,,part ,i2 ,,from ,,seed ,,to           
,,leaf999999        ,,outlines ,,of     
,,lessons ,,in ,,botany4  ,,part ,i43   
,,from ,,seed ,,to ,,leaf  ,,for ,,the  
,,use ,,of ,,teachers1 ,,or ,,mothers   
,,studying ,,with ,,their ,,children4   
,,by  ,,jane ,h4 ,,newell4              
,,illustrated ,,by ,h4,p4 ,,symmes      
#ahhh4        ,,part ,i  ,,table ,,of   
,,contents   ,i4 ,,plants ,,and ,,their 
,,uses   #a4 ,food   #b4 ,clothing   #c4
 ,purification of the ,air   #d4 ,fuel  
,,ii4 ,,seedlings   #a4 ,directions for 
raising in the ,schoolroom   #b4 ,study 
of ,morning-,glory1 ,sunflower1 ,bean1  
and ,pea   #c4 ,comparison with other   
,dicotyledons   #d4 ,nature of the      
,caulicle   #e4 ,leaves of ,seedlings   
#f4 ,monocotyledons   #g4 ,food of      
,seedlings  ,,iii4 ,,roots   #a4 ,study 
of the ,roots of ,seedlings   #b4       
,fleshy ,roots   #c4 ,differences       
between ,stem and ,root   #d4           
,root-hairs   #e4 ,comparison of a      
,carrot1 an ,onion1 and a ,potato  ,,iv 

,,buds ,,and ,,branches   #a4           
,horsechestnut       ,magnolia          
,lilac       ,beech       ,american ,elm
       ,balm of ,gilead                 
,tulip-tree       ,cherry       ,red    
,maple       ,norway ,spruce   #b4      
,vernation   #c4 ,phyllotaxy  ,v ,,stems
   #a4 ,forms   #b4 ,movements   #c4    
,structure  ,,vi ,,leaves   #a4 ,forms  
and ,structure   #b4 ,descriptions   #c4
 ,transpiration   #d4 ,assimilation     
#e4 ,respiration     ,,preface4   ,in   
this study1 as in all scientific        
teaching1 the teacher's aim should be to
 foster in his pupils the power of      
careful observation and clear           
expression4 ,the actual amount of       
knowledge gained at school must needs be
 small1 and often quickly forgotten1 but
 the habit of right study is an         
invaluable possession4  ,the former     
method of teaching ,botany was confined 
almost wholly to dry1 technical         
classification4 ,the pupil learned to   
find the name and order of a plant1 but 

its structure1 its habits1 its life in  
short1 were untouched by him4 ,we know  
now that ,nature is the best text-book4 
,the pupil should first ask his         
questions of her and try to interpret   
her answers2 then he may learn with     
profit what those who better understand 
her speech have to tell him4  ,this     
method of teaching1 however1 requires   
much1 very much1 of the teacher4 ,he    
must be himself intelligent1 well       
trained1 and able to give time to the   
preparation of his lessons4 ,it seems to
 us1 who are but amateurs1 as if it were
 impossible to teach thus without a     
thorough comprehension of the whole     
field4 ,our own ignorance oppresses us  
so much that we feel tempted to say that
 we cannot attempt it4 ,but if the work 
of leading children to observe the      
wonders about them is to be done at all1
 it must be done by us1 who are not     
masters of our subject1 and we must find
 out for ourselves how we can best      
accomplish this result1 since we have so

 little to guide us4  ,it is with the   
hope that the experience of one who has 
tried to do this with some fair amount  
of success may be of use to other       
puzzled experimenters1 that ,i venture  
to write out some outlines of lessons in
 ,botany for beginners4  ,the method of 
beginning with the simpler forms of life
 is one that appeals to the scientific  
tendencies of the day4 ,it seems logical
 to begin with lower forms and work up  
to the higher4 ,but this method is only 
suitable for mature minds4 ,we do not   
teach a child ,english by showing him   
the sources of the language2 he learns  
it by daily use4 ,so also the beginning 
of the study of any ,natural ,science by
 the young should be the observation of 
the most obvious things about them1 the 
things which they can see1 and handle1  
and experiment upon naturally1 without  
artificial aids4 ,therefore this book   
concerns itself only with the ,flowering
 ,plants4  ,the author believes that the
 simplest botanical study should afford 

the means of identifying plants1 as a   
large part of the student's pleasure in 
the science will be the recognition of  
the things about him4 ,the present      
volume affords the basis for future     
classification1 which ,part ,,ii1 on    
flowers1 will develop4 ,it is1          
doubtless1 as good a way1 perhaps the   
best1 to begin with a single plant1 and 
study root1 stem1 leaves1 and flowers as
 belonging to a whole1 but the problem  
is complicated by practical             
difficulties4 ,in our climate there are 
but two months of the school year when  
flowers are easily obtained4 ,on the    
other hand1 the material for these      
lessons can be got throughout the       
winter1 and the class1 well trained in  
methodical work1 will begin the study of
 flowers at the season when every day   
brings some fresh wonder of beauty4     
,the author will receive gladly any     
criticisms or suggestions4  ,,jane ,h4  
,,newell4  #age ,brattle ,st41          
,cambridge     ,,introduction4   ,the   

lessons here outlined are suitable for  
children of twelve years of age1 and    
upwards4 ,for younger pupils they would 
require much adaptation1 and even then  
they would not be so good as some       
simpler method1 such as following the   
growth of one plant1 and comparing it   
with others at every step4 ,the little  
ones profit most by describing the very 
simple things that they see1 without    
much reference to theories4  ,the       
outlines follow the plan of ,dr4 ,gray's
 ,first ,lessons and ,how ,plants ,grow1
 and are intended to be used in         
connection with either of those books4  
,the necessary references will be found 
at the end of every section4 ,the book  
contains also references to a course of 
interesting reading in connection with  
the subjects of the lessons4  ,the      
lessons may begin1 like the text-books1 
with the subject of ,germination1 if the
 seeds are planted before they are      
required for use1 but it is generally   
preferable to use the first recitation  

with the class for planting the seeds1  
in order to have them under the direct  
care of the pupils4 ,some general talks 
about plants are therefore put at the   
beginning to occupy the time until the  
seedlings are ready for study4  ,some   
,nasturtiums 7,tropaeolum majus7 and    
,morning-,glories should be planted from
 the first in boxes of earth and allowed
 to grow over the window1 as they are   
often used for illustrations4     ,i4   
,,plants ,,and ,,their ,,uses4#a        
,footnote #a3 ,this section may be      
omitted1 and the lessons begun with     
,seedlings1 if the teacher prefer4      
,what is ,botany8 ,the pupils are very  
apt to say at first that it is learning 
about flowers4 ,the teacher can draw    
their attention to the fact that flowers
 are only a part of the plant1 and that 
,botany is also the study of the leaves1
 the stem1 and the root4 ,botany is the 
science of plants4 ,ask them what the   
,geranium is4 ,tell them to name some   
other plants4 ,the teacher should keep a

 few growing plants in the schoolroom   
for purposes of illustration4  ,ask them
 what else there is in the world besides
 plants4 ,by this question the three    
kingdoms1 animal1 vegetable1 and        
mineral1 are brought up4 ,it will give  
occasion for a discussion of the earth  
and what it contains1 the mountains1    
formed of rocks and soil1 the plants    
growing on the earth1 and the animals   
that inhabit it1 including man4 ,let    
them name the three kingdoms with some  
example of each4 ,which of these        
kingdoms contain living things8 ,the    
words organic and inorganic can be      
brought in here4 ,an organ 7,greek3     
,ergon1 meaning work7 is any part that  
does a special work1 as the leaves1 the 
stem of a plant1 and the eye1 the ear of
 animals4 ,an organism is a living being
 made up of such organs4 ,the inorganic 
world contains the mineral kingdom2 the 
organic world includes the vegetable and
 animal kingdoms4  ,one's aim in these  
lessons should always be to tell the    

pupils as little as possible4 ,try to   
lead them to think out these things for 
themselves4  ,ask them how plants differ
 from animals4 ,they will say that      
plants are fixed to one place1 while    
animals can move about2 that plants have
 no will or consciousness1 and that     
animals have4 ,these answers are true   
when we compare the higher animals with 
plants1 but the differences become lost 
as we descend in the scale and approach 
the border land where botanist and      
zoologist meet on a common ground4      
,sea-anemones are fixed to the rock on  
which they grow1 while some of the lower
 plants are able to move from place to  
place1 and it is hardly safe to affirm  
that a jelly-fish is more conscious of  
its actions than is a ,sensitive ,plant1
 the leaves of which close when the stem
 is touched4  ,there is no real division
 between animals and plants4 ,we try to 
classify the objects about us into      
groups1 according to the closeness of   
their relationships1 but we must always 

remember that these hard lines are ours1
 not ,nature's4 ,we attempt1 for        
purposes of our own convenience1 to     
divide a whole1 which is so bound       
together that it cannot be separated    
into parts that we can confidently place
 on different sides of a dividing line4 
#a4 ,plants as ,food-,producers4--,the  
chief distinguishing characteristic of  
plants is one that the pupils may be led
 to think out for themselves by asking  
them what animals feed upon4 ,to help   
them with this1 ask them what they had  
for breakfast4 ,oatmeal is mentioned1   
perhaps4 ,this is made from oats1 which 
is a plant4 ,coffee and tea1 bread made 
from wheat1 potatoes1 etc41 all come    
from plants4#a ,beef1 butter and milk   
come from the cow1 but the cow lives    
upon grass4 ,the plant1 on the other    
hand1 is nourished upon mineral or      
inorganic matter4 ,it can make its own  
food from the soil and the air1 while   
animals can only live upon that which is
 made for them by plants4 ,these are    

thus the link between the mineral and   
animal kingdoms4 ,ask the scholars if   
they can think of anything to eat or    
drink that does not come from a plant4  
,with a little help they will think of  
salt and water4 ,these could not support
 life4 ,so we see that animals receive  
all their food through the vegetable    
kingdom4 ,one great use of plants is    
that they are food-producers4  ,footnote
 #a3 ,reader in ,botany1 for use in     
,schools4 ,selected and adapted from    
well-known authors4 ,ginn  ,co41        
,boston1 ,new ,york and ,chicago1 #ahhi4
 ,i4 ,origin of ,cultivated ,plants4    
,this lesson may be followed by a talk  
on food and the various plants used for 
food4#b  ,footnote #b3 ,the ,flour      
,mills of ,minneapolis3 ,century        
,magazine1 ,may1 #ahhf4 ,maize3 ,popular
 ,science ,news1 ,nov4 and ,dec41 #ahhh4
   #b4 ,clothing4--,plants are used for 
clothing4 ,of the four great clothing   
materials1 cotton1 linen1 silk1 and     
woollen1 the first two are of vegetable1

 the last two of animal origin4 ,cotton 
is made from the hairs of the seed of   
the cotton plant4#a ,linen is made of   
the inner fibre of the bark of the flax 
plant4 ,it has been cultivated from the 
earliest historical times4  ,footnote   
#a3 ,reader in ,botany4 ,,ii4 ,the      
,cotton ,plant4   #c4 ,purification of  
the ,air4--,the following questions and 
experiments are intended to show the    
pupils1 first1 that we live in an       
atmosphere1 the presence of which is    
necessary to support life and combustion
 7#a7 and 7#b72 secondly1 that this     
atmosphere is deprived of its power to  
support life and combustion by the      
actions of combustion 7#b71 and of      
respiration 7#c72 thirdly1 that this    
power is restored to the air by the     
action of plants 7#d74  ,we have the air
 about us everywhere4 ,a so-called empty
 vessel is one where the contents are   
invisible4 ,the following experiment is 
a good illustration of this4  7#a7 ,wrap
 the throat of a glass funnel with      

moistened cloth or paper so that it will
 fit tightly into the neck of a bottle1 
and fill the funnel with water4 ,if the 
space between the funnel and the bottle 
is air-tight1 the water will not flow   
into the bottle4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#a4  ,do not explain this in advance to 
the pupils4 ,ask them what prevents the 
water from flowing into the bottle4 ,if 
they are puzzled1 loosen the funnel1 and
 show them that the water will now flow 
in4 ,in the first case1 as the air could
 not escape1 the water could not flow   
in2 in the second1 the air was displaced
 by the heavier water4  ,ask the pupils 
why the air in a crowded room becomes so
 difficult to breathe4 ,could a person  
live if he were shut up in an air-tight 
room for a long time8 ,fresh air is     
necessary to life4 ,the teacher may     
explain that it is the oxygen in the air
 that supports life4 ,air is composed   
one-fifth of this gas and four-fifths of
 nitrogen4 ,the gases are mixed and the 
nitrogen simply dilutes the oxygen1 as  

it were4  ,fresh air is necessary to    
support combustion as well as life4 ,ask
 them why we put out a fire by throwing 
a blanket or a rug over it4 ,the        
following experiment illustrates this4  
7#b7 ,take a small1 wide-mouthed bottle1
 covered with a card or cork4 ,to this  
cover fasten a piece of bent wire with a
 taper on the end4 ,light the taper and 
lower it into the jar4 ,it will burn a  
few seconds and then go out4 ,raise and 
light it again1 and it will be          
extinguished as soon as it is plunged   
into the bottle4 ,this shows that the   
oxygen of the air is used up by burning 
substances1 as it is by breathing       
animals4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4     
,the following experiment shows that    
fire will not burn in an atmosphere of  
gas from our lungs4  7#c7 ,fill a bottle
 with gas by breathing into it through a
 bit of glass tubing1 passed through a  
card or cork1 and reaching to the bottom
 of the bottle4 ,the bottle will be     
dimmed with moisture1 showing the       

presence of aqueous vapor4 ,a lighted   
match plunged into the bottle will be   
immediately extinguished4 ,a better way1
 which1 however1 takes some skill in    
manipulation1 is to fill the bottle with
 water1 cover it with a flat piece of   
glass1 and invert the bottle in a dish  
of water1 taking care that no air       
bubbles enter4 ,then1 through a bit of  
glass tubing1 blow into the bottle till 
the water is expelled4 ,cover the mouth 
with the glass under water1 and holding 
it tightly down1 invert the bottle      
quickly4 ,set it down1 light a match1   
take away the glass1 and at the same    
instant plunge in the match4 ,if no air 
has been allowed to enter1 the match    
will go out at once4 ,no animal could   
live in an atmosphere which could not   
support combustion4  ,from these        
experiments the pupils have seen that   
the life-sustaining quality of the air  
is used up by combustion and            
respiration4 ,to bring in the subject of
 purification by plants1 ask them why   

all the oxygen in the world is not      
exhausted by the people and the fires in
 it4 ,after the subject has been        
explained1 the following experiment can 
be prepared and put aside till the next 
lesson4  7#d7 ,fill two bottles with air
 from the lungs1 as in 7#c7 having      
previously introduced a cutting from a  
plant into one of the bottles4 ,allow   
them to stand in the sun for a day or   
two4 ,then test both bottles with a     
burning match4 ,if properly done1 the   
result will be very striking4 ,the end  
of the cutting should be in the water of
 the dish4 ,this experiment will not    
succeed excepting with bottles such as  
are used for chemicals1 which have their
 mouths carefully ground4 ,common       
bottles allow the air to enter between  
the bottle and the glass4#a  ,footnote  
#a3 ,see note on page #ac4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4   #d4         
,fuel4--,light a match and allow it to  
burn until half charred4 ,blow it out   
gently1 so as to leave a glowing spark4 

,when this spark goes out it will leave 
behind a light1 gray ash4 ,we have to   
consider the flame1 the charred         
substance1 and the ash4  ,flame is      
burning gas4 ,in all ordinary fuels1    
carbon and hydrogen1 in various         
combinations and free1 make the         
principal part4 ,the first effect of the
 heat is to set free the volatile       
compounds of carbon and hydrogen4 ,the  
hydrogen then begins to unite with the  
oxygen of the air1 forming water1       
setting free the carbon1 which also     
unites with oxygen1 forming carbonic    
acid gas4 ,the burning gases cause the  
flame4 ,the following experiment will   
illustrate this4  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#d4  7#e7 ,fit a test-tube with a tight 
cork1 through which a bit of glass      
tubing1 drawn out into a jet1 is passed1
 the tubing within being even with the  
cork4 ,place some bits of shaving in the
 tube1 cork it1 and make the cork       
perfectly air-tight by coating it with  
bees wax or paraffine4 ,heat the        

test-tube gently over an alcohol lamp4  
,the wood turns black1 and vapor issues 
from the jet1 which may be lighted      
7,fig4 #d74 ,care should be taken to    
expel all the air before lighting4  7#f7
 ,that the burning hydrogen forms water 
by uniting with the oxygen of the air1  
may be shown by holding a cold glass    
tumbler over the jet1 or over any flame4
 ,the glass will be dimmed by drops of  
moisture4  ,the charred part of the wood
 is charcoal1 which is one form of      
carbon4 ,our ordinary charcoal is made  
by driving off all the gases from wood1 
by burning it under cover where only a  
little air can reach it4 ,the volatile  
gases burn more readily than the carbon1
 and are the first substances to be     
driven off1 so that the carbon is left  
behind nearly pure4 ,in the same way we 
have driven off all the gases from the  
half-burned match and left the carbon4  
,the teacher should have a piece of     
charcoal to show the pupils4 ,it still  
retains all the markings of the wood4   

