 everywhere1 we have moved into the cities4 ,the strength of the country-side is sobriety and slow incubation of the forces of life4 ,its vice is stupidity4 ,the strength of the city is keen wittedness1 versatility1 quick response4 ,its vice is fickleness1 morbidity1 exhaustion4 ,we have our great blanket sheet newspapers1 representing a party1 a clique1 a financial interest1 with writers lending their brains out1 for money1 to write editorials for causes in which they do not believe4 ,we have the multitude of books1 incessantly and hastily produced2 we read much1 and scarcely think at all4 ,we have got rid of the old three decker novel1 reduced it to a single volume1 and then taken out the climax of the story1 publishing it in the corner of the daily newspaper1 as the short story of the day1 so that he who runs may read4 ,if he is a wise man he will run as fast as he can and not read that stuff at all4 ,we have our ever increasing movies1 with their incessant titillation of the mind with swift passing impressions1 as disintegrating to intellectual concentration1 as they are injurious to the eyes4 ,the result of it all is an increasing fickleness of temper1 so that the same people who shout most loudly when the popular hero goes by1 the next week cover his very name with vituperation and abuse1 if he offends their slightest whim4 ,this evil breeds another3 fickleness in the people means demagoguery in the leader1 inevitably4 ,we have said to our public men--not in words1 but by the far more impressive language of our conduct--get money1 power1 success1 and we will give you more money1 power and success1 and not ask you how you got them nor what ends you serve in using them4 ,that so many have refused the bribe is to their credit1 not ours2 we have done what we could to corrupt them4 ,finally1 we are the most irreverent people in the world4 ,we believe in youth1 we scorn age4 ,we have splendid enthusiasm1 we do not know what wisdom means4 ,one hears college presidents say--half jokingly1 of course--that there is no use appointing a man over thirty to the faculty these days4 ,so one hears ,christian ministers1 in those denominations where the minister is called by the particular church1 say there is no use trying to get another call after one is fifty6 ,of course1 it is not true1 but it is true enough to be a serious criticism upon us4 ,for what other vocation is there where the mellowness that comes only from time and long experience1 from presiding at weddings and standing beside open graves1 sharing the joys and sorrows of innumerable persons1 is so indispensable1 as in the pastor1 the physician of the spirit8 ,still1 we will turn out some wise1 shy1 mellow old man1 just ripened to the point of being the true minister to the souls of others1 and replace him with a recent graduate of a theological school1 because the latter can talk the language of the higher criticism or whatever else happens to interest us for the moment4 ,obviously1 we pay the price1 but think what it indicates of our civilization4 ,,xvii ,,the ,,dilemma ,,of ,,democracy ,we have seen that the gravest menaces of democracy are the faults in mind and character in the multitude4 ,selfishness1 fickleness1 ignorance1 irreverence in the people1 with demagoguery in the leader-- these are the menaces of ,american democracy4 ,how then can the people be trusted1 since democracy depends upon trusting them8 ,this is an old indictment1 searching to the very heart of democracy4 ,plato made it of ancient ,athens1 while1 more recently and trenchantly1 ,ibsen has made it for all modern society4 ,the argument runs thus3 democracy means the rule of the majority4 ,well1 there are more fools than wise men in the world1 more ignorant than intelligent4 ,thus the rule of the majority must mean the rule of the fools over the wise men1 of the ignorant over the intelligent4 ,such is the significant indictment1 and we are compelled to admit that our political life is filled with illustrations that would seem to substantiate it4 ,the ward bosses1 the demagogues and grafters who are given power by the multitude1 one campaign after another1 would seem to justify the pessimism of ,plato and ,ibsen4 ,is there not1 however1 a subtle fallacy in the very phrasing of the indictment8 ,the majority does not rule3 it elects representatives who guide4 ,that is something entirely different4 ,when the worst is said of them those representatives of the people are distinctly above the average of the majorities electing them4 ,take the roll of our presidents1 for instance4 ,with all the corruption and vulgarity of our national politics1 that list1 from ,washington1 through such altitudes as ,jefferson and ,lincoln1 to the present occupant of the ,white ,house1 is superior to any roster of kings or emperors in the history of mankind4 ,what does this mean8 ,it means that the hope of democracy is the instinctive power in the breast of common humanity to recognize the highest when it appears4 ,were this not true1 democracy would be the most hopeless of mistakes1 and the sooner we abandoned it1 with its vulgarity and waste1 the better it would be for us4 ,the instinctive power is there1 however3 to recognize1 not to live1 the highest4 ,how many have followed the example of ,socrates1 remaining in prison and accepting the hemlock poison for the sake of truth8 ,yet all who know of him thrill to his sacrifice4 ,of all who have borne the name1 ,christian1 how many have followed consistently the footsteps of ,jesus and obeyed literally and unvaryingly the precepts of the ,sermon on the ,mount8 ,of the millions1 perhaps ten or twenty individuals--to be generous in our view2 but all the world recognizes him4 ,here1 then1 