,if the combustion is continued1 the    
carbon also unites with the oxygen of   
the air1 till it is all converted into  
carbonic acid gas4 ,this was the case   
with the match where we left the glowing
 spark4 ,the gray ash that was left     
behind is the mineral matter contained  
in the wood4  7#g7 ,we can show that    
this gas is formed by pouring lime water
 into a bottle in which a candle has    
been burned as in 7#b74 ,the water      
becomes milky from a fine white powder  
formed by the union of the carbonic acid
 gas with the lime1 forming carbonate of
 lime4 ,this is a chemical test4  ,the  
wood of the match is plainly of         
vegetable origin2 so also is the        
charcoal1 which is nearly pure carbon4  
,coal is also carbon1 the remains of    
ancient forests1 from which the gases   
have been slowly driven off by heat and 
pressure4 ,all the common fuels are     
composed principally of carbon and      
hydrogen4 ,when these elements unite    
with oxygen1 carbonic acid gas and water

 are formed4#a  ,footnote #a3           
,transcriber's ,note3 ,this note is     
missing from original text4  7#h7 ,the  
same products are formed by respiration4
 ,we breathe out carbonic acid gas and  
water from our lungs4 ,breathe on a cold
 glass4 ,it is bedewed exactly as it is 
by the candle flame4 ,breathe through a 
bit of glass tubing into a bottle of    
lime water4 ,it becomes milky1 showing  
the presence of carbonic acid gas4 ,why 
is this8  ,every act or thought is      
accompanied by a consumption of material
 in the body1 which thus becomes unfit  
for further use4 ,these waste           
substances1 composed chiefly of carbon  
and hydrogen1 unite with oxygen breathed
 in from the air1 forming carbonic acid 
gas and water1 which are breathed out of
 the system4 ,the action is a process of
 slow combustion1 and it is principally 
by the heat thus evolved that the body  
is kept warm4 ,as we are thus constantly
 taking oxygen from the air1 a close    
room becomes unfit to live in and a     

supply of fresh air is indispensable4   
,the cycle of changes is completed by   
the action of plants1 which take in     
carbonic acid gas1 use the carbon1 and  
return most of the oxygen to the        
atmosphere4  ,,apparatus ,,for          
,,experiments4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,the    
glass apparatus required1 including an  
alcohol lamp1 may be obtained for one   
dollar by sending to the ,educational   
,supply ,co41 ,no4 #f ,hamilton ,place1 
,boston4  ,two small wide-mouthed       
bottles4 ,a narrow-necked bottle4 ,a    
glass funnel4 ,a bit of bent            
glass-tubing4 ,a bit of straight        
glass-tubing4 ,a flat piece of glass4 ,a
 test-tube1 with jet4 ,an alcohol lamp4 
,a bent wire with taper4 ,a card4 ,a    
slip of a plant4 ,a dish and pitcher of 
water4 ,beeswax or paraffine4 ,shavings4
 ,lime water4 ,matches4  ,gray's ,first 
,lessons4 ,revised edition4 ,sect4      
,,xvi1 #dde-g1 #dcg4  ,how ,plants      
,grow4 ,chap4 ,,iii1 #bgi-bhh4     ,,ii4
  ,,seedlings4   #a4 ,directions for    

raising in the ,schoolroom4--,the seeds 
should be planted in boxes tilled with  
clean sand4 ,plates or shallow crockery 
pans are also used1 but the sand is apt 
to become caked1 and the pupils are     
likely to keep the seeds too wet if they
 are planted in vessels that will not   
drain4 ,the boxes should be covered with
 panes of glass till the seedlings are  
well started1 and should be kept at a   
temperature of from #fe deg4 to #gj deg4
 ,fahr4 ,it is very important to keep   
them covered while the seeds are        
germinating1 otherwise the sand will be 
certain to become too dry if kept in a  
sufficiently warm place4 ,light is not  
necessary1 and in winter time the       
neighborhood of the furnace is often a  
very convenient place to keep them safe 
from frost4 ,they should not be in the  
sun while germinating4 ,when the first  
sprouts appear above the ground let     
another set be planted1 and so on1 till 
a series is obtained ranging from plants
 several inches high to those just      

starting from the seed4 ,the seeds      
themselves should be soaked for a day   
and the series is then ready for study4 
,the time required for their growth     
varies according to the temperature1    
moisture1 etc4 ,dr4 ,goodale says they  
should be ready in ten days4#a          
,footnote #a3 ,concerning a few ,common 
,plants1 by ,g4,l4 ,goodale1 ,boston1   
,d4,c4 ,heath  ,co4 ,this little book1  
which is published1 in pamphlet form1   
for fifteen cents1 will be found        
exceedingly useful4  ,i have never been 
able to raise them so quickly in the    
schoolroom1 nor have the pupils to whom 
,i have given them to plant done so at  
home4 ,generally1 it is three weeks1 at 
least1 before the first specimens are as
 large as is desirable4  ,germinating   
seeds need warmth1 moisture and air4    
,the necessary conditions are supplied  
in the very best way by growing them on 
sponge1 but it would be difficult to    
raise enough for a large class in this  
manner4 ,place a piece of moist sponge  

in a jelly-glass1 or any glass that is  
larger at the top1 so that the sponge   
may not sink to the bottom1 and pour    
some water into the glass1 but not so   
much as to touch the sponge4 ,the whole 
should be covered with a larger inverted
 glass1 which must not be so close as to
 prevent a circulation of air4 ,the     
plants can thus be watched at every     
stage and some should always be grown in
 this way4 ,the water in the tumbler    
will keep the sponge damp1 and the      
roots1 after emerging from the sponge1  
will grow well in the moist air4 ,seeds 
can also be grown on blotting paper4    
,put the seeds on several thicknesses of
 moist blotting paper on a plate1 cover 
them with more moist paper1 and invert  
another plate over them1 taking care to 
allow the free entrance of air4  ,if    
possible1 it is by far the best way to  
have the seeds growing in the           
schoolroom1 and make it a regular custom
 for the pupils to observe them every   
morning and take notes of their growth4 

,these lessons on seeds are suitable for
 pupils of every age1 from adults to the
 youngest children who go to school4    
,the difference should be only in the   
mode of treatment2 but the same         
principles should be brought out1       
whatever the age and power of           
comprehension of the pupil4  ,for these 
lessons the following seeds should be   
planted1 according to the above         
directions3  ,morning-,glory1 ,sunflower
 or ,squash1 ,bean1 ,pea1 ,red ,clover1 
,flax1 ,corn1 ,wheat1 and ,oats4#a ,if  
they can be procured plant also acorns1 
,pine-seeds1 ,maple-seeds1 and          
horsechestnuts4  ,footnote #a3 ,a       
package of these seeds may be obtained  
for fifty cents1 from ,joseph ,breck    
,son1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,they will be sent
 by mail1 postage paid4   #b4 ,study of 
,morning-,glory1 ,sunflower1 ,bean1 and 
,pea4--,for reasons hereafter given1 ,i 
consider the ,morning-,glory the best   
seedling to begin upon4 ,having a       
series1 as above described1 before them1

 the pupils should draw the seedlings4  
,when the drawings are made1 let them   
letter alike the corresponding parts1   
beginning with the plantlet in the seed1
 and using new letters when a new part  
is developed4 ,the seed coats need not  
be lettered1 as they do not belong to   
the plantlet4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#e4--;,germination of ,morning ,glory1  
a1 caulicle2 b1 cotyledons2 c1 plumule2 
d1 roots4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#f4--;,germination of ,sunflower4       
,after drawing the ,morning-,glory      
series1 let them draw the ,sunflower or 
,squash in the same way1 then the ,bean1
 and finally the ,pea4 ,let them write  
answers to the following questions3     
,,morning-,,glory4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,it 
has been objected that the              
,morning-,glory seed is too small to    
begin upon4 ,if the teacher prefer1 he  
may begin with the ,squash1 ,bean1 and  
,pea4 ,the questions will require but   
little alteration1 and he can take up   
the ,morning-,glory later4  ,tell the   

parts of the ,morning-,glory seed4      
,what part grows first8  ,what becomes  
of the seed-covering8  ,what appears    
between the first pair of leaves8  ,was 
this to be seen in the seed8  ,how many 
leaves are there at each joint of stem  
after the first pair8  ,how do they     
differ from the first pair8  ,,sunflower
 ,,or ,,squash4  ,what are the parts of 
the seed8  ,what is there in the        
,morning-,glory seed that this has not8 
,how do the first leaves change as the  
seedling grows8   ,,bean4  ,what are the
 parts of the seed8  ,how does this     
differ from the ,morning-,glory seed8   
,how from the ,sunflower seed8  ,how do 
the first pair of leaves of the ,bean   
change as they grow8  ,how many leaves  
are there at each joint of stem8#a      
,footnote #a3 ,there are two simple     
leaves at the next node to the          
cotyledons2 after these there is one    
compound leaf at each node4  ,how do    
they differ from the first pair8        
,,pea4  ,what are the parts of the seed8

 ,compare it with the ,morning-,glory1  
,sunflower1 and ,bean4  ,how does it    
differ in its growth from the ,bean8    
,what have all these four seeds in      
common8  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#g4--;,germination of ,pea4 a1 caulicle2
 b1 cotyledons2 c1 plumule2 d1 roots4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,germination
 of ,bean4  ,what has the               
,morning-,glory seed that the others    
have not8  ,what have the ,bean and ,pea
 that the ,morning-,glory has not8  ,how
 does the ,pea differ from all the      
others in its growth8  ,what part grows 
first in all these seeds8  ,from which  
part do the roots grow8  ,what          
peculiarity do you notice in the way    
they come up out of the ground8#a       
,footnote #a3 ,this question refers to  
the arched form in which they come up4  
,in this way the tender1 growing apex is
 not rubbed4  ,the teacher must remember
 that1 unless the pupils have had some  
previous training1 they will first have 
to learn to use their eyes1 and for this

 they will need much judicious help4    
,they should be assisted to see what is 
before them1 not told what is there4 ,it
 is absolutely necessary that these     
questions should be thoroughly          
understood and correctly answered before
 any conclusions are drawn from them4   
,for this purpose abundant material is  
indispensable4 ,it is better not to     
attempt these lessons on seeds at all1  
unless there is material enough for     
personal observation by all the pupils4 
,after this preliminary work has been   
done1 the names of the parts can be     
given to the pupils4 ,they may be       
written under each drawing              
thus1--,a,caulicle2#a ,b,cotyledons2    
,c,roots2 ,d,plumule4 ,the whole        
plantlet in the seed is the embryo or   
germ1 whence the sprouting of seeds is  
called germination4  ,footnote #a3 ,the 
term radicle is still in general use4   
,the derivation 7little root7 makes it  
undesirable4 ,dr4 ,gray has adopted     
caulicle 7little stem7 in the latest    

edition of his text-book1 which ,i have 
followed4 ,other writers use the term   
hypocotyl1 meaning under the cotyledons4
  ,i consider this the best order to    
study the seeds because in the          
,morning-,glory the cotyledons are      
plainly leaves in the seed2 and in the  
,squash or ,sunflower#b the whole       
process is plainly to be seen whereby a 
thick body1 most unlike a leaf1 becomes 
an ordinary green leaf with veins4#c ,in
 the ,sunflower the true leaves are     
nearly the same shape as the cotyledons1
 so that this is an especially good     
illustration for the purpose4 ,thus1    
without any hint from me1 my pupils     
often write of the ,bean1 it has two    
thick leaves and two thin leaves4 ,in   
this way the ,bean and ,pea present no  
difficulty4 ,the cotyledons in the first
 make apparently an unsuccessful effort 
to become leaves1 which the second give 
up altogether4  ,footnote #b3 ,the large
 ,russian ,sunflower is the best for the
 purpose4  ,footnote #c3 ,these lessons 

are intended1 as has been said1 for     
children over twelve years of age4 ,if  
they are adapted for younger ones1 it is
 especially important to begin with a   
seed where the leaf-like character of   
the cotyledons is evident1 or becomes   
so4 ,maple is excellent for the purpose4
 ,morning-,glory is too small4 ,squash  
will answer very well4 ,i think it      
characteristic of the minds of little   
children to associate a term with the   
first specimen to which it is applied4  
,if the term cotyledon be given them    
first for those of the ,bean and ,pea   
they will say when they come to the     
,morning-,glory1 but those are leaves1  
not cotyledons4 ,cotyledons are large   
and round4 ,it will be very difficult to
 make them understand that cotyledons   
are the first seed-leaves1 and they will
 feel as if it were a forced connection1
 and one that they cannot see for       
themselves4  ,the teacher's object now  
is to make the pupils understand the    
meaning of the answers they have given  

to these questions4 ,in the first place1
 they should go over their answers and  
substitute the botanical terms they have
 just learned for the ones they have    
used4   ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,parts 
,,of ,,the ,,soaked ,,seeds4            
,morning-,glory4 ,a seed covering4 ,some
 albumen4 ,two cotyledons4 ,a caulicle4 
,sunflower4 ,an outer covering4#a ,an   
inner covering4 ,two cotyledons4 ,a     
caulicle4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,the         
so-called seed of ,sunflower is really a
 fruit4 ,the outer covering is the wall 
of the ovary1 the inner the seed-coat4  
,such closed1 one-seeded fruits are     
called akenes4  ,footnote #b3 ,the      
plumule is sometimes visible in the     
embryo of the ,sunflower4  ,bean4 ,a    
seed covering4 ,two cotyledons4 ,a      
caulicle4 ,a plumule4  ,pea4 ,the same  
as the ,bean4  ,they have also learned  
how the first leaves in the last three  
differ from those of the                
,morning-,glory1 being considerably     
thicker in the ,sunflower1 and very much

 thicker in the ,bean and ,pea4 ,why    
should the ,morning-,glory have this    
jelly that the others have not8 ,why do 
the first leaves of the ,sunflower      
change so much as the seedling grows8   
,what becomes of their substance8 ,why  
do those of the ,bean shrivel and       
finally drop off8 ,by this time some    
bright pupil will have discovered that  
the baby-plant needs food and that this 
is stored around it in the              
,morning-,glory1 and in the leaves      
themselves in the others4 ,it is        
nourished upon this prepared food1 until
 it has roots and leaves and can make   
its own living4 ,the food of the        
,morning-,glory is called albumen2 it   
does not differ from the others in kind1
 but only in its manner of storage4#a   
,footnote #a3 ,reader in ,botany4 ,,iii4
 ,seed-,food4  ,also the questions have 
brought out the fact that the ,bean and 
,pea have the plumule ready formed in   
the seed1 while the ,morning-,glory and 
,sunflower have not4 ,why should this   

be8 ,it is because there is so much food
 stored in the first two that the       
plumule can develop before a root is    
formed1 while in the others there is    
only nourishment sufficient to enable   
the plantlet to form its roots4 ,these  
must make the second leaves by their own
 labor4   #c4 ,comparison with other    
,dicotyledons4--,the pupils should now  
have other seeds to compare with these  
four4 ,let them arrange ,flax1 ,four    
o-clock1 ,horsechestnut1 ,almond1       
,nasturtium1 ,maple-seeds1 etc41 under  
two heads4  ,seeds with the ,food stored
               ,seeds with the ,food    
stored outside the plantlet             
in the embryo itself 7,albuminous74     
7,exalbuminous74  ,flax4 ,four-o'clock4 
,acorn4 ,horsechestnut4 ,almond4        
,morning-,glory4                        
,maple4 ,sunflower4 ,squash4            
,bean4 ,pea4 ,nasturtium4  ,they may    
also be divided into those with and     
without the plumule4  ,without ,plumule4
                        ,with ,plumule4 

,flax4 ,maple4 ,sunflower4              
,acorn4 ,horsechestnut4 ,four-o'clock4  
,almond4 ,bean4 ,pea4 ,morning-,glory4  
,squash4 ,nasturtium4  ,those with      
plumules will be seen to have the most  
abundant nourishment4 ,in many cases    
this is made use of by man4  ,these last
 can be again divided into those in     
which the cotyledons come up into the   
air and those where they remain in the  
ground4  ,in the ,air4                  
,in the ,ground4  ,bean4 ,almond4       
,squash4                     ,acorn4    
,horsechestnut4                         
,pea4 ,nasturtium4  ,in the latter the  
cotyledons are so heavily gorged with   
nourishment that they never become of   
any use as leaves4 ,as ,darwin points   
out1 they have a better chance of       
escaping destruction by animals by      
remaining in the ground4  ,the          
cotyledons are very good illustrations  
of the different uses to which a single 
organ may be put1 and the thorough      
understanding of it will prepare the    

pupils' minds for other metamorphoses1  
and for the theory that all the various 
parts of a plant are modified forms of a
 very few members4   #d4 ,nature of the 
,caulicle4--,probably some of the pupils
 will have called the caulicle the root4
 ,it is1 however1 of the nature of stem4
 ,the root grows only at the end1 from a
 point just behind the tip2 the stem    
elongates throughout its whole length4  
,this can be shown by marking the stem  
and roots of a young seedling with ink4 
,india ink must be used1 as common ink  
injures the plants4 ,dip a needle in the
 ink and prick a row of spots at equal  
distances on a young root4 ,corn is very
 good for this purpose1 but             
,morning-,glory or ,bean is better for  
experiments on the stem4 ,the plants    
should then be carefully watched and the
 changes in the relative distance of the
 spots noted4 ,the experiment is very   
easily conducted with the seedlings     
growing on sponge1 with their roots in  
the moist air of the tumbler1 as before 

described4  ,dr4 ,goodale says of this  
experiment1--,let a young seedling of   
corn be grown on damp paper in the      
manner described in ,no4 #a1a and when  
the longest root is a few centimetres   
long let it be marked very carefully by 
means of ,india ink1 or purple ink1 put 
on with a delicate camel's-hair pencil  
just one centimetre apart4 ,plants thus 
marked are to be kept under favorable   
conditions with respect to moisture and 
warmth1 so that growth will be as rapid 
as possible4 ,the marks on the older    
part of the root will not change their  
relative distance1 but the mark at the  
tip will be carried away from the one   
next it1 showing that the growth has    
taken place only at this point4 ,such   
experiments as the one described are    
perfectly practicable for all classes of
 pupils except the very youngest4 ,how  
far the details of these experiments    
should be suggested to the pupils1 or   
rather how far they should be left to   
work out the problem for themselves1 is 

a question to be settled by the teacher 
in each case4 ,the better plan generally
 is to bring the problem in a very clear
 form before the whole class1 or before 
the whole school1 and ask whether       
anybody can think of a way in which it  
can be solved2 for instance1 in this    
case how can it be found out whether    
roots grow only at their tip or         
throughout their whole length4 ,if the  
way is thought out by even a single     
pupil the rest will be interested in    
seeing whether the plan will work       
successfully4  ,footnote #a3 ,concerning
 a ,few ,common ,plants1 page #be4  ,i  
have been more successful in pricking   
the roots than in marking them with a   
brush4  ,the caulicle can be proved by  
the manner of its growth to be of the   
nature of stem1 not root4 ,the main root
 grows from its naked end4 ,roots can   
also grow from the sides of the         
caulicle1 as in ,indian ,corn4 ,in this1
 it acts precisely as does the stem of a
 cutting4 ,it can be prettily shown with

 the seedlings by breaking off a bean at
 the ground and putting the slip in     
water4 ,it will throw out roots and the 
pupil will readily understand that the  
caulicle does the same thing4  ,darwin  
has made very interesting experiments on
 the movements of seedlings4 ,if the    
teacher wishes to repeat some of the    
experiments he will find the details    
very fully given in ,the ,power of      
,movement of ,plants4#a ,the pupils can 
observe in their growing seedlings some 
of the points mentioned and have already
 noticed a few in their answers4 ,they  
have said that the caulicle was the part
 to grow first1 and have spoken of the  
arched form of the young stem4 ,their   
attention should also be drawn to the   
root-hairs1 which are well seen in      
,corn1 ,wheat1 and ,oats4 ,they absorb  
the liquid food of the plants4 ,a       
secondary office is to hold the seed    
firmly1 so that the caulicle can enter  
the ground4 ,this is shown in ,red      
,clover1 which may be sown on the       

surface of the ground4 ,it puts out     
root-hairs1 which attach themselves to  
the particles of sand and hold the seed4
 ,these hairs are treated more fully in 
the lessons on roots4  ,footnote #a3    
,the ,power of ,movement in ,plants4 ,by
 ,charles ,darwin4 ,london4 ,john       
,murray1 #ahhj4  ,footnote #a3 ,reader  
in ,botany4 ,,iv4 ,movements of         
,seedlings4   #e4 ,leaves of            
,seedlings4--,coming now to the question
 as to the number of leaves at each     
joint of the stem1 the ,morning-,glory1 
,sunflower1 and ,bean will present no   
difficulty1 but probably all the pupils 
will be puzzled by the ,pea4 ,the       
stipules1 so large and leaf-like1 look  
like two leaves1 with a stem between1   
bearing other opposite leaves1 and      
terminating in a tendril1 while in the  
upper part it could not be told by a    
beginner which was the continuation of  
the main stem4 ,for these reasons ,i    
left this out in the questions on the   
,pea1 but it should be taken up in the  

class4 ,how are we to tell what         
constitutes a single leaf8 ,the answer  
to this question is that buds come in   
the axils of single leaves2 that is1 in 
the inner angle which the leaf makes    
with the stem4 ,if no bud can be seen in
 the ,pea1 the experiment may be tried  
of cutting off the top of the seedling  
plant4 ,buds will be developed in the   
axils of the nearest leaves1 and it will
 be shown that each is a compound leaf  
with two appendages at its base1 called 
stipules1 and with a tendril at its     
apex4 ,buds can be forced in the same   
way to grow from the axils of the lower 
scales1 and even from those of the      
cotyledons1 and the lesson may be again 
impressed that organs are capable of    
undergoing great modifications4 ,the    
teacher may use his own judgment as to  
whether he will tell them that the      
tendril is a modified leaflet4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 #a4 ,grain of 
,indian ,corn4 #b4 ,vertical section1   
dividing the embryo1 a1 caulicle3 b1    

cotyledon2 c1 plumule4 #c4 ,vertical    
section1 at right angles to the last4   
#f4 ,monocotyledons4--,these are more   
difficult4 ,perhaps it is not worth     
while to attempt to make the pupils see 
the embryo in ,wheat and ,oats4 ,but the
 embryo of ,indian ,corn is larger and  
can be easily examined after long       
soaking4 ,removing the seed-covering1 we
 find the greater part of the seed to be
 albumen4 ,closely applied to one side  
of this1 so closely that it is difficult
 to separate it perfectly1 is the single
 cotyledon4 ,this completely surrounds  
the plumule and furnishes it with food  
from the albumen4 ,there is a line down 
the middle1 and1 if we carefully bend   
back the edges of the cotyledon1 it     
splits along this line1 showing the     
plumule and caulicle within4 ,the       
plumule consists of successive layers of
 rudimentary leaves1 the outer enclosing
 the rest 7,fig4 #aj1 #a1 c74 ,the      
latter is the first leaf and remains    
undeveloped as a scaly sheath 7,fig4    

#aj1 #b1 c74 ,in ,wheat and ,oats the   
cotyledon can be easily seen in the     
largest seedlings by pulling off the dry
 husk of the grain4 ,the food will he   
seen to have been used up4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 #a4          
,germination of ,indian corn4 #b4 ,same 
more advanced4 a1 caulicle2 c#a1 first  
leaf of the plumule1 sheathing the rest2
 c#b1 second leaf2 c#c1 third leaf of   
the plumule2 d1 roots4  ,the series of  
,corn seedlings1 at least1 should be    
drawn as before and the parts marked1   
this time with their technical terms4   
,the following questions should then be 
prepared4  ,,corn4  ,what are the parts 
of the seed8  ,compare these parts with 
the ,morning-,glory1 ,sunflower1 ,bean1 
and ,pea4  ,where is the food stored8   
,how many cotyledons have ,corn1 ,wheat1
 and ,oats8  ,how many have ,bean1 ,pea1
 ,morning-,glory1 and ,sunflower8       
,compare the veins of the leaves of each
 class and see what difference you can  
find4  ,this will bring up the terms    

dicotyledon and monocotyledon4 ,di means
 two1 mono means one4 ,this difference  
in the veins1 netted in the first class1
 parallel in the second1 is             
characteristic of the classes4 ,pupils  
should have specimens of leaves to      
classify under these two heads4         
,flowering plants are divided first into
 these two classes1 the ,dicotyledons   
and the ,monocotyledons4  ,if           
,pine-seeds can be planted1 the         
polycotyledonous embryo can also be     
studied4   #g4 ,food of seedlings4--,the
 food of the ,wheat seedling may be     
shown in fine flour4 #a,the flour is to 
be moistened in the hand and kneaded    
until it becomes a homogeneous mass4    
,upon this mass pour some pure water and
 wash out all the white powder until    
nothing is left except a viscid lump of 
gluten4 ,this is the part of the crushed
 wheat-grains which very closely        
resembles in its composition the flesh  
of animals4 ,the white powder washed    
away is nearly pure wheat-starch4 ,of   

course the other ingredients1 such as   
the mineral matter and the like1 might  
be referred to1 but the starch at least 
should be shown4 ,when the seed is      
placed in proper soil1 or upon a support
 where it can receive moisture1 and can 
get at the air and still be warm enough1
 a part of the starch changes into a    
sort of gum1 like that on postage       
stamps1 and finally becomes a kind of   
sugar4 ,upon this sirup the young       
seedling feeds until it has some good   
green leaves for work1 and as we have   
seen in the case of some plants it has  
these very early4  ,footnote #a3        
,concerning a ,few ,common ,plants1 page
 #ah4  ,the presence of starch can be   
shown by testing with a solution of     
iodine4 ,starch is turned blue by iodine
 and may thus be detected in flour1 in  
seeds1 in potatoes1 etc4  ,after all    
this careful experimental work the      
subject may be studied in the text-book 
and recited1 the recitation constituting
 a thorough review of the whole4  ,a    

charming description of the germination 
of a seed will be found in the ,reader4 
,v4 ,the ,birth of ,picciola4  ,gray's  
,lessons4 ,sect4 ,,ii1 #h-ad4 ,,iii4    
,how ,plants ,grow4 ,sect4 ,i1 #bb1 #bc4
 ,,ii4     ,,iii  ,,roots4   ,this      
subject can be treated more conveniently
 while the young seedlings are still    
growing1 because their roots are very   
suitable for study4 ,it seems best1     
therefore1 to take it up before         
examining the buds4   #a4 ,study of the 
,roots of ,seedlings4--,one or two of   
the seedlings should be broken off and  
the slips put into a glass of water4    
,they will be studied later4 ,bean and  
,sunflower are the best for the purpose4
  ,begin by telling the pupils to       
prepare for their first lesson a        
description of the roots of their       
seedlings4 ,those grown on sponge or    
paper will show the development of the  
root-hairs1 while those grown on sand   
are better for studying the form of the 
root4 ,give them also some fleshy root  

to describe1 as a carrot1 or a radish2  
and a spray of ,english ,ivy1 as an     
example of aerial roots4  ,throughout   
these lessons1 the method is pursued of 
giving pupils specimens to observe and  
describe before teaching them botanical 
terms4 ,it is better for them to name   
the things they see than to find        
examples for terms already learned4 ,in 
the first case1 they feel the difficulty
 of expressing themselves and are glad  
to have the want of exact terms         
supplied4 ,this method is discouraging  
at first1 especially to the younger     
ones2 but1 with time and patience1 they 
will gradually become accustomed to     
describe whatever they can see4 ,they   
have1 at any rate1 used their eyes2 and1
 though they may not understand the real
 meaning of anything they have seen1    
they are prepared to discuss the subject
 intelligently when they come together  
in the class4 ,if they will first write 
out their unassisted impressions and1   
subsequently1 an account of the same    

thing after they have had a recitation  
upon it1 they will be sure to gain      
something in the power of observation   
and clear expression4 ,it cannot be too 
strongly urged that the number of facts 
that the children may learn is not of   
the slightest consequence1 but that the 
teacher should aim to cultivate the     
quick eye1 the ready hand1 and the clear
 reason4  ,the root of the              
,morning-,glory is primary2 it is a     
direct downward growth from the tip of  
the caulicle4 ,it is about as thick as  
the stem1 tapers towards the end1 and   
has short and fibrous branches4 ,in some
 plants the root keeps on growing and   
makes a tap-root2 in the ,bean1 it soon 
becomes lost in the branches4 ,these are
 all simple1 that is1 there is but one  
primary root4 ,sometimes there are      
several or many1 and the root is then   
said to be multiple4 ,the ,pumpkin is an
 example of this4 ,the root of the ,pea 
is described in the older editions of   
,gray's ,lessons as being multiple1 but 

it is generally simple4 ,indian ,corn1  
also1 usually starts with a single root1
 but this does not make a tap-root1 and 
is soon followed by many others from any
 part of the caulicle1 or even from the 
stem above1 giving it the appearance of 
having a multiple root4  ,the root of   
the ,radish is different from any of    
these2 it is fleshy4 ,often1 it tapers  
suddenly at the bottom into a root like 
that of the ,morning-,glory with some   
fibres upon it4 ,it is1 in fact1 as the 
,morning-,glory would be if the main    
root were to be thickened up by food    
being stored in it4 ,it is a primary    
tap-root4 ,the radish is spindle-shaped1
 tapering at top and bottom1 the carrot 
is conical1 the turnip is called        
napiform2 some radishes are shaped like 
the turnip4  ,the aerial roots of the   
,english ,ivy answer another purpose    
than that of giving nourishment to the  
plant4 ,they are used to support it in  
climbing4 ,these are an example of      
secondary roots1 which are roots        

springing laterally from any part of the
 stem4 ,the ,sweet ,potato has both     
fleshy and fibrous roots and forms      
secondary roots of both kinds every     
year4#a ,some of the seedlings will     
probably show the root-hairs to the     
naked eye4 ,these will be noticed       
hereafter4  ,footnote #a3 ,gray's       
,lessons1 p4 #ce1 ,fig4 #hf4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--a4          
,tap-root4 #b4 ,multiple root of        
,pumpkin4 #c4 ,napiform root of ,turnip4
 #d4 ,spindle-shaped root of ,radish4   
#e4 ,conical root of ,carrot4 #f4       
,aerial roots of ,ivy4  ,it is my       
experience that pupils always like      
classifying things under different      
heads1 and it is a good exercise4 ,the  
following table may be made of the roots
 they have studied1 adding other        
examples4 ,dr4 ,gray says that ordinary 
roots may be roughly classed into       
fibrous and fleshy4#a ,thome classes    
them as woody and fleshy4#b  ,footnote  
#a3 ,gray's ,lessons1 p4 #cd4  ,footnote

 #b3 ,text-book of ,structural and      
,physiological ,botany4 ,otto ,thome4   
,translated and edited by ,alfred ,w4   
,bennett1 ,new ,york4 ,john ,wiley and  
,sons4 #ahgg4 ,page #ge4                
,,roots4                                
----------------------------------------
--                                      
,primary4                               
,secondary4                             
--------------------------------        
,fibrous4                     ,fleshy4  
,roots of cuttings                      
,aerial roots4       -------------------
                           ,sweet       
potatoes4#c                             
,simple4      ,multiple4     ,simple4   
,morning ,glory4  ,pumpkin              
,carrot4     ,sunflower4                
,radish4     ,pea4                      
,turnip4     ,bean4                     
,beet4     ,corn4           ,corn4      
,footnote #c3 ,the ,irish potato will   
very likely be mentioned as an example  
of a fleshy root4 ,the teacher can say  

that this will be explained later4   #b4
 ,fleshy ,roots4--,the scholars are     
already familiar with the storing of    
food for the seedling in or around the  
cotyledons1 and will readily understand 
that these roots are storehouses of food
 for the plant4 ,the ,turnip1 ,carrot1  
and ,beet are biennials2 that is1 their 
growth is continued through two seasons4
 ,in the first year1 they make a        
vigorous growth of leaves alone1 and the
 surplus food is carried to the root in 
the form of a syrup1 and there stored1  
having been changed into starch1 or     
something very similar4 ,at the end of  
the first season1 the root is filled    
with food1 prepared for the next year1  
so that the plant can live on its       
reserve fund and devote its whole       
attention to flowering4 ,these roots are
 often good food for animals4 ,there are
 some plants that store their surplus   
food in their roots year after year1    
using up in each season the store of the
 former one1 and forming new roots      

continually4 ,the ,sweet ,potato is an  
example of this class4 ,these are       
perennials4 ,the food in perennials1    
however1 is usually stored in stems1    
rather than in roots1 as in trees4      
,annuals are generally fibrous-rooted1  
and the plant dies after its first year4
 ,the following experiment will serve as
 an illustration of the way in which the
 food stored in fleshy roots is utilized
 for growth4  ,cut off the tapering end 
of a carrot and scoop out the inside of 
the larger half in the form of a vase1  
leaving about half of the flesh behind4 
,put strings through the upper rim1 fill
 the carrot cup with water1 and hang it 
up in a sunny window4 ,keep it          
constantly full of water4 ,the leaf-buds
 below will put forth1 and grow into    
leafy shoots1 which1 turning upwards1   
soon hide the vase in a green circle4   
,this is because the dry1 starchy food  
stored in the carrot becomes soft and   
soluble1 and the supply of proper food  
and the warmth of the room make the     

leaf-buds able to grow4 ,it is also a   
pretty illustration of the way in which 
stems always grow upward1 even though   
there is enough light and air for them  
to grow straight downwards4 ,why this is
 so1 we do not know4   #c4 ,differences 
between the ,stem and the ,root4--,ask  
the pupils to tell what differences they
 have found4  ,stems4                   
,roots4  ,ascend into the air4          
,descend into the ground4 ,grow by a    
succession of similar    ,grow only from
 a point   parts1 each part when young  
just behind the tip4   elongating       
throughout4 ,bear organs4               
,bear no organs4  ,there are certain    
exceptions to the statement that roots  
descend into the ground2 such as aerial 
roots and parasitic roots4 ,the aerial  
roots of the ,ivy have been mentioned4  
,other examples of roots used for       
climbing are the ,trumpet ,creeper      
7,tecoma radicans71 and the ,poison ,ivy
 7,rhus ,toxicodendron74 ,parasitic     
roots take their food ready-made from   

the plants into which they strike4 ,the 
roots of air-plants1 such as certain    
orchids1 draw their nourishment from the
 air4  ,the experiment of marking roots 
and stem has been already tried1 but it 
should be repeated4 ,repetition of      
experiments is always desirable1 as it  
fixes his conclusions in the pupil's    
mind4 ,the stem grows by a succession of
 similar parts1 phytomera1 each part1 or
 phyton1 consisting of node1 internode1 
and leaf4 ,thus it follows that stems   
must bear leaves4 ,the marked stems of  
seedlings show greater growth towards   
the top of the growing phyton4 ,it is   
only young stems that elongate          
throughout4 ,the older parts of a phyton
 grow little1 and when the internode has
 attained a certain length1 variable for
 different stems and different          
conditions1 it does not elongate at all4
  ,the root1 on the contrary1 grows only
 from a point just behind the tip4 ,the 
extreme tip consists of a sort of cap of
 hard tissue1 called the root-cap4      

,through a simple lens1 or sometimes    
with the naked eye1 it can be           
distinguished in most of the roots of   
the seedlings1 looking like a           
transparent tip4 ,the root1 whatever its
 origin in any case may be1 grows in    
length only in one way2 namely1 at a    
point just behind its very tip4 ,this   
growing point is usually protected by a 
peculiar cap1 which insinuates its way  
through the crevices of the soil4 ,if   
roots should grow as stems escaping from
 the bud-state do1--that is1 throughout 
their whole length--they would speedily 
become distorted4 ,but1 since they grow 
at the protected tips1 they can make    
their way through the interstices of    
soil1 which from its compactness would  
otherwise forbid their progress4#a      
,footnote #a3 ,concerning a few ,common 
,plants1 p4 #be4  ,the third difference 
is that1 while the stem bears leaves1   
and has buds normally developed in their
 axils1 roots bear no organs4 ,the stem1
 however1 especially when wounded1 may  

produce buds anywhere from the surface  
of the bark1 and these buds are called  
adventitious buds4 ,in the same manner1 
roots occasionally produce buds1 which  
grow up into leafy shoots1 as in the    
,apple and ,poplar4#a  ,footnote #a3    
,see ,gray's ,structural ,botany1 p4    
#bi4  ,it should be made perfectly clear
 that the stem is the axis of the plant1
 that is1 it bears all the other organs4
 ,roots grow from stems1 not steins from
 roots1 except in certain cases1 like   
that of the ,poplar mentioned above4    
,this was seen in the study of the      
seedling4 ,the embryo consisted of stem 
and leaves1 and the roots were produced 
from the stem as the seedling grew4     
,for illustration of this point1 the    
careful watching of the cuttings placed 
in water will be very instructive4      
,after a few days1 small1 hard lumps    
begin to appear under the skin of the   
stem of the broken seedling ,bean4      
,these gradually increase in size until1
 finally1 they rupture the skin and     

appear as rootlets4 ,roots are always   
thus formed under the outer tissues of  
the stem from which they spring1 or the 
root from which they branch4 ,in the    
,bean1 the roots are in four long rows1 
quartering the stem4 ,this is because   
they are formed in front of the woody   
bundles of the stem1 which in the       
seedling ,bean are four4 ,in the        
,sunflower the roots divide the         
circumference into six parts4 ,in some  
of my cuttings of ,beans1 the stem      
cracked in four long lines before the   
roots had really formed1 showing the    
parenchyma in small hillocks1 so to     
speak4 ,in these the gradual formation  
of the root-cap could be watched        
throughout1 with merely a small lens4 ,i
 do not know a better way to impress the
 nature of the root on the pupil's mind4
 ,these forming roots might also be     
marked very early1 and so be shown to   
carry onward their root-cap on the      
growing-point4   #d4 ,root-hairs4 ,these
 are outgrowths of the epidermis1 or    

skin of the root1 and increase its      
absorbing power4 ,in most plants they   
cannot be seen without the aid of a     
microscope4 ,indian ,corn and ,oats1    
however1 show them very beautifully1 and
 the scholars have already noticed them 
in their seedlings4 ,they are best seen 
in the seedlings grown on damp sponge4  
,in those grown in sand1 they become so 
firmly united to the particles of soil1 
that they cannot be separated1 without  
tearing the hairs away from the plant4  
,this will suggest the reason why plants
 suffer so much from careless           
transplanting4  ,the root-hairs have the
 power of dissolving mineral matters in 
the soil by the action of an acid which 
they give out4 ,they then absorb these  
solutions for the nourishment of the    
plant4 ,the acid given out was first    
thought to be carbonic acid1 but now it 
is supposed by some experimenters to be 
acetic acid1 by others to vary according
 to the plant and the time4 ,the action 
can be shown by the following           