is the hope that takes the sting from the indictment of ,plato1 ,ibsen and how many other critics of democracy4 ,plato said1 ,until philosophers are kings1 4 4 4 cities will never have rest from their evils1--no1 nor the human race1 as ,i believe4 ,once1 perhaps once only1 ,plato's dream was realized3 in that noblest of philosopher emperors1 wholly dedicated to the welfare of the world he ruled with autocratic power2 yet the soul of ,marcus ,aurelius was burdened with an impossible task4 ,it is one of the tragic ironies of history that1 in this one realization of ,plato's lofty dream1 the noble emperor could postpone1 he could not avert1 the colossal doom that threatened the world he ruled4 ,so he wrapped his ,roman cloak about him and lay down to sleep1 with stoic consciousness that he had done his part in the place where ,zeus had put him1 but relieved that he might not see the disaster he knew must swiftly come4 ,how different our dream3 it is no illusion of a happy accident of philosopher kings4 ,we want no arbitrary monarchs1 wise or brutal3 from the noblest of emperors to the butcher of ,berlin1 we would sweep them all aside1 to the ash-heap of outworn tools4 ,our dream is the awakening and education of the multitude1 so that the majority will be able and glad to choose1 as its guides1 leaders and representatives1 the noblest and best4 ,when that day comes1 there will be1 for the first time in the history of mankind1 the dawn of a true aristocracy or rule of the best2 and it will come through the fulfillment of democracy4 ,a long and troubled path1 with many faults and evils meantime8 ,yes1 but not so hopelessly long1 when one considers the ages of slow struggle up the mountain and the swiftly multiplying power of education over the mind of all4 ,,xviii ,,paternalism ,,versus ,,democracy ,the contrast between paternalism and democracy in aim and method is thus extreme4 ,paternalism seeks directly organization1 order1 production and efficiency1 incidentally and occasionally the welfare of the subject population4 ,democracy seeks directly the highest development of all men and women1 their freedom1 happiness and culture1 in the end it hopes this will give social order1 good government and productive power4 ,it is willing1 meantime1 to sacrifice some measure of order for freedom1 of good government for individual initiative1 of efficiency for life4 ,paternalism seeks to achieve its aims1 quickly and effectively1 through the boss's whip of social control4 ,democracy works by the slower1 but more permanently hopeful path of education1 never sacrificing life to material ends4 ,paternalism ends in a social hierarchy1 materially prosperous1 but caste-ridden and without soul4 ,democracy ends in the abolishment of castes1 equality of opportunity1 with the freest individual initiative and finest flowering of the personal spirit4 ,which shall it be3 ,god or ,mammon1 ,men or ,machines8 ,there is no doubt that efficiency can be achieved most quickly under a well-wielded boss's whip1 but at the sacrifice of initiative and invention4 ,moreover1 remove the whip1 and the efficiency quickly goes to pieces4 ,on the other hand1 the efficiency achieved by voluntary effort and free cooperation comes much more slowly1 but it lasts4 ,moreover1 it develops1 hand in hand1 with initiative and invention4 ,the negro1 doubtless1 has never been so generally efficient as before the civil war1 in the ,south1 under the overseer's whip2 yet every negro who1 to-day1 has character enough to save up and buy a mule and an acre of ground1 tills it with a consistent and permanent effectiveness of which slave labor is never capable4 ,in the one case1 moreover1 there is the average economic result1 in the other1 the gradual development of manhood4 ,organize a factory on the feudal lines so prevalent in current industry4 ,get a strong1 dominating superintendent and give him autocratic authority4 ,quickly he will show results4 ,always1 however1 there is the danger of strikes1 and if the strong hand falters1 the organization disintegrates4 ,on the other hand1 let a corporation take its artisans into its confidence1 give each a small proportionate share in the annual earnings4 ,each worker will feel increasingly that the business is his business4 ,he will take pride in his accomplishment4 ,gradually he will attain efficiency1 and work permanently1 without oversight1 with a consistent earnestness no boss's whip ever attained1 ,the experience of the ,national ,cash ,register ,company at ,dayton1 ,ohio1 proves this4 ,the experiments of ,henry ,ford are a step toward the same solution4 ,so1 in lesser measure1 is the plan of the ,steel trust to permit and encourage its employees to purchase annually its stock1 somewhat below the current market price1 giving a substantial bonus if the stock is held over ten years4 ,if you wish an illustration on a larger scale1 consider the mass formation tactics of the ,german soldiers1 in contrast to the individual courage1 initiative and action of the ,french4 ,there are the two types of efficiency in sheerest contrast1 but beyond is always the question of their effect on manhood4 ,france has saved and regenerated her soul2 but ,germany--8 ,further1 the breakdown of paternalistically achieved efficiency has been evident in ,germany's utter failure to understand the mind of other peoples1 particularly of democracies4 ,she had voluminous data1 gathered by the most atrociously efficient spy system ever developed1 yet she utterly misread the mind of ,france1 ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,the same break-down is evident in ,germany's failure in colonization in contrast to ,england's success4 ,for offensive war1 it must be admitted1 