experiment1 suggested by ,sachs4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,i4 ,seedling 
of ,sinapis alba showing root-hairs4    
,,ii4 ,same1 showing how fine particles 
of sand cling to the root-hairs4        
7,sachs47  ,cover a piece of polished   
marble with moist sawdust1 and plant    
some seeds upon it4 ,when the seedlings 
are somewhat grown1 remove the sawdust1 
and the rootlets will be found to have  
left their autographs behind4 ,wherever 
the roots1 with their root-hairs have   
crept1 they have eaten into the marble  
and left it corroded4 ,the marks will   
become more distinct if the marble is   
rubbed with a little vermilion4  ,in    
order that the processes of solution and
 absorption may take place1 it is       
necessary that free oxygen should be    
present4 ,all living things must have   
oxygen to breathe1 and this gas is as   
needful for the germination of seeds1   
and the action of roots and leaves1 as  
it is for our maintenance of life4 ,it  
is hurtful for plants to be kept with   

too much water about their roots1       
because this keeps out the air4 ,this is
 the reason why house-plants are injured
 if they are kept too wet4  ,a secondary
 office of root-hairs is to aid the     
roots of seedlings to enter the ground1 
as we have before noticed4  ,the        
root-hairs are found only on the young  
parts of roots4 ,as a root grows older  
the root-hairs die1 and it becomes of no
 further use for absorption4 ,but it is 
needed now for another purpose1 as the  
support of the growing plant4 ,in trees1
 the old roots grow from year to year   
like stems1 and become large and strong4
 ,the extent of the roots corresponds in
 a general way to that of the branches1 
and1 as the absorbing parts are the     
young rootlets1 the rain that drops from
 the leafy roof falls just where it is  
needed by the delicate fibrils in the   
earth below4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,reader in
 ,botany4 ,,vi4 ,the ,relative          
,positions of ,leaves and ,rootlets4    
#e4 ,comparison of a ,carrot1 an ,onion1

 and a ,potato4--,it is a good exercise 
for a class to take a potato1 an onion1 
and a carrot or radish to compare1      
writing out the result of their         
observations4  ,the carrot is a fleshy  
root1 as we have already seen4 ,the     
onion consists of the fleshy bases of   
last year's leaves1 sheathed by the     
dried remains of the leaves of former   
years1 from which all nourishment has   
been drawn4 ,the parallel veining of the
 leaves is distinctly marked4 ,the stem 
is a plate at the base1 to which these  
fleshy scales are attached4 ,in the     
centre1 or in the axils of the scales1  
the newly-forming bulbs can be seen1 in 
onions that are sprouting4 ,if possible1
 compare other bulbs1 as those of       
,tulip1 ,hyacinth1 or ,snowdrop1 and the
 bulb of a ,crocus1 in which the fleshy 
part consists of the thickened base of  
the stem1 and the leaves are merely dry 
scales4 ,this is called a corm4  ,the   
potato is a thickened stem4 ,it shows   
itself to be a stem1 because it bears   

organs4 ,the leaves are reduced to      
little scales 7eyelids71 in the axils of
 which come the buds 7eyes74 ,the       
following delightful experiment has been
 recommended to me4  ,in a growing      
potato plant1 direct upwards one of the 
low shoots and surround it with a little
 cylinder of stiff carpet paper1 stuffed
 with sphagnum and loam4 ,cut away the  
other tuber-disposed shoots as they     
appear4 ,the enclosed shoot develops    
into a tuber which stands more or less  
vertical1 and the scales become pretty  
little leaves4 ,removing the paper1 the 
tuber and leaves become green1 and the  
latter enlarge a little4 ,a better      
illustration of the way in which organs 
adapt themselves to their conditions1   
and of the meaning of morphology1 could 
hardly be found4  ,gray's ,first        
,lessons4 ,sect4 v1 #fe-hh4 ,how ,plants
 ,grow4 ,chap4 ,i1 #hc-ij4     ,,iv4    
,,buds ,,and ,,branches4   #a4 ,there is
 an astonishing amount to be learned    
from naked branches1 and1 if pursued in 

the right way1 the study will be found  
exceedingly interesting4 ,professor     
,beal1 in his pamphlet on the ,new      
,botany1#a says3--  ,before the first   
lesson1 each pupil is furnished or told 
where to procure some specimen for      
study4 ,if it is winter1 and flowers or 
growing plants cannot be had1 give each 
a branch of a tree or shrub2 this branch
 may be two feet long4 ,the examination 
of these is made during the usual time  
for preparing lessons1 and not while the
 class is before the teacher4 ,for the  
first recitation each is to tell what he
 has discovered4 ,the specimens are not 
in sight during the recitation4 ,in     
learning the lesson1 books are not used2
 for1 if they are used1 no books will   
contain a quarter of what the pupil may 
see for himself4 ,if there is time1 each
 member of the class is allowed a chance
 to mention anything not named by any of
 the rest4 ,the teacher may suggest a   
few other points for study4 ,the pupils 
are not told what they can see for      

themselves4 ,an effort is made to keep  
them working after something which they 
have not yet discovered4 ,if two members
 disagree on any point1 on the next day1
 after further study1 they are requested
 to bring in all the proofs they can to 
sustain their different conclusions4    
,for a second lesson1 the students      
review the first lesson1 and report on a
 branch of a tree of another species    
which they have studied as before4 ,now 
they notice any point of difference or  
of similarity4 ,in like manner new      
branches are studied and new comparisons
 made4 ,for this purpose1 naked branches
 of our species of elms1 maples1 ashes1 
oaks1 basswood1 beech1 poplars1 willows1
 walnut1 butternut1 hawthorns1 cherries1
 and in fact any of our native or exotic
 trees or shrubs are suitable4 ,a       
comparison of the branches of any of the
 evergreens is interesting and          
profitable4 ,discoveries1 very          
unexpected1 are almost sure to reward a 
patient study of these objects4 ,the    

teacher must not think time is wasted4  
,no real progress can be made1 till the 
pupils begin to learn to see2 and to    
learn to see they must keep trying to   
form the habit from the very first2 and 
to form the habit they should make the  
study of specimens the main feature in  
the course of training4  ,footnote #a3  
,the ,new ,botany4 ,by ,w4,j4 ,beal4    
,philadelphia1 ,c4,h4 ,marot1 #had      
,chestnut ,st41 #ahhb4 ,page #e4        
,,horsechestnut 7,a,esculus             
,hippocastanum74  ,we will begin with   
the study of a branch of                
,horsechestnut4#a ,the pupils should    
examine and describe their specimens    
before discussing them in the           
class-room4 ,they will need some        
directions and hints1 however1 to enable
 them to work to any advantage4 ,tell   
them to open both large and small buds4 
,it is not advisable to study the       
,horsechestnut bud by cutting sections1 
as the wool is so dense that the        
arrangement cannot be seen in this way4 

,the scales should be removed with a    
knife1 one by one1 and the number1      
texture1 etc41 noted4 ,the leaves and   
flower-cluster will remain uncovered and
 will be easy to examine4 ,the gum may  
be first removed by pressing the bud in 
a bit of paper4 ,the scholars should    
study carefully the markings on the     
stem1 in order to explain1 if possible1 
what has caused them4 ,the best way to  
make clear the meaning of the scars is  
to show them the relation of the bud to 
the branch4 ,they must define a bud4    
,ask them what the bud would have become
 the next season1 if it had been allowed
 to develop4 ,it would have been a      
branch1 or a part of one4 ,a bud1 then1 
is an undeveloped branch4 ,they can     
always work out this definition for     
themselves4 ,conversely1 a branch is a  
developed bud1 or series of buds1 and   
every mark on the branch must correspond
 to something in the bud4 ,let them     
examine the specimens with this idea    
clearly before their minds4 ,the lesson 

to prepare should be to write out all   
they can observe and to make careful    
drawings of their specimens4 ,ask them  
to find a way1 if possible1 to tell the 
age of the branch4  ,footnote #a3 ,the  
pupils should cut their names on their  
branches and keep them4 ,they will need 
them constantly for comparison and      
reference4  ,at the recitation1 the     
papers can be read and the points       
mentioned thoroughly discussed4 ,this   
will take two lesson-hours1 probably1   
and the drawing may be left1 if desired1
 as the exercise to prepare for the     
second recitation4  #a,the buds of      
,horsechestnut contain the plan of the  
whole growth of the next season4 ,they  
are scaly and covered1 especially       
towards the apex1 with a sticky varnish4
 ,the scales are opposite1 like the     
leaves4 ,the outer pairs are wholly     
brown and leathery1 the succeeding ones 
tipped with brown1 wherever exposed1 so 
that the whole bud is covered with a    
thick coat4 ,the inner scales are green 

and delicate1 and somewhat woolly1      
especially along the lapping edges4     
,there are about seven pairs of scales4 
,the larger terminal buds have a        
flower-cluster in the centre1 and       
generally two pairs of leaves2 the small
 buds contain leaves alone1 two or three
 pairs of them4 ,the leaves are densely 
covered with white wool1 to protect them
 from the sudden changes of winter4 ,the
 use of the gum is to ward off moisture4
 ,the flower-cluster is woolly also4    
,footnote #a3 ,all descriptions are made
 from specimens examined by me4 ,other  
specimens may differ in some points4    
,plants vary in different situations and
 localities4  ,the scars on the stem are
 of three kinds1 leaf1 bud-scale1 and   
flower-cluster scars4 ,the pupils should
 notice that the buds are always just   
above the large triangular scars4 ,if   
they are still in doubt as to the cause 
of these marks1 show them some          
house-plant with well-developed buds in 
the axils of the leaves1 and ask them to

 compare the position of these buds with
 their branches4 ,the buds that spring  
from the inner angle of the leaf with   
the stem are axillary buds2 those that  
crown the stems are terminal4 ,since a  
bud is an undeveloped branch1 terminal  
buds carry1 on the axis which they      
crown1 axillary buds give rise to       
side-shoots4 ,the leaf-scars show the   
leaf-arrangement and the number of      
leaves each year4 ,the leaves are       
opposite and each pair stands over the  
intervals of the pair below4 ,the same  
is observed to be true of the scales and
 leaves of the bud4#a ,all these points 
should be brought out by the actual     
observation of the specimens by the     
pupils1 with only such hints from the   
teacher as may be needed to direct their
 attention aright4 ,the dots on the     
leaf-scar are the ends of woody bundles 
7fibro-vascular bundles7 which1 in      
autumn1 separated from the leaf4 ,by    
counting these we can tell how many     
leaflets there were in the leaf1 three1 

five1 seven1 nine1 or occasionally six  
or eight4  ,footnote #a3 ,bud-scales are
 modified leaves and their arrangement  
is therefore the same as the leaves4    
,this is not mentioned in the study of  
the ,horsechestnut bud1 because it      
cannot be proved to the pupils1 but the 
transition is explained in connection   
with ,lilac1 where it may be clearly    
seen4 ,the scales of the bud of         
,horsechestnut are considered to be     
homologous with petioles1 by analogy    
with other members of the same family4  
,in the ,sweet ,buckeye a series can be 
made1 exhibiting the gradual change from
 a scale to a compound leaf4 ,see the   
,botanical ,text-,book1 ,part ,i1       
,structural ,botany4 ,by ,asa ,gray4    
,ivison1 ,blakeman1 ,taylor and ,co41   
,new ,york1 #ahgi4 ,plate #bcc1 p4 #aaf4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#ac4--;,horsechestnut4 ,i4 ,branch in   
winter state3 a1 leaf-scars2 b1         
bud-scars2 c1 flower-scars4 #b4 ,an     
expanding leaf-bud4 #c4 ,same1 more     

advanced4  ,the ,bud ,scale-,scars4     
,these are rings left by the scales of  
the bud and may be seen in many         
branches4 ,they are well seen in        
,horsechestnut4 ,if the pupils have     
failed to observe that these rings show 
the position of former buds and mark the
 growth of successive years1 this point 
must be brought out by skilful          
questioning4 ,there is a difference in  
the color of the more recent shoots1 and
 a pupil1 when asked how much of his    
branch grew the preceding season1 will  
be able to answer by observing the      
change in color4 ,make him see that this
 change corresponds with the rings1 and 
he will understand how to tell every    
year's growth4 ,then ask what would make
 the rings in a branch produced from one
 of his buds1 and he can hardly fail to 
see that the scales would make them4    
,when the scholars understand that the  
rings mark the year's growth1 they can  
count them and ascertain the age of each
 branch4 ,the same should be done with  

each side-shoot4 ,usually the numbers   
will be found to agree2 that is1 all the
 buds will have the same number of rings
 between them and the cut end of the    
branch1 but occasionally a bud will     
remain latent for one or several seasons
 and then begin its growth1 in which    
case the numbers will not agree2 the    
difference will be the number of years  
it remained latent4 ,there are always   
many buds that are not developed4 ,the  
undeveloped buds do not necessarily     
perish1 but are ready to be called into 
action in case the others are checked4  
,when the stronger buds are destroyed1  
some that would else remain dormant     
develop in their stead1 incited by the  
abundance of nourishment which the      
former would have monopolized4 ,in this 
manner our trees are soon reclothed with
 verdure1 after their tender foliage and
 branches have been killed by a late    
vernal frost1 or consumed by insects4   
,and buds which have remained latent for
 several years occasionally shoot forth 

into branches from the sides of old     
stems1 especially in certain trees4#a   
,footnote #a3 ,structural ,botany1 p4   
#dh4  ,the pupils can measure the       
distance between each set of rings on   
the main stem1 to see on what years it  
grew best4  ,the ,flower-,cluster       
,scars4 ,these are the round1 somewhat  
concave1 scars1 found terminating the   
stem where forking occurs1 or seemingly 
in the axils of branches1 on account of 
one of the forking branches growing more
 rapidly and stoutly than the other and 
thus taking the place of the main stem1 
so that this is apparently continued    
without interruption4 ,if the pupils    
have not understood the cause of the    
flower-cluster scars1 show them their   
position in shoots where they are       
plainly on the summit of the stem1 and  
tell them to compare this with the      
arrangement of a large bud4 ,the        
flower-cluster terminates the axis in   
the bud1 and this scar terminates a     
branch4 ,when the terminal bud is thus  

prevented from continuing its growth1   
the nearest axillary buds are           
developed4#a ,one shoot usually gets the
 start1 and becomes so much stronger    
that it throws the other to one side4   
,the tendency of the ,horsechestnut to  
have its growth carried on by the       
terminal buds is so strong that ,i      
almost feel inclined to say that        
vigorous branches are never formed from 
axillary buds1 in old trees1 except     
where the terminal bud has been         
prevented from continuing the branch4   
,this tendency gives to the tree its    
characteristic size of trunk and        
branches1 and lack of delicate spray4   
,on looking closely at the branches     
also1 they will be seen to be quite     
irregular1 wherever there has been a    
flower-cluster swerving to one side or  
the other4  ,footnote #a3 ,the first    
winter that ,i examined ,horsechestnut  
buds ,i found1 in many cases1 that the  
axillary shoots had from a quarter of an
 inch to an inch of wood before the     

first set of rings4 ,i could not imagine
 what had formed this wood1 and it      
remained a complete puzzle to me until  
the following spring1 when ,i found in  
the expanding shoots1 that1 wherever a  
flower-cluster was present1 there were  
one or two pairs of leaflets already    
well developed in the axils1 and that   
the next season's buds were forming     
between them1 while the internodes of   
these leaflets were making quite a rapid
 growth4 ,subsequently1 ,i found the    
leaflets also in the buds themselves4 ,i
 found these leaflets developed on the  
tree only in the shoots containing      
flower-clusters1 where they would be    
needed for the future growth of the     
branches4 ,i suppose the reason must be 
that the flower-cluster does not use all
 the nourishment provided and that      
therefore the axillary buds are able to 
develop4 ,it would be interesting to    
know what determines the stronger growth
 of the one which eventually becomes the
 leader4  ,there is one thing more the  

pupils may have noticed4 ,the small     
round dots all over the young stem1     
which become long rifts in the older    
parts1 are breaks in the epidermis1 or  
skin of the stem1 through which the     
inner layers of bark protrude4 ,they are
 called lenticels4 ,they provide a      
passage for gases in and out of the     
stem4 ,in some trees1 as the ,birch1    
they are very noticeable4  ,after       
discussing the subject thoroughly in the
 class-room1 the pupils should rewrite  
their papers1 and finally answer the    
following questions1 as a species of    
review4 ,i have thus spent three        
recitations on the ,horsechestnut4 ,the 
work is all so new1 and1 if properly    
presented1 so interesting1 that a good  
deal of time is required to exhaust its 
possibilities of instruction4 ,if the   
teacher finds his scholars wearying1    
however1 he can leave as many of the    
details as he pleases to be treated in  
connection with other branches4         
,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,horsechestnut4 