the efficiency under the boss's whip will go further4 ,for defensive war1 or war for high moral aims1 it is desirable that the individual soldier should think for himself1 respond to the high appeal4 ,thus for such warfare the efficiency of voluntary effort and cooperation is superior4 ,an autocracy would better rule its soldiers by a military caste2 there can be no excuse for such in a democracy4 ,thus1 the utmost possible fraternization of officers and men is desirable1 and social snobbery1 the snubbing of officers who come up from the ranks1 and other anachronistic survivals1 should be stamped out1 as utterly foreign to what should be the spirit of the military arm of democracy4 ,further1 in estimating the two types1 one must remember that paternalism may exercise its power in secret and that it accomplishes much in the dark4 ,democracy1 on the other hand1 is afflicted and blessed with pitiless publicity4 ,thus its evils are all exposed1 it washes all its dirty linen in public2 but the main thing is to get it clean4 ,when it comes to invention and initiative1 as already indicated1 democracy has the advantage1 immediately1 as in the long run4 ,we are the most inventive people on earth1 and that quality is a direct result of our democratic individualism4 ,it is a significant fact that most of the startling inventions used in this ,war were made in ,america--but developed and applied in ,germany4 ,there1 again1 are evident the contrasting results of the two types of social organization4 ,the indefatigably industrious and docile ,german mind can work out and apply the inventions furnished it1 with marvelous persistency and effectiveness1 under paternal control4 ,we have the problem of achieving by voluntary effort and cooperation a persistent thoroughness in working out the ideas and inventions that come to us in such abundant measure4 ,the path of democracy is education4 ,,xix ,,the ,,solution ,,for ,,democracy ,when we say that the path of democracy is education1 we do not mean that there is an easy solution of its problem4 ,there is no patent medicine we can feed the ,american people and cure it of its diseases4 ,there is no specific for the menaces that threaten4 ,eternal vigilance and effort are the price1 not only of liberty1 but of every good of man4 ,let things alone1 and they get bad2 to keep them good1 we must struggle everlastingly to make them better4 ,leave the pool of politics unstirred by putting into it ever new individual thought and ideal1 and how quickly it becomes a stagnant1 ill-smelling pond4 ,leave a church unvitalized1 by ever fresh personal consecration1 and how quickly it becomes a dead form1 hampering the life of the spirit4 ,leave a university uninfluenced by ever new earnestness and devotion on the part of student and teacher1 and how soon it becomes a scholastic machine1 positively oppressing the mind and spirit4 ,there is a true sense in which the universe exists momentarily by the grace of ,god4 ,take light away1 and you have darkness4 ,take darkness away1 and you have not necessarily light2 you might have chaos4 ,take health away1 and you have disease4 ,take disease away1 and you have not necessarily health2 you may have death4 ,take virtue away1 and you have vice4 ,take vice away1 and you have not necessarily virtue2 you might have negative respectability4 ,thus it is the continual affirmation of the good that keeps the heritage of yesterday and takes the step toward to-morrow4 ,nevertheless1 if there is no easy solution of the problem1 there are certain big lines of attack4 ,if we are right in our diagnosis1 that the problem of democracy is a problem of education1 then our whole system of education1 for child1 youth and adult1 should be reconstructed to focus upon the building of positive and effective moral personality4 ,american education began as a subsidiary process4 ,children got organic education in the home1 on the farm1 in the work shop4 ,they went to school to get certain formal disciplines1 to learn to read1 write and cipher and to acquire formal grammar4 ,with the moving into the cities1 the industrial revolution and the entire transformation of our life1 the school has had to take over more and more of the process of organic education4 ,if children fail to get such education in the school1 they are apt to miss it altogether4 ,with this entire change in the meaning of the school1 old notions of its purpose still survive4 ,probably no one is so benighted to-day as to imagine that the chief function of the school is to fill the mind with information2 but there are many who still hold to the tradition that the chief purpose of education is to sharpen the intellectual tools of the individual for the sake of his personal success4 ,this notion is a misleading survival1 for tools are of value only in terms of the character using them4 ,the same equipment may serve1 equally1 good or bad ends4 ,only as education focusses on the development of positive and effective moral character can it aid in solving the problem of democracy4 ,need it be added that this does not mean teaching morals and manners to children1 thirty minutes a day1 three times a week8 ,that is a minor fragment of moral education4 ,it means that all phases of the process-- the relation of pupil and teacher1 school and home1 the government and discipline1 the lessons taught in every subject1 the environment1 the proportioning of the curriculum1 of physical1 emotional and intellectual culture--all shall be focussed and organized upon the one significant aim of the whole--character4 ,further1 if education is to overcome the menaces and solve the dilemma of democracy1 it must be carried beyond childhood and youth and outside the walls