,how many scales are there in the buds  
you have examined8  ,how are they       
arranged8  ,how many leaves are there in
 the buds8  ,how are they arranged8     
,where does the flower-cluster come in  
the bud8  ,do all the buds contain      
flower-clusters8  ,what is the use of   
the wool and the gum8  ,where do the    
buds come on the stem8  ,which are the  
strongest8  ,how are the leaves arranged
 on the stem8  ,do the pairs stand      
directly over each other8  ,what are the
 dots on the leaf-scars8  ,how old is   
your branch8  ,how old is each twig8    
,which years were the best for growth8  
,where were the former flower-clusters8 
,what happens when a branch is stopped  
in its growth by flowering8  ,what      
effect does this have on the appearance 
of the tree8  ,in some parts of the     
country the ,horsechestnut is not so    
commonly planted as in ,new ,england4   
,in the southern states the ,magnolia   
may be used in its stead1 but it is not 
nearly so simple an example of the main 

points to be observed4#a  ,footnote #a3 
,reader in ,botany4 ,,vii4 ,trees in    
,winter4   ,,magnolia ,,umbrella4  ,the 
bud may be examined by removing the     
scales with a knife1 as in              
,horsechestnut1 and also by cutting     
sections4 ,the outer scales enfold the  
whole bud1 and each succeeding pair     
cover all within4 ,they are joined1 and 
it is frequently difficult to tell where
 the suture is1 though it can generally 
be traced at the apex of the bud4 ,on   
the back is a thick stalk1 which is the 
base of the leaf-stalk4 ,remove the     
scales by cutting carefully through a   
single pair1 opposite the leaf-stalk1   
and peeling them off4 ,the scales are   
modified stipules1 instead of           
leaf-stalks1 as in ,horsechestnut4 ,the 
outer pair are brown and thick1 the     
inner green1 and becoming more delicate 
and crumpled as we proceed toward the   
centre of the bud4 ,the leaves begin    
with the second or third pair of scales4
 ,the first one or two are imperfect1   

being small1 brown1 and dry4 ,the leaves
 grow larger towards the centre of the  
bud4 ,they are covered with short1 silky
 hairs1 and are folded lengthwise1 with 
the inner surface within 7conduplicate74
 ,in the specimens ,i have examined ,i  
do not see much difference in size      
between the buds with flowers and those 
without4 ,in every bud examined which   
contained a flower1 there was an        
axillary bud in the axil of the last1 or
 next to the last1 leaf4 ,this bud is to
 continue the interrupted branch in the 
same way as in ,horsechestnut4  ,there  
are from six to ten good leaves1 in the 
buds that ,i have seen4 ,those without  
flowers contain more leaves1 as in      
,horsechestnut4 ,in the centre of these 
buds the leaves are small and           
undeveloped4 ,the flower is very easy to
 examine1 the floral envelopes1 stamens 
and pistils1 being plainly discernible4 
,the bud may also be studied in         
cross-section4 ,this shows the whole    
arrangement4 ,the plan is not so simple 

as in ,horsechestnut1 where the leaves  
are opposite4 ,the subject of           
leaf-arrangement should be passed over  
until phyllotaxy is taken up4  ,the     
scars on the stem differ from           
,horsechestnut in having no distinct    
bands of rings4 ,the scales1 being      
stipules1 leave a line on each side of  
the leaf-scar1 and these are separated  
by the growth of the internodes4 ,in the
 ,beech1 the scales are also stipules2  
but1 whereas in the ,magnolia there are 
only one or two abortive leaves1 in the 
,beech there are eight or nine pairs of 
stipules without any leaves at all4 ,the
 rings thus become separated in         
,magnolia1 while in the ,beech the first
 internodes are not developed1 leaving a
 distinct band of rings1 to mark the    
season's growth4 ,the ,magnolia is      
therefore less desirable to begin upon4 
,the branches are swollen at the        
beginning of a new growth1 and have a   
number of leaf-scars crowded closely    
together4 ,the leaf-scars are roundish1 

the lower line more curved4 ,they have  
many dots on them4 ,from each leaf-scar 
runs an irregular line around the stem4 
,this has been left by the stipules4    
,the flower-scar is on the summit of the
 axis1 and often apparently in the axil 
of a branch1 as in ,horsechestnut4      
,sometimes the nearest axillary bud is  
developed2 sometimes there are two1 when
 the branch forks4 ,the axillary buds   
seldom grow unless the terminal bud is  
interrupted4 ,the tree therefore has no 
fine spray4   ,,lilac 7,syringa         
vulgaris74  ,ask the scholars to write a
 description of their branches and to   
compare them with ,horsechestnut4 ,these
 papers should be prepared before coming
 into the class1 as before4  ,the buds  
are four-sided4 ,the scales and leaves  
are opposite1 as in ,horsechestnut4 ,the
 outer pair sometimes have buds in their
 axils4 ,remove the scales one by one   
with a knife1 or better1 with a stout   
needle4 ,the scales gradually become    
thinner as we proceed1 and pass into    

leaves1 so that we cannot tell where the
 scales end and leaves begin4 ,after    
about six pairs are removed1 we come1 in
 the larger buds1 to leaves with        
axillary flower-clusters4 ,the leaves   
grow smaller and the flower-clusters    
larger till we come to the centre1 where
 the axis is terminated by a            
flower-cluster4 ,there is a great       
difference in the buds on different     
bushes and on shoots of the same bush1  
some being large1 green1 and easy to    
examine1 others small1 hard1 and        
dark-colored4 ,it is better1 of course1 
to select as soft and large buds as     
possible for examination4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,lilac4 ,i4 
,branch in winter state3 a1 leaf-scar2  
b1 bud-scar 7reduced74 #b4 ,same1 less  
reduced4 #c4 ,branch1 with leaf-buds    
expanded4 #d4 ,series in a single bud1  
showing the gradual transition from     
scales to leaves4  ,that the scales are 
modified leaves is plainly shown by the 
gradual transition they undergo1 and    

also by the fact that buds are developed
 in their axils4 ,if any of these can be
 shown to the pupils1 remind them of the
 experiment where the top of a seedling 
,pea was cut off and buds forced to     
develop in the axils of the lower       
scales4#a ,the transition from scales to
 leaves can be well studied by bringing 
branches into the house1 where they will
 develop in water1 and towards spring   
may even be made to blossom4 ,cherry1   
,apple1 ,forsythia1 and other blossoming
 trees and shrubs can be thus forced to 
bloom4 ,place the branches in hot water1
 and cut off a little of their ends     
under water4 ,if the water is changed   
every day1 and the glass kept near the  
register or stove1 they will blossom out
 very quickly4 ,these expanded shoots   
may be compared with the buds4 ,the     
number of leaves in the bud varies4     
,footnote #a3 ,see p4 #ca4  ,the        
leaf-scars of ,lilac are                
horseshoe-shaped and somewhat swollen4  
,it can often be plainly seen that the  

outer tissue of the stem runs up into   
the scar4 ,it looks as if there were a  
layer of bark1 ending with the scar1    
fastened over each side of the stem4    
,these apparent layers alternate as well
 as the scars4 ,the epidermis1 or skin  
of the leaves1 is in fact always        
continuous with that of the stem4 ,there
 are no dots on the leaf-scars4  ,the   
rings are not nearly so noticeable as in
 ,horsechestnut1 but they can be counted
 for some years back4  ,the             
flower-cluster can often be traced by a 
dried bit of stem remaining on the      
branch4  ,the terminal bud in the ,lilac
 does not usually develop1 and the two  
uppermost axillary buds take its place1 
giving to the shrub the forked character
 of its branching4 ,in all these bud    
studies1 the pupil should finish by     
showing how the arrangement of the buds 
determines the growth of the branches4  
,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,lilac4  ,how do
 the scales differ from those of        
,horsechestnut8  ,how many scales and   

leaves are there8  ,how are they        
arranged8  ,where does the              
flower-cluster come in the bud8  ,do all
 the buds contain flower-clusters8  ,how
 does the arrangement of leaves and     
flower-clusters differ from that of     
,horsechestnut8  ,how old is your       
branch8  ,which buds develop most       
frequently8  ,how does this affect the  
appearance of the shrub8   ,,copper     
,,beech 7,fagus sylvatica1 var4         
purpurea74  ,the buds are long and      
tapering1 the scales thin and scarious1 
the outer naked1 the inner with long1   
silky hairs4 ,remove the scales one by  
one1 as in ,lilac4 ,the outer four or   
six pairs are so minute that the        
arrangement is not very clear1 but as we
 proceed we perceive that the scales are
 in alternate pairs1 as in              
,horsechestnut2 that is1 that two scales
 are exactly on the same plane4 ,but we 
have learned in the ,lilac that the     
scales are modified leaves1 and follow  
the leaf-arrangement of the species4    

,the ,beech is alternate-leaved1 and we 
should therefore expect the scales to   
alternate4 ,the explanation is found as 
we go on removing the scales4 ,at the   
eighth or ninth pair we come upon a     
tiny1 silky leaf1 directly between the  
pair of scales1 and1 removing these1    
another larger leaf1 opposite the first 
but higher up on the rudimentary stem1  
and so on1 with the rest of the bud4    
,there are five or more leaves1 each    
placed between a pair of scales4 ,our   
knowledge of the parts of a leaf shows  
us at once that the scales must be      
modified stipules1 and that therefore   
they must be in pairs4#a ,other examples
 of scales homologous with stipules are 
the ,american ,elm1 ,tulip-tree1 ,poplar
 and ,magnolia4 ,the leaves are plaited 
on the veins and covered with long1     
silky hairs4 ,the venation is very      
distinct4 ,the outer leaves are smaller 
and1 on examining the branch1 it will be
 seen that their internodes do not make 
so large a growth as the leaves in the  

centre of the bud4  ,footnote #a3 ,see  
the stipules of the ,pea1 p4 #ca4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,copper    
,beech4 #a4 ,branch in winter state3 a1 
leaf-scar2 b1 bud-scar4 #b4 ,branch1    
with leaf-buds expanding1 showing the   
plicate folding of the leaves4  ,the    
leaf-scars are small1 soon becoming     
merely ridges running half round the    
stem4  ,the bud-rings are very plain and
 easily counted4 ,for this reason1 and  
because it branches freely1 it is a good
 tree for measurements of growth1 as is 
seen in the following tables4 ,nos4 #a1 
#b1 #c and #d3 were made by a class of  
girls1 from fourteen to sixteen1 from a 
tree on my lawn4 ,no4 #e was made by a  
pupil1 whom ,i taught by correspondence1
 from a tree of the same species in     
another town4 ,no4 #f was made by myself
 from my own tree4 ,the measurements of 
the first four tables were somewhat     
revised by me1 as they were not         
perfectly accurate4 ,the pupils should  
always be cautioned to measure from the 

beginning of one set of rings to the    
beginning of the next4#a  ,footnote #a3 
,care must be taken to select branches  
well exposed to the light4 ,of course   
there are many circumstances that may   
aid or hinder the growth of any         
particular branch4  ,,no4 #a4  ,,years4 
,,growth ,,of  #a,,st ,,branch4 #bnd    
,,branch4 #c,,rd ,,branch #d,,th        
,,branch4        ,,main ,,axis4         
----------------------------------------
------------------------        in4 '#gi
    #h-a_/b      --          --         
--         -- '#hj    #d-a_/b      #b   
#a-g_/h       --         -- '#ha        
#c-a_/b      #a-a_/h       #b-e_/h      
--         -- '#hb    #f                
#e_/h       #d-a_/d       #e-g_/h       
-- '#hc    #g-c_/h      #c-c_/h         
#e-a_/d       #d          #e-c_/d '#hd  
#b            #a_/b         #c_/d       
#c_/h      #e-c_/h '#he      #e_/h      
#a_/d         #c_/h         #a_/b       
#a '#hf    #e-e_/h        #g_/h         
#d-c_/h       #c-a_/h      #e   ,,no4   

#b4  ,,years4 ,,growth of  #a,,st       
#bnd    #c,,rd    #d,,th    #e,,th      
,,main ,,axis4 ,,branch ,,branch        
,,branch ,,branch ,,branch              
----------------------------------------
------------------------        in4 '#gi
    #h          --     --     --     -- 
--     -- '#hj    #c-a_/b      #e-a_/d  
#e-a_/b  #e-e_/h  --     --     -- '#ha 
#d-c_/d      #c_/d      #a_/b  #b-a_/b  
#b      --     -- '#hb    #e-c_/d       
#g_/h    #b        #c_/d    #c_/h       
#a_/b  -- '#hc    #e-a_/d      #d-c_/d  
#e-a_/b  #d      #c-a_/d  #b-c_/h       
#a-c_/d  -- '#hd      #a_/b      #a     
#c_/d    #c_/h  #a      #c_/d    #a     
#c_/h '#he    #b-c_/d      #a-c_/d      
#d-c_/h    #c_/d    #c_/d  #b-a_/h      
#c-a_/d  #a-a_/d '#hf    #g-a_/b        
#e-a_/b  #f-c_/d  #c      #c            
#d-a_/b  #c-a_/h  #e   ,,no4 #c4        
,,years4 ,,growth of  #a,,st    #bnd    
#c,,rd    #d,,th    #e,,th        ,,main
 ,,axis4 ,,branch ,,branch ,,branch     
,,branch ,,branch                       

----------------------------------------
-------------        in4 '#hj    #h-a_/d
      --     --     --     --     --    
'#ha    #d-a_/b      #c-a_/b  #c-c_/d   
--     --     -- '#hb    #e-a_/b        
#c_/d  #a-a_/b  #a      --     -- '#hc  
#c-a_/d      #c-c_/d  #d-a_/b    #c_/d  
#b      #a-a_/d '#hd    #e-a_/b         
#a_/b    #c_/d  #a        #a_/b  #c '#he
      #a_/b      #a-c_/d    #a_/b       
#c_/h  #a        #a_/b '#hf    #d-a_/d  
#c-c_/h  #b-c_/h  #a-a_/d  #b-a_/d      
#a-a_/b   ,,no4 #d4  ,,years ,,growth   
#a,,st    #bnd    #c,,rd    #d,,th      
of ,,main ,,branch ,,branch ,,branch    
,,branch       ,,axis                   
----------------------------------------
-       in4 '#ha   #g-c_/d   --     --  
--     -- '#hb   #h-c_/d   #f      #f   
--     -- '#hc   #f-c_/d   #e-a_/d  #d  
#d-c_/d  #e-a_/b '#hd   #d-a_/b         
#e_/h  #a-e_/h  #b-a_/d  #c-a_/d '#he   
#b         #e_/h    #c_/af #b           
#c_/d '#hf  #aj-c_/d   #a-c_/d  #a_/d   
#g-a_/d  #c-a_/b   ,,no4 #d4 7cont47    

,,years  #e,,th    #f,,th    #g,,th     
#h,,th    #i,,th       ,,branch ,,branch
 ,,branch ,,branch ,,branch             
-----------------------------------     
in4 '#ha   --     --     --     --      
-- '#hb   --     --     --     --     --
 '#hc   --     --     --     --     --  
'#hd     #c_/d  #b-a_/b  --     --      
-- '#he     #g_/h    #e_/h    #a_/d     
#c_/d  -- '#hf   #d-c_/d  #f-c_/h  #a   
#b-a_/d  #f-a_/b   ,,no4 #e4  ,,years   
,,growth  #a,,st    #bnd    #c,,rd      
#d,,th    #e,,th    #f,,th       of     
,,main ,,branch ,,branch ,,branch       
,,branch ,,branch ,,branch       ,,axis 
----------------------------------------
-------------       in4 '#hb   #f-g_/h  
---    ---    ---    ---    ---    ---  
'#hc   #f-a_/b   #d-c_/d  #d-a_/d  ---  
---    ---    --- '#hd   #d-c_/d        
#a_/d  #a-c_/d  #c-a_/b  ---    ---     
--- '#he   #d-a_/b     #c_/d  #a        
#b-c_/d  #b-c_/d  ---    --- '#hf       
#f-a_/d   #b-a_/d  #d-c_/d  #f-c_/d     
#b-c_/d  #e-c_/d  --- '#hg   #f-c_/d    

#a-a_/h  #c-a_/d  #d      #b-a_/d  #c   
#e-a_/b   ,,no4 #f4  ,,years ,,main     
#a,,st    #b,,nd    #b,,nd    #b,,nd    
#c,,rd    #d,,th       ,,axis           
,,branch ,,branch ,,branch ,,branch     
,,branch ,,branch                       
----------------------------------------
-------------       in4                 
#ast    #bnd                            
side   side '#hj   #f-a_/d   ---    --- 
shoot4 shoot4 ---    --- '#ha   #h-c_/d 
#f-c_/d  ---    ---    ---    ---    ---
 '#hb   #h-a_/b   #f-a_/d  #f-g_/h  --- 
---    ---    4 '#hc   #d-c_/d   #a-a_/b
  #b-c_/h  ---    ---    #d      4 '#hd 
#c-a_/b   #c-a_/h  #e-a_/h  ---    ---  
#a-c_/d    #g_/h '#he   #d-a_/b         
#c_/h  #d-c_/d  #b-a_/d  ---    #f      
#a '#hf   #f      #f-c_/d #ab-a_/h      
#e-a_/b #aj-a_/b  #h-g_/h  #e-a_/h '#hg 
bough   #b-a_/b  #h-c_/d  #d-a_/d       
#d-a_/d  #d-f_/h  #c-c_/d       broken4 
,one question brought up by these       
measurements is whether there is any    
correspondence in growth between the    

main axis and its branches4 ,it appears 
in these tables that there is a general 
correspondence1 in this tree at least4  
,in the recitation of the class1 whose  
tables are given above 7,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c
 and #d71 we took all the measurements  
of these four branches for the year     
#ahhe and added them4 ,we did the same  
for #ahhf1 and compared the results4    
,the total growth for #ahhe was         
#ca-ae_/af inches2 for #ahhf1 leaving   
out the measurement of the twig whose   
entire growth was in that year1         
#aji-c_/d inches or nearly #c-a_/b times
 as much4 ,the proportion held in a     
general way throughout1 there being only
 a single case of a branch where the    
growth was greater in the first year4#a 
,but there is a point that must not be  
overlooked in this connection4 ,the     
branches of the ,beech seem to grow     
about equally well in the first1 second1
 third1 or any succeeding year4 ,in some
 trees1 as the ,ash1 the axillary buds  
make a large growth1 and the succeeding 

terminal buds carry on the branch much  
more slowly2 in other trees1 as the     
,cherry1 a branch grows very slowly in  
the first few years and then suddenly   
takes a start4 ,these facts would appear
 in tables of growth1 made from branches
 of these trees1 but the addition of    
results for any particular year would   
have no significance4  ,footnote #a3    
,the spring of #ahhj was a remarkably   
early one4 ,thus ,i find in my diary of 
that year the following entries3--      
,april #ag4 ,the red maples are in full 
bloom1 the elms almost over4 ,the leaves
 of the ,horsechestnut are quite large4 
,the lilacs are nearly in leaf4 ,april  
#bd4 ,we went up to ,waverley and found 
bloodroot up1 spice bush out1 violets1  
dog-tooths and anemones1 also caltha4   
,april #bh4 ,all the cherries are in    
full bloom4 ,april #bi4 ,picked an apple
 blossom in bud1 beautifully pink4  ,the
 season was nearly three weeks earlier  
than usual4 #ahhe on the other hand was 
a late spring4  ,in table ,no4 #e1 the  

addition of the measurements for #ahhe  
and #ahhf shows the growth in the latter
 year to be about twice that of the     
former4 ,this branch came from a tree in
 another town4 ,we have tried also to   
discover whether the number of leaves   
each year has any relation to growth4 ,i
 cannot see that it has1 but it requires
 many experiments to determine these    
points4 ,to study this1 make tables of  
the number of leaves on the branch each 
year4 ,i think teachers would find it   
interesting to keep all data of this    
kind of work done by their classes1 with
 a view to tabulation and comparison4   
,the scholars themselves are exceedingly
 interested in anything that partakes of
 the nature of an original              
investigation4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,the    
class1 previously mentioned1 were much  
interested in the addition of their     
results4 ,one of them asked me whether  
this subject of measurements had been   
treated in any book4 ,i replied that ,i 
had never seen it mentioned4 ,my        

attention was afterwards called to ,what
 may be learned from a ,tree1 by ,prof4 
,harlan ,couitas4 ,d4 ,appleton  ,co41  
,new ,york1 #ahfc4 ,i found1 greatly to 
my surprise1 that he had not only given 
diagrams of growth1 but that he also had
 selected a ,copper ,beech as his       
example4  ,the leaf-arrangement of the  
,beech is alternate1 on the one-half    
plan4 ,the small twigs turn upwards1 so 
that all the spray is on the upper side1
 giving a flat appearance to the        
branch4#a ,this gives the leaves a      
better exposure to the light4 ,both the 
terminal and axillary buds grow freely1 
thus forming long1 straight limbs1 with 
many branches and much fine spray4      
,footnote #a3 ,phyllotaxy is treated    
later1 by a comparison and study of many
 branches1 but the teacher can draw the 
pupils' attention to the fact that each 
,beech leaf and twig is on exactly the  
opposite side of the branch from the    
preceding one4 ,this allows all the     
twigs to grow towards one side of the   

branch1 whereas in trees on the         
two-fifths plan1 as the ,apple1 ,poplar1
 ,oak1 etc41 no such regularity would be
 possible1 on account of their many     
different angles with the stem4  ,the   
bark of the ,beech is beautifully       
smooth4 ,the extreme straightness of the
 trunk and limbs is very striking1 and  
may be compared to the crooked limbs of 
the ,horsechestnut1 where the branch is 
continually interrupted by the          
flower-cluster4 ,in the ,beech the      
flowers are axillary4   ,,questions ,,on
 ,,the ,,beech4  ,how are the scales of 
the ,beech bud arranged8  ,how many     
leaves are there in the bud8  ,how does 
the arrangement of the scales and leaves
 in the bud differ from that of the     
,horsechestnut8  ,how are the leaves    
folded in the bud8  ,what is the        
arrangement of the leaves on the stem8  
,how does this differ from              
,horsechestnut and ,lilac8  ,how old is 
your branch8  ,how old is each twig8    
,what years were the best for growth8   