of academic institutions4 ,the ever wider education of adult citizenship is indispensable to the progress and safety of democracy4 ,it is one of the glaring illustrations of the inefficiency of our democracy that there are still communities where school boards build school houses with public money1 open them five or six hours1 five days in the week1 and refuse to allow them to be opened any other hour of the day or night1 for a civic forum1 parents' meeting1 public lecture or other activity of adult education2 and yet we call ourselves a practical people6 ,surely1 in a democracy1 the state is as vitally interested in the education of the adult citizen as of the child4 ,herein is the significance of those various extensions of education1 developing and spreading so widely to-day4 ,university-extension and ,chautauqua movements1 civic forums1 free lectures to the people by boards of education and public libraries1 summer schools1 night schools for adults--all are illustrations of this movement1 so vital to the progress of democracy4 ,through these instrumentalities the popular ideal may be elevated1 the public mind may be trained to more logical and earnest thought1 citizenship may be made more serious and intelligent1 and finally a most helpful influence may be exerted on the academic institutions themselves4 ,it is an easily verifiable truth that any academic institution that builds around itself an enclosing scholastic wall1 refuses to go outside and serve and learn in the larger world of humanity1 in the long run inevitably dies of academic dry rot4 ,in the endeavor to solve the problem of democracy cannot we do more than we have done hitherto in cultivating reverence for moral leadership--the quality so much needed in democracy at the present hour8 ,this may be achieved through many aspects of education1 but especially through contact with noble souls in literature and history4 ,history1 above all1 is the great opportunity1 and1 from this point of view1 is it not necessary to rewrite our histories3 instead of portraying solely statesmen and warriors1 to fill them with lofty examples of leadership in all walks of life8 ,women as well as men3 for surely ideals of both should be fostered4 ,a colleague1 interested in this problem1 recently took one of the most widely used text-books of ,american history1 and counted the pages on which a woman was mentioned4 ,of the five hundred pages1 there were four3 not four pages devoted to women2 but four mentioning a woman4 ,what does it mean3 that women have contributed less than one part in a hundred and five to the development of ,american life8 ,surely no one would think that4 ,what1 then1 are the reasons for the discrepancy8 ,there are several1 but one may be mentioned3 men have written the histories1 and they have written chiefly of the two fields of action where men have been most important and women least1 war and statesmanship4 ,surely1 however1 if ,american history is to reveal the ,american spirit1 exercise the contagion of noble ideals and develop reverence for true moral leadership1 it must present types of both manhood and womanhood in all fields of action and endeavor4 ,one who has stood with ,socrates in the common criminal prison in ,athens and watched him drink the hemlock poison1 saying ,no evil can happen to a good man in life or after death1 who has heard the oration of ,paul on ,mars ,hill or that of ,pericles over the ,athenian dead1 who has thrilled to the heroism of ,joan of ,arc and ,edith ,cavell1 the noble service of ,elizabeth ,fry and ,florence ,nightingale1 the high appeal of ,helen ,hunt ,jackson and ,elizabeth ,barrett ,browning1 who has heard ,giordano ,bruno exclaim as the flames crept up about him1 ,i die a martyr1 and willingly1 who has responded to the calm elevation of ,marcus ,aurelius1 the cosmopolitan wisdom of ,goethe1 the sweet gentleness of ,maeterlinck's spirit and the titan dreams of ,ibsen1 can scarcely fail to appreciate the brotherhood of all men and to learn that reverence for the true moral leader1 that dignifies alike giver and recipient4 ,,xx ,,training ,,for ,,moral ,,leadership ,since the path of democracy is education1 moral leadership is more necessary to it1 than in any other form of society2 yet there are exceptional obstacles to its development4 ,we speak of the white light that beats upon a throne3 it is nothing compared to the search light played upon every leader of democracy4 ,with our lack of reverence1 we delight in pulling to pieces the personalities of those who lead us4 ,thus it is increasingly difficult to get men of sensitive spirit to pay the price of leadership for democracy4 ,is it not possible to do more than we have done1 consciously to develop such leadership8 ,where is it trained8 ,in life1 the college and university1 the normal school1 the schools of law1 medicine and theology4 ,yes1 but if not one boy and girl in ten graduates from the high school1 surely we want one man and woman in ten to fulfill some measure of moral leadership1 and the high school is directly concerned with the task of furnishing such leadership for ,american democracy4 ,if that is true1 is it not a pity that the high school is so largely dominated from above by the demand of the college upon the entering freshman8 ,it is not to be taken for granted that the particular regimen of studies1 best fitting the student to pass the entrance examinations of a college or university1 is the best possible for the nine out of ten students1 who go directly from the high school into the world1 and must fulfill some measure of moral leadership for ,american democracy4 ,the presumption is to the contrary4 ,college professors are human--some of them4 ,they want