,how does the growth of the branches    
differ from that of ,horsechestnut8     
,from ,lilac8  ,explain these           
differences with reference to the growth
 and arrangement of the buds8  ,in what 
direction do the twigs grow8  ,how does 
this affect the appearance of the tree8 
,compare the amount of spray of the     
,beech and ,horsechestnut and explain   
the reason of the difference4  ,these   
questions are only intended for review1 
they are never to be used for the first 
study of the specimen4   ,,american     
,,elm 7,ulmus ,americana74  ,the buds   
are covered with brown scales1 which are
 hairy on the edges4 ,the flower-buds   
are larger than the leaf-buds and are in
 the axils of the lower leaves of the   
preceding year4 ,each leaf in the bud is
 enclosed by a pair of scales4 ,they are
 so small that the pupils1 unused to    
delicate work1 will hardly discover     
them4 ,under a glass they can be seen to
 be ovate1 folded on the midrib with the
 inner face within 7conduplicate71 and  

with an ovate scale joined to the base  
of the leaf on either side4 ,the scales 
thus show themselves to be modified     
stipules4 ,the venation of the leaves is
 very plain4 ,the scales are much larger
 than the leaves4 ,the flower-buds      
contain a cluster of flowers1 on slender
 green pedicels4 ,the calyx is          
bell-shaped1 unequal1 and lobed4 ,the   
stamens and pistil can be seen4 ,the    
flower-clusters do not seem to leave any
 mark which is distinguishable from the 
leaf-scar4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#af4--;,american ,elm4 #a4 ,branch in   
winter state3 a1 leaf-scars2 b1         
bud-scars2 d1 leaf-buds2 e1 flower-buds4
 #b4 ,branch1 with staminate flower-buds
 expanding4 #c4 ,same1 more advanced4   
#d4 ,branch1 with pistillate flowers1   
the leaf-bud also expanding4  ,the      
leaf-scars are small and extend about   
half around the stem4 ,the arrangement  
is alternate on the one-half plan4      
,there are three dots on the scar4  ,the
 rings are quite plain4 ,the tree can be

 used to make tables of growth1 like    
those of the ,beech4  ,the buds will    
probably be too small for examination by
 the pupils1 at present1 but their      
position and development can be studied1
 and are very instructive4 ,as the      
leaf-buds are all on the ends of the    
branchlets1 the twigs and branches will 
be just below the bud-rings1 and then   
there will be a space where no twigs nor
 branches will be found1 till the next  
set of rings is reached4 ,this gives the
 branches more room to develop          
symmetrically4 ,the terminal buds do not
 develop in the ,elm1 in old trees1 the 
bud axillary to the last leaf of the    
season taking its place1 and most of the
 other axillary buds growing also4 ,this
 makes the tree break out into very fine
 spray4 ,a tree like the ,elm1 where the
 trunk becomes lost in the branches1 is 
called deliquescent2 when the trunk is  
continued to the top of the tree1 as in 
the ,spruce1 it is excurrent4  ,the     
small1 feathery twigs and branches that 

are often seen on the trunks and great  
limbs of the elm grow from buds which   
are produced anywhere on the surface of 
the wood4 ,such buds are called         
adventitious buds4 ,they often spring   
from a tree when it is wounded4  ,the   
,american elm is1 in most parts of the  
state1 the most magnificent tree to be  
seen4 ,from a root1 which1 in old trees1
 spreads much above the surface of the  
ground1 the trunk rises to a            
considerable height in a single stem4   
,here it usually divides into two or    
three principal branches1 which go off  
by a gradual and easy curve4 ,theses    
stretch upwards and outwards with an    
airy sweep1 become horizontal1 the      
extreme half of the limb1 pendent1      
forming a light and regular arch4 ,this 
graceful curvature1 and absence of all  
abruptness1 in the primary limbs and    
forks1 and all the subsequent divisions1
 are entirely characteristic of the     
tree1 and enable an observer to         
distinguish it in the winter and even by

 night1 when standing in relief against 
the sky1 as far as it can be distinctly 
seen4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,a ,report on the
 ,trees and ,shrubs growing naturally in
 the ,forests of ,massachusetts4 ,by    
,geo4 ,b4 ,emerson1 ,boston1 ,little1   
,brown and ,co41 #ahge4  ,this book will
 be found very useful1 containing       
careful descriptions of many trees and  
shrubs1 and interesting facts about     
them4   ,,questions ,,on ,,the          
,,american ,,elm4  ,how do the          
flower-buds differ from the leaf-buds in
 position and appearance8  ,what is the 
arrangement of the leaves8  ,what other 
tree that you have studied has this     
arrangement8  ,how old is your branch8  
,where would you look to see if the     
flower-cluster had left any mark8  ,why 
is it that several twigs grow near each 
other1 and that then comes a space      
without any branches8  ,what buds       
develop most frequently8  ,how does this
 affect the appearance of the tree8     
,what is a tree called when the trunk is

 lost in the branches8   ,,balm ,,of    
,,gilead 7,populus balsamifera1 var4    
candicans74  ,the buds are pointed3 the 
terminal slightly angled1 the axillary  
flattened against the stem4#a ,some of  
the axillary buds contain leaves and    
some flowers2 the appearance of the     
leaf-buds and flower-buds being the     
same4 ,the scales of the bud are        
modified stipules4 ,the terminal buds   
have about three pairs of the outer     
scales brown and leathery4 ,the inner   
scales1 as well as the leaves1 are      
coated with resinous matter1 which has a
 strong odor and a nauseous taste4 ,the 
smaller outer scales have no            
corresponding leaf1 and apparently are  
modified stipules of the leaves of the  
preceding year1 but the larger ones have
 a leaf to each pair of scales4 ,the    
outer and inner leaves are small1 the   
middle ones larger4 ,comparing the      
branch1 it will be seen that these      
leaves make the largest growth of       
internode4 ,the leaves are rolled       

towards the midrib on the upper face    
7involute74 ,there are about ten which  
are easily seen and counted1 the inner  
ones being very small1 with minute      
scales4 ,the axillary buds have a short 
thick scale on the outer part of the    
bud1 then about three pairs of large    
scales1 each succeeding one enwrapping  
those within1 the outer one brown and   
leathery4 ,the scales of the flower-buds
 are somewhat gummy1 but not nearly so  
much so as those of the leaf-buds4      
,within is the catkin4 ,each pistil1 or 
stamen 7they are on separate trees1     
dioecious7 is in a little cup and       
covered by a scale1 which is cut and    
fringed4  ,footnote #a3 ,these buds     
cannot be satisfactorily examined in    
cross section1 on account of the resin4 
,the scales must be removed one by one1 
with a knife1 with a complete disregard 
of the effect upon the hands4  ,the     
leaf-scars are somewhat three-lobed on  
the young parts1 with three dots1       
indicating the fibro-vascular bundles1  

which ran up into the leaf4 ,the scars  
are swollen1 making the young branches  
exceedingly rough4 ,in the older parts  
the scars become less noticeable4       
,strong young shoots1 especially those  
which come up from the root1 are        
strongly angled1 with three ridges      
running up into each leaf-scar1 making  
them almost club-shaped4 ,there are     
often from twenty to thirty leaves in   
one year's growth1 in such shoots1 and  
all the leaves are not rudimentary in   
the bud4 ,the growth in this case is    
said to be indefinite4 ,usually in trees
 with scaly buds the plan of the whole  
year's growth is laid down in the bud1  
and the term definite is applied4       
,branches1 like the ,rose1 that go on   
growing all summer grow indefinitely4   
,the bud-scale scar is quite different  
from the other trees which we have      
examined4 ,it is not composed of        
definite rings1 but of leaf-scars with  
long ridges running from each side of   
them1 showing the scales to be modified 

stipules4 ,the leaf-scars have become   
somewhat separated by the growth of the 
internodes4 ,in the ,beech1 there are   
eight1 or more1 pairs of scales with no 
leaves1 so that the internodes do not   
develop1 and a ring is left on the      
branch4  ,the flower-cluster leaves a   
concave1 semicircular scar1 in the      
leaf-axil4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#ag4--;,balm-of-,gilead4 #a4 ,branch in 
winter state3 a1 leaf-scar2 b1 bud-scar4
 #b4 ,branch1 with leaf-buds expanded4  
#c4 ,branch1 with catkin appearing from 
the bud4  ,the terminal buds are the    
strongest and not very many axillary    
buds develop1 so that the tree has not  
fine spray4  ,the leaf-arrangement is   
alternate1 on the #b_/e plan4           
,phyllotaxy is not yet to be taken up1  
but the pupils should be shown the      
different angles of the branching of the
 twigs1 and told to compare them with   
,beech and ,elm4  ,,questions ,,on ,,the
 ,,balm ,,of ,,gilead4  ,in which buds  
are the flower-clusters8  ,are there    

flowers and leaves in the same buds8    
,what are the scales of the bud8  ,how  
are the leaves folded in the bud8  ,how 
do the axillary and terminal buds       
differ8  ,what are the dots on the      
leaf-scars8  ,why is there no distinct  
band of rings as in ,beech8  ,how old is
 your branch8  ,where do you look for   
flower-cluster scars8  ,which buds are  
the strongest8  ,how does this affect   
the appearance of the tree8  ,what makes
 the ends of the branches so rough8     
,compare the arrangement of the twigs   
and branches with ,beech and ,elm1 with 
,horsechestnut and ,lilac4              
,,tulip-,,tree 7,liriodendron           
,tulipifera74  ,the buds are small1     
flat1 and rounded at the apex4 ,they are
 sheathed by scales1 each leaf being    
covered by a pair1 whose edges cohere4  
,the outer pair are brown and are the   
stipules of the last leaf of the        
preceding year4 ,the leaves are         
conduplicate1 as in ,magnolia1 and have 
the blade bent inwards on the petiole   

7inflexed74 ,their shape is very clearly
 to be seen1 and no bud is more         
interesting in the closeness of its     
packing4 ,axillary buds are often found 
within4 ,the flowers grow high upon the 
trees and towards the ends of the       
branches4  ,the leaf-scars are round    
with many dots4 ,the scar of the        
stipules is a continuous line around the
 stem1 as in ,magnolia4   ,,cherry      
7,prunus ,cerasus74  ,the leaf-buds are 
terminal1 or in the axils of the upper  
leaves of the preceding year2 the flower
 buds are axillary4 ,there is but one   
bud in each axil1 and usually two or    
three flowers in each bud1 but the      
leaves on the twigs are crowded and the 
flowers therefore appear in clusters4   
,the blossom-buds are larger and more   
rounded than the leaf-buds4  ,the buds  
of the tree develop very easily in the  
house1 and as they are so small they can
 be better studied in watching them come
 out1 than by attempting to dissect     
them1 unless the scholars are           

sufficiently advanced to use the        
microscope easily4 ,it is always bad for
 a pupil to attempt to describe what he 
sees but imperfectly4 ,he will be sure  
to jump at any conclusions which he     
thinks ought to be correct4  ,the       
leaf-scars are semicircular1 small and  
swollen4  ,the bud-rings are plain4 ,the
 twigs make a very small growth in a    
season1 so that the leaf-scars and rings
 make them exceedingly rough4  ,the     
flower-cluster scars are small circles1 
with a dot in the centre1 in the        
leaf-axils4 ,the flowers come before the
 leaves4  ,the leaf-arrangement is      
alternate on the #b_/e plan4 ,the pupils
 may compare the branching with that of 
their other specimens4   ,,red ,,maple  
7,acer rubrum74  ,this is a good        
specimen for the study of accessory     
buds4 ,there is usually a bud in the    
axil of each lower scale of the axillary
 buds1 making three side by side4 ,we   
have already noticed this as occurring  
sometimes in ,lilac4 ,it is habitually  

the case with the ,red ,maple4 ,the     
middle bud1 which is smaller and        
develops later1 is a leaf-bud4 ,the     
others are flower-buds4  ,the leaf-scars
 are small1 with three dots on each     
scar4 ,the rings are very plain4 ,the   
flower-cluster leaves a round scar in   
the leaf-axil1 as in ,cherry4  ,the     
leaves are opposite and the tree        
branches freely4 ,the twigs seem to be  
found just below the bud-rings1 as the  
upper leaf-buds usually develop best and
 the lower buds are single1 containing  
flowers only4   ,,norway ,,spruce       
7,picea excelsa74  ,the buds are        
terminal1 and axillary1 from the axils  
of the leaves of the preceding year1    
usually from those at the ends of the   
branchlets4 ,they are covered with brown
 scales and contain many leaves4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,branch of 
,cherry in winter state3 a1 leaf-scar2  
b1 bud-scar2 c1 flower-scar4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,branch of 
,red ,maple in winter state 7reduced74  

#b4 ,flower-buds  ,the leaves are       
needle-shaped and short4#a ,they are    
arranged densely on the branches1       
alternately on the #h_/ba plan 7see     
section on phyllotaxy74 ,when they drop 
off they leave a hard1 blunt projection 
which makes the stem very rough4 ,as the
 terminal bud always develops unless    
injured1 the tree is excurrent1 forming 
a straight trunk1 throwing out branches 
on every side4 ,the axillary buds       
develop near the ends of the branchlets1
 forming apparent whorls of branches    
around the trunk4 ,in the smaller       
branches1 as the tree grows older1 the  
tendency is for only two buds to develop
 nearly opposite each other1 forming a  
symmetrical branch4  ,footnote #a3 ,the 
pupils should observe how much more     
crowded the leaves are than in the other
 trees they have studied4 ,the leaves   
being smaller1 it is necessary to have  
more of them4 ,large-leaved trees have  
longer internodes than those with small 
leaves4  ,the bud-scales are persistent 

on the branches and the growth from year
 to year can be traced a long way back4 
,the cones hang on the ends of the upper
 branches4 ,they are much larger than in
 our native species of ,black and ,white
 ,spruce4  ,the ,evergreens are a very  
interesting study and an excellent      
exercise in morphology for the older    
scholars4   #b4 ,vernation4 ,this term  
signifies the disposition of leaves in  
the bud1 either in respect to the way in
 which each leaf is folded1 or to the   
manner in which the leaves are arranged 
with reference to each other4 ,the      
pupils have described the folding of the
 leaves in some of their specimens4  ,in
 the ,beech1 the leaf is plicate1 or    
plaited on the veins4 ,in the ,elm1     
,magnolia1 and ,tulip-tree1 it is       
conduplicate1 that is1 folded on the    
midrib with the inner face within4 ,in  
the ,tulip-tree1 it is also inflexed1   
the blade bent forwards on the petiole4 
,in the ,balm of ,gilead1 the leaf is   
involute1 rolled towards the midrib on  

the upper face4  ,other kinds of        
vernation are revolute1 the opposite of 
involute1 where the leaf is rolled      
backwards towards the midrib2 circinate1
 rolled from the apex downwards1 as we  
see in ferns2 and corrugate1 when the   
leaf is crumpled in the bud4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,branch of 
,norway ,spruce4  ,in all the trees we  
have studied1 the leaves simply succeed 
each other1 each leaf1 or pair of       
leaves1 overlapping the next in order4  
,the names of the overlapping of the    
leaves among themselves1 imbricated1    
convolute1 etc41 will not be treated    
here1 as they are not needed4 ,they will
 come under aestivation1 the term used  
to describe the overlapping of the      
modified leaves1 which make up the      
flower4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,reader in     
,botany4 ,,viii4 ,young and ,old        
,leaves4   #c4 ,phyllotaxy4 ,the subject
 of leaf-arrangement is an extremely    
difficult one1 and it is best1 even with
 the older pupils1 to touch it lightly4 

,the point to be especially brought out 
is the disposition of the leaves so that
 each can get the benefit of the light4 
,this can be seen in any plant and there
 are many ways in which the desired     
result is brought about4 ,the chief way 
is the distribution of the leaves about 
the stem1 and this is well studied from 
the leaf-scars4  ,the scholars should   
keep the branches they have studied4 ,it
 is well to have them marked with the   
respective names1 that the teacher may  
examine and return them without fear of 
mistakes4  ,in the various branches that
 the pupils have studied1 they have seen
 that the arrangement of the leaves     
differs greatly4 ,the arrangement of    
leaves is usually classed under three   
modes3 the alternate1 the opposite1 and 
the whorled2 but the opposite is the    
simplest form of the whorled            
arrangement1 the leaves being in circles
 of two4 ,in this arrangement1 the      
leaves of each whorl stand over the     
spaces of the whorl just below4 ,the    

pupils have observed and noted this in  
,horsechestnut and ,lilac4 ,in these    
there are four vertical rows or ranks of
 leaves4 ,in whorls of three leaves     
there would be six ranks1 in whorls of  
four1 eight1 and so on4  ,when the      
leaves are alternate1 or single at each 
node of the stem1 they are arranged in  
many different ways4 ,ask the pupils to 
look at all the branches with alternate 
leaves that they have studied1 and      
determine in each case what leaves stand
 directly over each other4 ,that is1    
beginning with any leaf1 count the      
number of leaves passed on the stem1    
till one is reached that stands directly
 over the first4#a ,in the ,beech and   
the ,elm the leaves are on opposite     
sides of the stem1 so that the third    
stands directly over the first4 ,this   
makes two vertical ranks1 or rows1 of   
leaves1 dividing the circle into halves4
 ,it is1 therefore1 called the #a_/b    
arrangement4 ,another way of expressing 
it is to say that the angular divergence

 between the leaves is #ahj deg41 or    
one-half the circumference4  ,footnote  
#a3 ,the pupils must be careful not to  
pass the bud-rings when they are        
counting the leaves4  ,the #a_/c        
arrangement1 with the leaves in three   
vertical ranks1 is not very common4 ,it 
may be seen in ,sedges1 in the          
,orange-tree1 and in ,black ,alder      
7,ilex verticillata74 ,in this          
arrangement1 there are three ranks of   
leaves1 and each leaf diverges from the 
next at an angle of #abj deg41 or       
one-third of the circumference4  ,by far
 the commonest arrangement is with the  
leaves in five vertical ranks4 ,the     
,cherry1 the ,poplar1 the ,larch1 the   
,oak1 and many other trees exhibit this4
 ,in this arrangement there are five    
leaves necessary to complete the circle4
 ,we might expect1 then1 that each leaf 
would occupy one-fifth of the circle4   
,this would be the case were it not for 
the fact that we have to pass twice     
around the stem in counting them1 so    

that each leaf has twice as much room1  
or two-fifths of the circle1 to itself4 
,this is1 therefore1 the #b_/e          
arrangement4 ,this can be shown by      
winding a thread around the stem1       
passing it over each leaf-scar4 ,in the 
,beech we make one turn of the stem     
before reaching the third leaf which    
stands over the first4 ,in the ,apple   
the thread will wind twice about the    
stem1 before coming to the sixth leaf1  
which is over the first4  ,another      
arrangement1 not very common1 is found  
in the ,magnolia1 the ,holly1 and the   
radical leaves of the common ,plantain  
and ,tobacco4 ,the thread makes three   
turns of the stem before reaching the   
eighth leaf which stands over the first4
 ,this is the #c_/h arrangement4 ,it is 
well seen in the ,marguerite1 a         
greenhouse plant which is very easily   
grown in the house4  ,look now at these 
fractions1 #a_/b1 #a_/c1 #b_/e1 and     
#c_/h4 ,the numerator of the third is   
the sum of the numerators of the first  

and second1 its denominator1 the sum of 
the two denominators4 ,the same is true 
of the fourth fraction and the two      
immediately preceding it4 ,continuing   
the series1 we get the fractions #e_/ac1
 #h_/ba1 #ac_/cd4 ,these arrangements   
can be found in nature in cones1 the    
scales of which are modified leaves and 
follow the laws of leaf-arrangement4#a  
,footnote #a3 ,see the uses and origin  
of the arrangement of leaves in plants4 
,by ,chauncey ,wright4 ,memoirs ,amer4  
,acad41 ,,ix1 p4 #chi4 ,this essay is an
 abstruse mathematical treatise on the  
theory of phyllotaxy4 ,the fractions are
 treated as successive approximations to
 a theoretical angle1 which represents  
the best possible exposure to air and   
light4  ,modern authors1 however1 do not
 generally accept this mathematical view
 of leaf-arrangement4  #a;,it is to be  
noted that the distichous or #a_/b      
variety gives the maximum divergence1   
namely #ahj deg41 and that the          
tristichous1 or #a_/c1 gives the least1 

or #abj deg42 that the pentastichous1 or
 #b_/e1 is nearly the mean between the  
first two2 that of the #c_/h1 nearly the
 mean between the two preceding1 etc4   
,the disadvantage of the two-ranked     
arrangement is that the leaves are soon 
superposed and so overshadow each other4
 ,this is commonly obviated by the      
length of the internodes1 which is apt  
to be much greater in this than in the  
more complex arrangements1 therefore    
placing them vertically further apart2  
or else1 as in ,elms1 ,beeches1 and the 
like1 the branchlets take a horizontal  
position and the petioles a quarter     
twist1 which gives full exposure of the 
upper face of all the leaves to the     
light4 ,the #a_/c and #b_/e1 with       
diminished divergence1 increase the     
number of ranks2 the #c_/h and all      
beyond1 with mean divergence of         
successive leaves1 effect a more        
thorough distribution1 but with less and
 less angular distance between the      
vertical ranks4  ,footnote #a3 ,gray's  

,structural ,botany1 ,chap1 iv1 p4 #abf4
  ,for directions for finding the       
arrangement of cones1 see ,gray's       
,structural ,botany1 ,chap4 ,,iv1 ,sect4
 #a4  ,the subject appears easy when    
stated in a text-book1 but1 practically1
 it is often exceedingly difficult to   
determine the arrangement4 ,stems often 
twist so as to alter entirely the       
apparent disposition of the leaves4 ,the
 general principle1 however1 that the   
leaves are disposed so as to get the    
best exposure to air and light is clear4
 ,this cannot be shown by the study of  
the naked branches merely1 because these
 do not show the beautiful result of the
 distribution4#a ,many house plants can 
be found1 which will afford excellent   
illustrations 7,fig4 #ba74 ,the         
,marguerite and ,tobacco1 both easily   
grown in the house1 are on the #c_/h    
plan4 ,the latter shows the eight ranks 
most plainly in the rosette of its lower
 leaves4 ,the distribution is often     
brought about by differences in the     

lengths of the petioles1 as in a        
,horsechestnut branch 7,fig4 #bb7 where 
the lower1 larger leaves stand out      
further from the branch than the upper  
ones2 or by a twist in the petioles1 so 
that the upper faces of the leaves are  
turned up to the light1 as in ,beech    
7,fig4 #bc74 ,if it is springtime when  
the lessons are given1 endless          
adaptations can be found4  ,footnote #a3
 ,reader in ,botany4 ,,ix4              
,leaf-,arrangement4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #ba4 ,branch of ,geranium1 viewed
 from above4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4  ,gray's   
,first ,lessons4 ,sect4 ,,iv4 ,,vii1    
sec4 #d4 ,how ,plants ,grow4 ,chap4 ,i1 
#ea-fb2 ,i1 #aec4     ,v4  ,,stems4     
,the stem1 as the scholars have already 
learned1 is the axis of the plant4 ,the 
leaves are produced at certain definite 
points called nodes1 and the portions of
 stem between these points are          
internodes4 ,the internode1 node1 and   
leaf make a single plant-part1 and the  

plant is made up of a succession of such
 parts4  ,the stem1 as well as the root 
and leaves1 may bear plant-hairs4 ,the  
accepted theory of plant structure      
assumes that these four parts1 root1    
stem1 leaves1 and plant-hairs1 are the  
only members of a flowering plant1 and  
that all other forms1 as flowers1       
tendrils1 etc41 are modified from these4
 ,while this idea is at the foundation  
of all our teaching1 causing us to lead 
the pupil to recognize as modified      
leaves the cotyledons of a seedling and 
the scales of a bud1 it is difficult to 
state it directly so as to be           
understood1 except by mature minds4 ,i  
have been frequently surprised at the   
failure of even bright and advanced     
pupils to grasp this idea1 and believe  
it is better to let them first imbibe it
 unconsciously in their study4 ,whenever
 their minds are ready for it1 it will  
be readily understood4 ,the chief       
difficulty is that they imagine that    
there is a direct metamorphosis of a    

leaf to a petal or a stamen4  ,briefly1 
the theory is this3 the beginnings of   
leaf1 petal1 tendril1 etc41 are the     
same4 ,at an early stage of their growth
 it is impossible to tell what they are 
to become4 ,they develop into the organ 
needed for the particular work required 
of them to do4 ,the organ1 that under   
other circumstances might develop into a
 leaf1 is capable of developing into a  
petal1 a stamen1 or a pistil1 according 
to the requirements of the plant1 but no
 actual metamorphosis takes place4      
,sometimes1 instead of developing into  
the form we should normally find1 the   
organ develops into another form1 as    
when a petal stands in the place of a   
stamen1 or the pistil reverts to a leafy
 branch4 ,this will be more fully       
treated under flowers4 ,the study of the
 different forms in which an organ may  
appear is the study of morphology4   #a4
 ,forms of ,stems4--,stems may grow in  
many ways4 ,let the pupils compare the  
habits of growth of the seedlings they  

have studied4 ,the ,sunflower and ,corn 
are erect4 ,this is the most usual      
habit1 as with our common trees4 ,the   
,morning ,glory is twining1 the stem    
itself twists about a support4 ,the     
,bean1 ,pea and ,nasturtium are         
climbing4 ,the stems are weak1 and are  
held up1 in the first two by tendrils1  
in the last by the twining leaf-stalks4 
,the ,english ,ivy1 as we have seen1 is 
also climbing1 by means of its aerial   
roots4 ,the ,red ,clover is ascending1  
the branches rising obliquely from the  
base4 ,some kinds of ,clover1 as the    
,white ,clover1 are creeping1 that is1  
with prostrate branches rooting at the  
nodes and forming new plants4 ,such     
rooting branches are called stolons1 or 
when the stem runs underground1 suckers4
 ,the gardener imitates them in the     
process called layering1 that is1       
bending down an erect branch and        
covering it with soil1 causing it to    
strike root4 ,when the connecting stem  
is cut1 a new plant is formed4 ,long and

 leafless stolons1 like those of the    
,strawberry are called runners4 ,stems  
creep below the ground as well as above4
 ,probably the pupil will think of some 
examples4 ,the pretty little ,gold      
,thread is so named from the yellow     
running stems1 which grow beneath the   
ground and send up shoots1 or suckers1  
which make new plants4 ,many grasses    
propagate themselves in this way4 ,such 
stems are called rootstocks4 ,that these
 are really stems1 and not roots1 is    
evident from the way in which they grow2
 from their consisting of a succession  
of joints2 and from the leaves which    
they bear on each node1 in the form of  
small scales1 just like the lowest ones 
on the upright stem next the ground4    
,they also produce buds in the axils of 
these scales1 showing the scales to be  
leaves2 whereas real roots bear neither 
leaves nor axillary buds4#a ,rootstocks 
are often stored with nourishment4 ,we  
have already taken up this subject in   
the potato1 but it is well to repeat the

 distinction between stems and roots4 ,a
 thick1 short rootstock provided with   
buds1 like the potato1 is called a      
tuber4 ,compare again the corm of       
,crocus and the bulb of ,onion to find  
the stem in each4 ,in the former1 it    
makes the bulk of the whole2 in the     
latter1 it is a mere plate holding the  
fleshy bases of the leaves4  ,footnote  
#a3 ,gray's ,first ,lessons1 revised    
edition1 #ahhg1 page #db4  #b4          
,movements of ,stems4--,let a glass     
thread1 no larger than a coarse hair1 be
 affixed by means of some quickly drying
 varnish to the tip of the laterally    
inclined stem of one of the young       
,morning-,glory plants in the           
schoolroom4 ,stand a piece of cardboard 
beside the pot1 at right angles to the  
stem1 so that the end of the glass will 
be near the surface of the card4 ,make a
 dot upon the card opposite the tip of  
the filament1 taking care not to disturb
 the position of either4 ,in a few      
minutes observe that the filament is no 

longer opposite the dot4 ,mark its      
position anew1 and continue thus until a
 circle is completed on the cardboard4  
,this is a rough way of conducting the  
experiment4 ,darwin's method will be    
found in the footnote4#a  ,footnote #a3 
,plants growing in pots were protected  
wholly from the light1 or had light     
admitted from above or on one side as   
the case might require1 and were covered
 above by a large horizontal sheet of   
glass1 and with another vertical sheet  
on one side4 ,a glass filament1 not     
thicker than a horsehair1 and from a    
quarter to three-quarters of an inch in 
length1 was affixed to the part to be   
observed by means of shellac dissolved  
in alcohol4 ,the solution was allowed to
 evaporate until it became so thick that
 it set hard in two or three seconds1   
and it never injured the tissues1 even  
the tips of tender radicles1 to which it
 was applied4 ,to the end of the glass  
filament an excessively minute bead of  
black sealing-wax was cemented1 below or

 behind which a bit of card with a black
 dot was fixed to a stick driven into   
the ground4444 ,the bead and the dot on 
the card were viewed through the        
horizontal or vertical glass-plate      
7according to the position of the       
object7 and when one exactly covered the
 other1 a dot was made on the glass     
plate with a sharply pointed stick      
dipped in thick ,india ink4 ,other dots 
were made at short intervals of time and
 these were afterwards joined by        
straight lines4 ,the figures thus traced
 were therefore angular1 but if dots had
 been made every one or two minutes1 the
 lines would have been more             
curvilinear4--,the ,power of ,movement  
in ,plants1 p4 #f4  ,the use of the     
glass filament is simply to increase the
 size of the circle described1 and thus 
make visible the movements of the stem4 
,all young parts of stems are           
continually moving in circles or        
ellipses4 ,to learn how the sweeps are  
made1 one has only to mark a line of    

dots along the upper side of the        
outstretched revolving end of such a    
stem1 and to note that when it has moved
 round a quarter of a circle1 these dots
 will be on one side2 when half round1  
the dots occupy the lower side2 and when
 the revolution is completed1 they are  
again on the upper side4 ,that is1 the  
stem revolves by bowing itself over to  
one side1--is either pulled over or     
pushed over1 or both1 by some internal  
force1 which acts in turn all round the 
stem in the direction in which it       
sweeps2 and so the stem makes its       
circuits without twisting4#a  ,footnote 
#a3 ,how ,plants ,behave4 ,by ,asa      
,gray4 ,ivison1 ,blakeman1 ,taylor      
,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahgb4 ,page #ac4     
,the nature of the movement is thus a   
successive nodding to all the points of 
the compass1 whence it is called by     
,darwin circumnutation4 ,the movement   
belongs to all young growing parts of   
plants4 ,the great sweeps of a twining  
stem1 like that of the ,morning-,glory1 

are only an increase in the size of the 
circle or ellipse described4#a          
,footnote #a3 ,in the course of the     
present volume it will be shown that    
apparently every growing part of every  
plant is continually circumnutating1    
though often on a small scale4 ,even the
 stems of seedlings before they have    
broken through the ground1 as well as   
their buried radicles1 circumnutate1 as 
far as the pressure of the surrounding  
earth permits4 ,in this universally     
present movement we have the basis or   
groundwork for the acquirement1         
according to the requirements of the    
plant1 of the most diversified          
movements4 ,thus the great sweeps made  
by the stems of the twining plants1 and 
by the tendrils of other climbers1      
result from a mere increase in the      
amplitude of the ordinary movement of   
circumnutation4--,the ,power of         
,movement in ,plants1 p4 #c4  ,when a   
young stem of a ,morning-,glory1 thus   
revolving1 comes in contact with a      

support1 it will twist around it1 unless
 the surface is too smooth to present   
any resistance to the movement of the   
plant4 ,try to make it twine up a glass 
rod4 ,it will slip up the rod and fall  
off4 ,the ,morning-,glory and most      
twiners move around from left to right  
like the hands of a clock1 but a few    
turn from right to left4  ,while this   
subject is under consideration1 the     
tendrils of the ,pea and ,bean and the  
twining petioles of the ,nasturtium will
 be interesting for comparison4 ,the    
movements can be made visible by the    
same method as was used for the stem of 
the ,morning-,glory4 ,tendrils and leaf 
petioles are often sensitive to the     
touch4 ,if a young leaf stalk of        
,clematis be rubbed for a few moments1  
especially on the under side1 it will be
 found in a day or two to be turned     
inward1 and the tendrils of the         
,cucumber vine will coil in a few       
minutes after being thus irritated4#a   
,the movements of tendrils are          

charmingly described in the chapter     
entitled ,how ,plants ,climb1 in the    
little treatise by ,dr4 ,gray1 already  
mentioned4  ,footnote #a3 ,reader in    
,botany4 ,x4 ,climbing ,plants4  ,the   
so-called sleep of plants is another    
similar movement4 ,the ,oxalis is a good
 example4 ,the leaves droop and close   
together at night1 protecting them from 
being chilled by too great radiation4   
,the cause of these movements is        
believed to lie in changes of tension   
preceding growth in the tissues of the  
stem4#a ,every stem is in a state of    
constant tension4 ,naudin has thus      
expressed it1 the interior of every stem
 is too large for its ,jacket4#b ,if a  
leaf-stalk of ,nasturtium be slit       
vertically for an inch or two1 the two  
halves will spring back abruptly4 ,this 
is because the outer tissues of the stem
 are stretched1 and spring back like    
india-rubber when released4 ,if two     
stalks twining in opposite directions be
 slit as above described1 the side of   

the stem towards which each stalk is    
bent will spring back more than the     
other1 showing the tension to be greater
 on that side4 ,a familiar illustration 
of this tension will be found in the    
,dandelion curls of our childhood4      
,footnote #a3 ,see ,physiological       
,botany4 ,by ,geo4 ,l4 ,goodale4 ,ivison
  ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahhe4 ,page #djf4  
,footnote #b3 ,the following experiment 
exhibits the phenomenon of tension very 
strikingly4 ,from a long and thrifty    
young internode of grapevine cut a piece
 that shall measure exactly one hundred 
units1 for instance1 millimeters4 ,from 
this section1 which measures exactly one
 hundred millimeters1 carefully separate
 the epidermal structures in strips1 and
 place the strips at once under an      
inverted glass to prevent drying2 next1 
separate the pith in a single unbroken  
piece wholly freed from the ligneous    
tissue4 ,finally1 remeasure the isolated
 portions1 and compare with the original
 measure of the internode4 ,there will  

be found an appreciable shortening of   
the epidermal tissues and a marked      
increase in length of the               
pith4--,physiological ,botany1 p4 #cia4 
,the movements of the ,sensitive ,plant 
are always very interesting to pupils1  
and it is said not to be difficult to   
raise the plants in the schoolroom4 ,the
 whole subject1 indeed1 is one of the   
most fascinating that can be found1 and 
its literature is available1 both for   
students and teachers4 ,darwin's essay  
on ,climbing ,plants1 and his later work
 on the ,power of ,movement in ,plants1 
,dr4 ,gray's ,how ,plants ,behave1 and  
the chapter on ,movements in the        
,physiological ,botany1 will offer a    
wide field for study and experiment4    
#c4 ,structure of ,stems4--,let the     
pupils collect a series of branches of  
some common tree or shrub1 from the     
youngest twig up to as large a branch as
 they can cut1 and describe them4       
,poplar1 ,elm1 ,oak1 ,lilac1 etc41 will 
be found excellent for the purpose4     