students prepared to enter as smoothly as possible into the somewhat artificial curricula of academic studies they have arranged4 ,the ,latin professor wishes not to go back and start with the rudiments of his subject1 as the professor of mathematics with the beginnings of ,algebra and ,geometry4 ,the result is they demand of the high school what fits most smoothly into their scheme4 ,now if it is not possible to serve equally the needs of both groups1 would it not be better to neglect the one tenth of the students1 going on to college1 even assuming they are the pick of the flock1 which they are not always8 ,they have four more years to correct their mistakes and round out their culture4 ,if any one must be subordinated1 it would be better to neglect them1 and focus upon the needs of the nine out of ten1 who go directly from the high school into life and have not another chance2 yet there are states in the ,union1 where it is possible for a committee of the state university at the top to say to every high school teacher in the state1 ,conform to our requirements1 or leave the state1 or get out of the profession4 ,the threat1 moreover1 has been carried out more than once4 ,that situation is utterly wrong4 ,we want organization of the educational system1 with each unit cooperating with the next higher1 but if education is to solve the problem of democracy and furnish moral leadership for ,american life1 we want each unit to be free1 first of all1 to serve its own constituency to the best of its power4 ,the problem is not serious for the big city high school1 with its multiplied elective courses1 but for the small rural or town high school1 with its limited corps of teachers and its necessarily fixed courses1 the burden is onerous indeed4 ,is the ,american college and university doing all that it might do in cultivating moral leadership for ,american democracy8 ,the last decades have seen an astounding and unparalleled development of higher education in ,america4 ,in the old days1 the college was usually on a denominational foundation4 ,it was supported by the dollars and pennies of earnest religionists who believed that education was necessary to religion and morality4 ,the president was generally a clergyman of the denomination2 he taught the ethics course1 and all students were required to take it4 ,there was compulsory chapel attendance1 and once a day the entire student body gathered together to listen to some moral and religious thought4 ,then came the immense expansion of higher education4 ,courses were multiplied and diversified4 ,universities were established or endowed by the state4 ,academies became colleges1 and colleges1 universities4 ,institutions were generally secularized4 ,compulsory chapel attendance was rightly abandoned4 ,each department served its own interest apart4 ,until to-day certain of our great universities are not unlike vast intellectual department stores1 with each professor calling his goods across the counter1 and the president1 a sort of superior floorwalker1 to see that no one clerk gets too many customers4 ,it is an impressive illustration of what has happened to our higher institutions that1 in certain of them1 the one regular meeting place of the entire student body in a common interest1 is the bleachers by the athletic field4 ,one continues to believe in college athletics1 in spite of the frequent absurdities and worse1 done in their name2 only if the numbers of those playing the game and those exercising only their lungs and throats from the bleachers1 were reversed1 better all-round athletic education would result4 ,is it not1 however1 a trenchant criticism on the situation in our higher education1 that so often the one common interest should be in something that is1 at least1 aside from the main business of the institution8 ,moreover1 no institution can rightly serve democracy1 unless it is itself democratic4 ,thus the growth of an aristocratic spirit in our colleges and universities is an ominous sign4 ,for instance1 it is still true that any boy or girl1 with a sound body and a good mind and no family to support1 can get a college education4 ,money is not indispensable3 it is possible to work one's way through4 ,will this always be true8 ,one wonders4 ,it is significant that it is easiest to work your way through college1 and keep your self-respect and the respect of your fellows1 in the small1 meagerly endowed college on the frontier4 ,it is most difficult1 with a few exceptions one gladly recognizes1 in the great1 rich universities of the ,east4 ,what does that mean8 ,straws show the tide3 it was announced some time ago by the president of one of our richest and oldest universities that henceforth scholarships in that institution would be given solely on the basis of intellectual scholarship1 as tested by examination2 and applause went up from the alumni all across the country2 yet what does it mean8 ,it means that the boy who has to work on a threshing machine1 sell books to an unsuspecting public1 or do some other semi-honorable work all summer to get back into college in the ,fall1 cannot pass those examinations equally with a rich man's son of equal mind1 who can take a tutor to the seashore or the mountains and coach up all summer4 ,thus foundations1 established by well-meaning people to help poor boys self-respectingly through college1 become intellectual prizes for those who do not need them4 ,that is all wrong4 ,take the special student problem4 ,when a college or university is founded1 it needs students3 they are the life-blood of the institution4 ,really all that is needed to make a college is a teacher and some students3 buildings are not indispensable1 but students the school must have4 ,thus it is apt to keep its bars down and its entrance requirements flexible4 ,special students1 often mature men and women1 who are not prepared to pass the freshman examinations1 are admitted on the recommendation of heads of d epartments1 to special courses they are well fitted to take4 ,students are admitted freely1 and then sifted out afterward1 if they prove unworthy of their opportunity3 not a bad method1 by the way4 ,a dozen years pass1 and the institution wants to become respectable4 ,it is just as with the individual3 the man1 at first1 is absorbed in money-getting1 and when he has it1 yearns for respectability4 ,now getting respectable1 for a college or university1 is called raising the standard of scholarship4 ,let this not be misunderstood3 painstaking1 infinitely laborious1 accurate scholarship is a noble aim1 well worth the consistent effort of a lifetime2 but there are two sides to raising the standard of scholarship4 ,does an educational institution exist for the sake of its reputation1 or to serve its constituency8 ,if it seeks to advance its reputation at the expense of its fullest and best service to those who need its help1 is it not recreant to its duty and opportunity8 ,well1 in the mood cited1 the institution raises and standardizes its entrance-requirements and generally excludes special students4 ,one readily sees why3 it is much easier to work with the regularly prepared freshman1 he fits much more smoothly and comfortably into the machinery of the institution4 ,many a wise teacher will admit1 nevertheless1 that the best students he ever taught and the ones whose lives he is proudest of having influenced1 were often men and women1 thirty1 forty1 fifty years of age--teachers who suddenly realized that the ruts of their calling had become so deep they could no longer see over them1 ministers awakening to the fact that they had given all their store and must get a new supply1 business men aware of a call to another field of action-- working with a consistent earnestness the average fledgling freshman cannot imagine--he is not old enough2 yet generally the tendency is to exclude such students1 unless they will go back and do the arduous1 and often for them useless1 work of preparing to pass the examinations for entrance to the freshman class4 ,that1 too1 is all wrong4 ,the ,american college and university stands to-day at the parting of the ways3 this generation will largely determine its future4 ,if the ,american college and university ever becomes a social club for the sons and daughters of the rich1 an institution making it easy for them to secure business and professional opportunity and advancement1 to the exclusion of their poorer fellows1 it may be as necessary to disestablish the foundations of our great universities1 as statesmen in ,europe thought it necessary to disestablish the monastic foundations at the close of the middle age4 ,they1 too1 began as educational institutions4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the ,american college and university remains true to its task1 if it keeps its doors open and its spirit democratic1 if it seeks to render ever larger service to the great public and to develop moral leadership for ,american democracy1 then1 indeed1 it will go ever forward upon its noble path4 ,,xxi ,,democracy ,,and ,,sacrifice ,we have seen the conflict of ideas in the ,war3 the ,german philosophy that man exists for the state1 the contrasting idea of democracy that the state exists for man4 ,we may well ask why any institution should be regarded as sacred1 except as it has the adventitious sacredness1 coming from time1 convention and hoary tradition4 ,it was said long ago that the ,sabbath was made for man and not man for the ,sabbath1 and the statement may be universalized4 ,every institution on earth--marriage1 the family1 education1 the church1 the state--was made for man and not man for the institution4 ,humanity must always be the end4 ,why should we perpetuate any institution that does not serve life8 ,kant voiced the principle in his second imperative of duty3 ,always treat humanity1 whether in thine own person or that of any other1 as an end withal1 and never as a means only4 ,kant was a ,prussian philosopher3 one wonders what he would have thought of the ,kanonen-,futter theory of manhood6 ,an organization or institution is only a machine1 an instrument for a purpose4 ,thus always it is a means1 never an end3 its value lies in serving its purpose--the end of human life4 ,so the whole existing order must justify itself4 ,where it rests on forms of injustice1 it must be broken or destroyed1 and there is no reason to fear the breaking4 ,thus there is no divine right of kings4 ,they represent a vested interest1 surviving from the past4 ,they must justify themselves by the service of those under them1 or pass4 ,similarly1 there is no divine right of a class or caste1 enjoying supremacy or special privilege4 ,it also is a surviving vested interest1 that must justify itself1 or be swept aside as an incubus4 ,the same test applies to an empire4 ,it1 too1 is a vested interest1 developed out of conditions prevailing in the past4 ,if it does not justify itself by the largest service of all within it1 then it1 too1 is an anachronistic survival1 no longer to be tolerated4 ,the principle is universal3 the institution of private property1 the controlling power of captains of industry1 the capitalistic system1 finally1 the state itself1 in every form3 all are vested interests that may be permitted to continue in the exercise of power only as they prove their superiority to any other form of organization in serving the good of all4 ,this does not mean that1 under democracy1 the individual shall fail of sacrifice and the dedication to something higher than himself4 ,that is the glory of life1 transfiguring human nature1 and without it1 life sinks to sordid selfishness4 ,your life is worth1 not what you have1 but what you are1 and what you are is determined by that to which you dedicate yourself4 ,is it creature comforts1 pleasure1 selfish privilege1 or the largest life and the fullest service of humanity8 ,what you have is merely the condition1 the important question is1 what do you do with it8 ,is it wealth1 prosperity3 do you sit down comfortably on the fact of it1 to secure all the selfish pleasures possible2 or do you regard your fortunate circumstances as so much more opportunity and obligation of leadership and service8 ,is it poverty1 even starvation3 do you whine and grovel1 or stand erect1 with shut teeth1 andwring heroic manhood from the breast of suffering8 ,that is why peace can never be an end3 it1 too1 is merely a condition or means4 ,the question is1 what do you do with your peace1 for peace may mean merely sloth and cowardly ease1 where war may mean unselfish heroism4 ,that is what the peace promoters forget4 ,war has its brutalities1 and terrible indeed they are3 unleashed hate1 lust1 cruelty and revenge2 but war has its heroisms4 ,it calls out the devotion to something higher than the individual from even the commonest of men4 ,to-day all over the earth1 ordinary men are quietly going out to probable death or mutilation in its most horrible forms1 and going for the sake of an ideal larger than themselves4 ,women are doing even more than that4 ,for it is not so hard to die1 but to send out those you love1 dearer than life itself1 to almost certain death--that1 indeed1 is difficult1 and women are doing it everywhere with a smile on their lips and choked-back tears4 ,peace1 on the other hand1 has its virtues3 the softening and refining of life1 gradual development of sympathy1 achievement of comfort and beauty2 but peace has its vices4 ,in times of peace and prosperity there seems to be no great cause at stake4 ,of course1 always it is there1 but we do not see it4 ,we become increasingly absorbed in selfish interests1 in the good of our immediate family4 ,thus petty1 time-serving selfishness is the vice peculiarly characteristic of times of peace and prosperity4 ,consider1 for instance1 the spirit of ,france during the closing years of the nineteenth century1 and at the present dark1 but pregnant1 hour of destiny4 ,thus the question is not whether you have peace or war1 but what you do with your peace or war4 ,it is not whether you are rich or poor1 but what you do with your riches or poverty4 ,suppose we were able to reconstruct our entire social and industrial world1 so that every human being would have plenty to eat1 plenty to wear and a comfortable house to live in3 would we have the kingdom of heaven8 ,not necessarily3 we might have merely a comfortable1 well-decorated pig-sty1 if men lived to nothing higher than pigs4 ,man cannot live by bread alone1 important as bread is1 but by dedication to the things of the spirit4 ,thus there must ever be the capacity for self-forgetfulness1 self-sacrifice1 the dedication of life to supreme aims1 but that does not mean the dedication of man to the institution4 ,rather it is the consecration to the welfare of humanity4 ,man for the ,state means autocracy and imperialism2 ,man for ,mankind is the soul of democracy4 ,that is the ideal to which we must rise1 if democracy is to prove itself worthy to be the form of human society for the great future4 ,this ideal is realized through many lesser forms and instruments1 but always with the same final test4 ,the family1 for instance1 is one of these lesser forms1 and the subordination of the individual to the family unit is just4 ,thus there is a measure of right in seeking first the interest of the family group2 but when this is sought to the end of special privilege and debauching luxury1 against the welfare of all1 it becomes1 as we have seen1 an evil4 ,there is1 similarly1 a certain justice in the subordination of the individual to the social class or group interest4 ,it is right that artisans should unite in trade unions1 that employers should get together in associations for common benefit4 ,one need only contrast the conditions where each workman had to bid in competition against all others1 and each manufacturer1 the same1 to realize the advance made through group union and cooperation4 ,when either group1 however1 seeks to further its own interest at the expense of the welfare of the whole society1 as in securing class legislation1 achieving monopolies1 holding efficient workers to the level of production of the slowest and least capable of the group1 then the class or group spirit becomes an evil that must be fought for the good of all4 ,it is exactly the same with the nation4 ,its interest is justly served only in harmony with the welfare of humanity4 ,any current problem will illustrate the principle1 as1 for instance1 that of immigration4 ,certainly the nation has the right to prohibit immigration which produces unassimilated plague-spots and threatens to cause racial deterioration1 as in phases of ,oriental immigration to the ,pacific coast4 ,similarly1 it is right to restrict immigration that would further economic prosperity1 at the expense of the manhood of the nation4 ,we must answer the question1 whether we want factories or men4 ,it is desirable to have some of both1 of course1 but when one is to be obtained at the expense of the other1 it is manhood that must be the deciding end4 ,on the other hand1 when it comes to refusing a refuge to the poor and oppressed1 who are physically and morally acceptable1 but lack a small amount of money1 or are unable to respond to a literary test1 then the welfare of humanity demands the opposite decision4 ,better give them the fifty dollars--a healthy slave was worth more than that in the old days4 ,so teach them to read and write4 ,the nation1 can readily pay the small economic price and accept the incidental difficulties for the sake of the larger end4 ,thus the deciding principle must always be the welfare1 happiness1 growth1 intelligence1 helpfulness of each individual in harmony with all others4 ,humanity is incarnatein each man4 ,while1 therefore1 the individual must dedicate and1 at times1 sacrifice himself1 it is for the sake1 not of the state1 church or other institution1 but for the welfare of all--,man for ,mankind4 ,from so many sources the view finds expression that modern life has been weakened by humanitarianism4 ,if there is truth in the view1 we would better take account of it and radically revise our ethical philosophy4 ,if it is false1 it is a damning error1 the reiteration of which tends to undermine all that has been achieved for the spirit4 ,an interesting comment on the view is the fact that1 in spite of all its horrors1 this ,war has given no attested instance of arrant cowardice on any front4 ,cruelty1 lust1 brutality1 hate3 these have appeared in unspeakable guise1 but apparently no cowardice or weak timidity2 yet the mail clad heroes of ancient wars1 who met their adversaries face to face1 were subjected to no such strain as the men standing in trenches waiting momentarily death or mutilation from an unseen foe4 ,no1 modern life has not lost strong fiber and is capable of supreme heroism4 ,the old society secured its leadership through noblesse oblige--the obligation of nobility4 ,men of aristocratic family and rank felt that1 because they stood above the people1 they owed a certain leadership and service1 and they gave it1 often in abundant measure1 but always condescendingly from above4 ,we have lost noblesse oblige3 we may even be glad it is gone1 if we can substitute for it something larger and better4 ,it is not the obligation of nobility1 but the obligation of humanity that is the need3 to realize that all power is obligation4 ,as you can1 you owe2 and as you know1 you owe4 ,if you have money1 it is so much obligation of leadership and service4 ,if you have talent1 education1 social or political influence1 it is all so much obligation of leadership and service4 ,if1 as individuals1 we can generally realize that and act upon it1 then indeed we may hope to carry to successful completion the experiment of democracy and see our beloved country fulfill the measure of moral leadership to which we believe she is called among the nations of the earth1 but fulfilling it not as master over slave1 nor as one empire among others1 but as a more experienced brother toward others following the same open path4 ,,xxii ,,the ,,hour ,,of ,,sacrifice ,the supreme world crisis is on4 ,we have entered the ,war in the purest spirit of democracy4 ,we state frankly in advance that we want no indemnity1 no extension of territory4 ,we war with no people1 except as that people identifies itself with aggressive autocracy and imperialism1 imperilling our safety1 as of all democracies1 and seeking to ride tyrannically and unjustly over the rights and liberties of other peoples4 ,thus we enter the ,war solely for the cause of democracy and humanity4 ,the hour of sacrifice has struck for the ,american people3 will it rise to the test8 ,when one considers the characteristics of our surface life for recent decades--the devotion to money-getting1 the rapid increase of senseless and debauching luxury1 the reckless frivolity1 the unthinking haste and selfish pleasure-seeking--one questions4 ,underneath1 however1 is a tremendous latent idealism4 ,we are young1 enthusiastic1 capable of glorious consecration4 ,cynical disillusionment is all upon the surface --the cult of the clique of cleverness1 uprooted from the soil of common life and the deeps of the eternal verities4 ,beneath in the great mass of the people is profound faith in life1 deep trust in the ideal1 belief in the great future of humanity4 ,democracy will justify itself4 ,we shall rise to the test2 but how we need to hear and heed the call6 ,awake ,america means ,americans awake6 ,for in democracy the individual is the soul4 ,on each person rests the responsibility4 ,let us accept the bitter burden and meet the supreme test1 giving time1 money1 service1 life and those we love better than life1 for the sake of the safer1 freer1 nobler world that is to be4 ,since we stood apart so long and entered the horrible devastation so late1 it is our privilege to do all we can to save the spiritual heritage of humanity1 to keep our hearts clean from the corrosive acid of national and racial hatred1 to do all in our power to remove it from the breasts of others4 ,injustice in high places is possible only because there is injustice in the hearts of men4 ,to overthrow tyranny is but the initial step of emancipation3 unless the tyrant hate in the heart is dethroned1 the external tyrant1 in some form of social injustice will surely return4 ,he who conquers hate and the lust for revenge in his own breast is spiritually free and master of the tyrant that wrongs him4 ,thus it is our privilege and duty to hate no one2 but to hate injustice1 greed1 tyranny1 aggressive selfishness1 the wicked ambitions of autocratic imperialism1 to resist and help to overthrow them1 and so do our part in bringing in the free brotherhood of the nations and peoples in one humanity1 that will be the dawn of the longed-for era of universal and permanent peace for mankind4