,while discussing these descriptions1 a 
brief explanation of plant-structure may
 be given4 ,in treating this subject1   
the teacher must govern himself by the  
needs of his class1 and the means at his
 command4 ,explanations requiring the   
use of a compound microscope do not     
enter necessarily into these lessons4   
,the object aimed at is to teach the    
pupils about the things which they can  
see and handle for themselves4 ,looking 
at sections that others have prepared is
 like looking at pictures2 and1 while   
useful in opening their eyes and minds  
to the wonders hidden from our          
unassisted sight1 fails to give the real
 benefit of scientific training4 ,plants
 are built up of cells4 ,the            
delicate-walled spherical1 or polygonal1
 cells which make up the bulk of an     
herbaceous stem1 constitute cellular    
tissue 7parenchyma74 ,this was well seen
 in the stem of the cutting of ,bean in 
which the roots had begun to form4#a    
,the strengthening fabric in almost all 

flowering plants is made up of woody    
bundles1 or woody tissue4#b ,the        
wood-cells are cells which are elongated
 and with thickened walls4 ,there are   
many kinds of them4 ,those where the    
walls are very thick and the cavity     
within extremely small are fibres4 ,a   
kind of cell1 not strictly woody1 is    
where many cells form long vessels by   
the breaking away of the connecting     
walls4 ,these are ducts4 ,these two     
kinds of cells are generally associated 
together in woody bundles1 called       
therefore fibro-vascular bundles4 ,we   
have already spoken of them as making   
the dots on the leaf-scars1 and forming 
the strengthening fabric of the         
leaves4#c  ,footnote #a3 ,see page #df4 
,footnote #b3 ,if elements of the same  
kind are untied1 they constitute a      
tissue to which is given the name of    
those elements2 thus parenchyma cells   
form parenchyma tissue or simply        
parenchyma2 cork-cells form cork1 etc4  
,a tissue can therefore be defined as a 

fabric of united cells which have had a 
common origin and obeyed a common law of
 growth4--,physiological ,botany4 p4    
#ajb4  ,footnote #c3 ,see page #eh4  ,we
 will now examine our series of         
branches4 ,the youngest twigs1 in spring
 or early summer1 are covered with a    
delicate1 nearly colorless skin4        
,beneath this is a layer of bark1       
usually green1 which gives the color to 
the stem1 an inner layer of bark1 the   
wood and the pith4 ,the pith is soft1   
spongy and somewhat sappy4 ,there is    
also sap between the bark and the wood4 
,an older twig has changed its color4   
,there is a layer of brown bark1 which  
has replaced the colorless skin4 ,in a  
twig a year old the wood is thicker and 
the pith is dryer4 ,comparing sections  
of older branches with these twigs1 we  
find that the pith has shrunk and become
 quite dry1 and that the wood is in     
rings4 ,it is not practicable for the   
pupils to compare the number of these   
rings with the bud-rings1 and so find   

out for themselves that the age of the  
branch can be determined from the wood1 
for in young stems the successive layers
 are not generally distinct4 ,but1 in   
all the specimens1 the sap is found just
 between the wood and the bark1 and     
here1 where the supply of food is1 is   
where the growth is taking place4 ,each 
year new wood and new bark are formed in
 this cambium-layer1 as it is called1   
new wood on its inner1 new bark on its  
outer face4 ,trees which thus form a new
 ring of wood every year are called     
exogenous1 or outside-growing4  ,ask the
 pupils to separate the bark into its   
three layers and to try the strength of 
each4 ,the two outer will easily break1 
but the inner is generally tough and    
flexible4 ,it is this inner bark1 which 
makes the ,poplar and ,willow branches  
so hard to break4 ,these strong1 woody  
fibres of the inner bark give us many of
 our textile fabrics4 ,flax and ,hemp   
come from the inner bark of their       
respective plants 7,linum usitatissimum 

and ,cannabis sativa71 and ,russia      
matting is made from the bark of the    
,linden 7,tilia ,americana74  ,we have  
found1 in comparing the bark of         
specimens of branches of various ages1  
that1 in the youngest stems1 the whole  
is covered with a skin1 or epidermis1   
which is soon replaced by a brown outer 
layer of bark1 called the corky layer2  
the latter gives the distinctive color  
to the tree4 ,while this grows1 it      
increases by a living layer of          
cork-cambium on its inner face1 but it  
usually dies after a few years4 ,in some
 trees it goes on growing for many      
years4 ,it forms the layers of bark in  
the ,paper ,birch and the cork of       
commerce is taken from the ,cork ,oak of
 ,spain4 ,the green bark is of cellular 
tissue1 with some green coloring matter 
like that of the leaves2 it is at first 
the outer layer1 but soon becomes       
covered with cork4 ,it does not usually 
grow after the first year4 ,scraping the
 bark of an old tree1 we find the bark  

homogeneous4 ,the outer layers have     
perished and been cast off4 ,as the tree
 grows from within1 the bark is         
stretched and1 if not replaced1 cracks  
and falls away piecemeal4 ,so1 in most  
old trees1 the bark consists of         
successive layers of the inner woody    
bark4  ,stems can be well studied from  
pieces of wood from the woodpile4 ,the  
ends of the log will show the concentric
 rings4 ,these can be traced as long1   
wavy lines in vertical sections of the  
log1 especially if the surface is       
smooth4 ,if the pupils can whittle off  
different planes for themselves1 they   
will form a good idea of the formation  
of the wood4 ,in many of the specimens  
there will be knots1 and the nature of  
these will be an interesting subject for
 questions4 ,if the knot is near the    
centre of the log1 lead back their      
thoughts to the time when the tree was  
as small as the annular ring on which   
the centre of the knot lies4 ,draw a    
line on this ring to represent the tree 

at this period of its growth4 ,what     
could the knot have been8 ,it has       
concentric circles like the tree itself4
 ,it was a branch which decayed1 or was 
cut off4 ,year after year1 new rings of 
wood formed themselves round this broken
 branch1 till it was covered from sight1
 and every year left it more deeply     
buried in the trunk4  ,extremely        
interesting material for the study of   
wood will be found in thin sections     
prepared for veneers4 ,packages of such 
sections will be of great use to the    
teacher4#a ,they show well the reason of
 the formation of a dividing line       
between the wood of successive seasons4 
,in a cross section of ,oak or ,chestnut
 the wood is first very open and porous 
and then close4 ,this is owing to the   
presence of ducts in the wood formed in 
the spring4 ,in other woods there are no
 ducts1 or they are evenly distributed1 
but the transition from the close autumn
 wood1 consisting of smaller and more   
closely packed cells1 to the wood of    

looser texture1 formed in the following 
spring1 makes a line that marks the     
season's growth4  ,footnote #a3 ,mr4    
,romeyn ,b4 ,hough1 of ,lowville1       
,n4,y41 will supply a package of such   
sections for one dollar4 ,the package   
will consist of several different woods1
 in both cross and vertical section and 
will contain enough duplicates for an   
ordinary class4  ,he also issues a      
series of books on woods illustrated by 
actual and neatly mounted specimens1    
showing in each case three distinct     
views of the grain4 ,the work is issued 
in parts1 each representing twenty-five 
species1 and selling with text at #e1   
expressage prepaid2 the mounted         
specimens alone at #be cts4 per species 
or twenty-five in neat box for #d4 ,he  
has also a line of specimens prepared   
for the stereopticon and another for the
 microscope4 ,they are very useful and  
sell at #ej cts4 per species or         
twenty-five for #aj4  ,let each of the  
scholars take one of the sections of    

,oak and write a description of its     
markings4 ,the age is easily determined2
 the pith rays1 or medullary rays1 are  
also plain4 ,these form what is called  
the silver grain of the wood4 ,the      
ducts1 also1 are clear in the ,oak and  
,chestnut4 ,there is a difference in    
color between the outer and inner wood1 
the older wood becomes darker and is    
called the heart-wood1 the outer is the 
sap-wood4 ,in ,birds-eye ,maple1 and    
some other woods1 the abortive buds are 
seen4 ,they are buried in the wood1 and 
make the disturbance which produces the 
ornamental grain4 ,in sections of ,pine 
or ,spruce1 no ducts can be found4 ,the 
wood consists entirely of elongated1    
thickened cells or fibres4 ,in some of  
the trees the pith rays cannot be seen  
with the naked eye4  ,let the pupils    
compare the branches which they have    
described1 with a stalk of ,asparagus1  
,rattan1 or ,lily4 ,a cross section of  
one of these shows dots among the soft  
tissue4 ,these are ends of the          

fibro-vascular bundles1 which in these  
plants are scattered through the        
cellular tissue instead of being brought
 together in a cylinder outside of the  
pith4 ,in a vertical section they appear
 as lines4 ,there are no annular rings4 
,if possible1 let the pupils compare the
 leaves belonging to these different    
types of stems4 ,the parallel-veined    
leaves of monocotyledons have stems     
without distinction of wood1 bark and   
pith2 the netted-veined leaves of       
dicotyledons have exogenous stems4      
,dicotyledons have bark1 wood1 and pith1
 and grow by producing a new ring of    
wood outside the old4 ,they also        
increase by the growth of the woody     
bundles of the leaves1 which mingle with
 those of the stem4#a ,twist off the    
leaf-stalk of any leaf1 and trace the   
bundles into the stem4  ,footnote #a3   
,see note1 p4 #abg1 ,physiological      
,botany4  ,monocotyledons have no layer 
which has the power of producing new    
wood1 and their growth takes place      

entirely from the intercalation of new  
bundles1 which originate at the bases of
 the leaves4 ,the lower part of a stem  
of a ,palm1 for instance1 does not      
increase in size after it has lost its  
crown of leaves4 ,this is carried up    
gradually4 ,the upper part of the stem  
is a cone1 having fronds1 and below this
 cone the stem does not increase in     
diameter4 ,the word endogenous1         
inside-growing1 is not1 therefore1 a    
correct one to describe the growth of   
most monocotyledons1 for the growth     
takes place where the leaves originate1 
near the exterior of the stem4  ,gray's 
,first ,lessons4 ,sect4 ,,vi4 ,sect1    
,,xvi1 sec4 #a1 #dja-ac4 sec4 #c4 sec4  
#f1 #dfe-gd4  ,how ,plants ,grow4 ,chap4
 #a1 #hb1 #ij-aah4     ,,vi4  ,,leaves4 
,we have studied leaves as cotyledons1  
bud-scales1 etc41 but when we speak of  
leaves1 we do not think of these adapted
 forms1 but of the green foliage of the 
plant4  #a4 ,forms and                  
,structure4--,provide the pupils with a 

number of green leaves1 illustrating    
simple and compound1 pinnate and        
palmate1 sessile and petioled leaves4   
,they must first decide the question1   
,what are the parts of a leaf8 ,all the 
specimens have a green blade which1 in  
ordinary speech1 we call the leaf4 ,some
 have a stalk1 or petiole1 others are   
joined directly to the stem4 ,in some of
 them1 as a rose-leaf1 for instance1    
there are two appendages at the base of 
the petiole1 called stipules4 ,these    
three parts are all that any leaf has1  
and a leaf that has them all is         
complete4  ,let us examine the blade4   
,those leaves which have the blade in   
one piece are called simple2 those with 
the blade in separate pieces are        
compound4 ,we have already answered the 
question1 ,what constitutes a single    
leaf8#a ,let the pupils repeat the      
experiment of cutting off the top of a  
seedling ,pea1 if it is not already     
clear in their minds1 and find buds in  
the leaf-axils of other plants4#b       

,footnote #a3 ,see page #ca4  ,footnote 
#b3 ,with one class of children1 ,i had 
much difficulty in making them          
understand the difference between simple
 and compound leaves4 ,i did not tell   
them that the way to tell a single leaf 
was to look for buds in the axils1 but  
incautiously drew their attention to the
 stipules at the base of a rose leaf as 
a means of knowing that the whole was   
one4 ,soon after1 they had a locust leaf
 to describe2 and1 immediately1 with the
 acuteness that children are apt to     
develop so inconveniently to their      
teacher1 they triumphantly refuted my   
statement that it was one leaf1 by      
pointing to the stiples4 ,there was no  
getting over the difficulty2 and        
although ,i afterwards explained to them
 about the position of the buds1 and    
showed them examples1 they clung with   
true childlike tenacity to their first  
impression and always insisted that they
 could not see why each leaflet was not 
a separate leaf4  ,an excellent way to  

show the nature of compound leaves is to
 mount a series showing every gradation 
of cutting1 from a simple1 serrate leaf 
to a compound one 7,figs4 #bd and #be74 
,a teacher1 who would prepare in summer 
such illustrations as these1 would find 
them of great use in his winter lessons4
 ,the actual objects make an impression 
that the cuts in the book cannot give4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,series of  
palmately-veined leaves4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #be4--,series of                
pinnately-veined leaves4  ,let the      
pupils compare the distribution of the  
veins in their specimens4 ,they have    
already distinguished parallel-veined   
from netted-veined leaves1 and learned  
that this difference is a secondary     
distinction between monocotyledons and  
dicotyledons4#a ,the veins in           
netted-veined leaves are arranged in two
 ways4 ,the veins start from either side
 of a single midrib 7feather-veined or  
pinnately-veined71 or they branch from a
 number of ribs which all start from the

 top of the petiole1 like the fingers   
from the palm of the hand               
7palmately-veined74 ,the compound leaves
 correspond to these modes of venation2 
they are either pinnately or palmately  
compound4  ,footnote #a3 ,see page #cd4 
,these ribs and veins are the woody     
framework of the leaf1 supporting the   
soft green pulp4 ,the woody bundles are 
continuous with those of the stem1 and  
carry the crude sap1 brought from the   
roots1 into the cells of every part of  
the leaf1 where it is brought into      
contact with the external air1 and the  
process of making food 7,assimilation   
#d7 is carried on4 ,physiologically1    
leaves are green expansions borne by the
 stern1 outspread in the air and light1 
in which assimilation and the processes 
connected with it are carried on4#a     
,footnote #a3 ,gray's ,structural       
,botany1 p4 #he4  ,the whole leaf is    
covered with a delicate skin1 or        
epidermis1 continuous with that of the  
stem4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,reader in       

,botany4 ,,xi4 ,protection of ,leaves   
from the ,attacks of ,animals4   #b4    
,descriptions4--,as yet the pupils have 
had no practice in writing technical    
descriptions4 ,this sort of work may be 
begun when they come to the study of    
leaves4 ,in winter a collection of      
pressed specimens will be useful4 ,do   
not attach importance to the memorizing 
of terms4 ,let them be looked up as they
 are needed1 and they will become fixed 
by practice4 ,the pupils may fill out   
such schedules as the following with any
 leaves that are at hand4  ,,schedule   
,,for ,,leaves4                         
,arrangement                            
,alternate#a              ,simple or    
compound4           ,simple             
7arr4 and no4 of leaflets7              
,venation                      ,netted  
and                                     
feather-veined             ,shape       
,oval #a4  ,,blade                 ,apex
                        ,acute          
,base                        ,oblique   

,margin                        ,slightly
 wavy                          ,surface 
,smooth  #b4 ,,petiole                  
,short2 hairy  #c4 ,,stipules           
,deciduous  ,remarks4 ,veins prominent  
and very straight4  ,footnote #a3 ,the  
specimen described is a leaf of ,copper 
,beech4  ,in describing shapes1 etc41   
the pupils can find the terms in the    
book as they need them4 ,it is desirable
 at first to give leaves that are easily
 matched with the terms1 keeping those  
which need compound words1 such as      
lance-ovate1 etc41 to come later4 ,the  
pupils are more interested if they are  
allowed to press and keep the specimens 
they have described4 ,it is not well to 
put the pressed leaves in their note    
books1 as it is difficult to write in   
the books without spoiling the          
specimens4 ,it is better to mount the   
specimens on white paper1 keeping these 
sheets in brown paper covers4 ,the      
pupils can make illustrations for       
themselves by sorting leaves according  

to the shapes1 outlines1 etc41 and      
mounting them4   #c4                    
,transpiration4--,this term is used to  
denote the evaporation of water from a  
plant4 ,the evaporation takes place     
principally through breathing pores1    
which are scattered all over the surface
 of leaves and young stems4 ,the        
breathing pores1 or stomata1 of the     
leaves1 are small openings in the       
epidermis through which the air can pass
 into the interior of the plant4 ,each  
of these openings is called a stoma4    
,they are formed by a transformation of 
some of the cells of the epidermis2 and 
consist usually of a pair of cells      
7called guardian cells71 with an opening
 between them1 which communicates with  
an air-chamber within1 and thence with  
the irregular intercellular spaces which
 permeate the interior of the leaf4     
,through the stomata1 when open1 free   
interchange may take place between the  
external air and that within the leaf1  
and thus transpiration be much          

facilitated4 ,when closed1 this         
interchange will be interrupted or      
impeded4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,gray's       
,structural ,botany1 page #hi4 ,for a   
description of the mechanism of the     
stomata1 see ,physiological ,botany1 p4 
#bfi4  ,in these lessons1 however1 it is
 not desirable to enter upon subjects   
involving the use of the compound       
microscope4 ,dr4 ,goodale says3 ,whether
 it is best to try to explain to the    
pupils the structure of these valves1 or
 stomata1 must be left to each teacher4 
,it would seem advisable to pass by the 
subject untouched1 unless the teacher   
has become reasonably familiar with it  
by practical microscopical study of     
leaves4 ,for a teacher to endeavor to   
explain the complex structure of the    
leaf1 without having seen it for        
himself1 is open to the same objection  
which could be urged against the        
attempted explanation of complicated    
machinery by one who has never seen it1 
but has heard about it4 ,what is here   

said with regard to stomata applies to  
all the more recondite matters connected
 with plant structure4#a  ,footnote #a3 
,concerning a few ,common ,plants1 p4   
#bi4  ,there are many simple experiments
 which can be used to illustrate the    
subject4  7#a7 ,pass the stem of a      
cutting through a cork1 fitting tightly 
into the neck of a bottle of water4     
,make the cork perfectly air-tight by   
coating it with beeswax or paraffine4   
,the level of the liquid in the bottle  
will be lowered by the escape of water  
through the stem and leaves of the      
cutting into the atmosphere4  7#b7 ,cut 
two shoots of any plant1 leave one on   
the table and place the other in a glass
 of water4#a ,the first will soon wilt1 
while the other will remain fresh4 ,if  
the latter shoot be a cutting from some 
plant that will root in water1 such as  
,ivy1 it will not fade at all4 ,also1   
leave one of the plants in the          
schoolroom unwatered for a day or two1  
till it begins to wilt4 ,if the plant be

 now thoroughly watered1 it will recover
 and the leaves will resume their normal
 appearance4  ,footnote #a3 ,lessons in 
,elementary ,botany1 by ,daniel ,oliver1
 ,london4 ,macmillan  ,co41 #ahfd1 pp4  
#ad-ae4  ,evaporation is thus constantly
 taking place from the leaves1 and if   
there is no moisture to supply the place
 of what is lost1 the cells collapse and
 the leaf1 as we say1 wilts4 ,when water
 is again supplied the cells swell and  
the leaf becomes fresh4  7#c7 ,place two
 seedlings in water1 one with its top1  
the other with its roots in the jar4    
,the latter will remain fresh while the 
first wilts and dies4  ,absorption takes
 place through the roots4 ,the water    
absorbed is drawn up through the woody  
tissues of the stem 7#d71 and the veins 
of the leaves 7#e71 whence it escapes   
into the air 7#f74  7#d7 ,plunge a cut  
branch immediately into a colored       
solution1 such as aniline red1 and after
 a time make sections in the stem above 
the liquid to see what tissues have been

 stained4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,the         
,essentials of ,botany1 by ,charles ,e4 
,bessey4 ,new ,york1 ,henry ,holt  ,co41
 #ahhd4 ,page #gd4 ,see also            
,physiological ,botany1 pp4 #bei-bfj4   
7#e7 ,that water finds its way by       
preference through the fibro-vascular   
bundles even in the more delicate parts1
 is shown by placing the cut peduncle of
 a white tulip1 or other large white    
flower1 in a harmless dye1 and then     
again cutting off its end in order to   
bring a fresh surface in contact with   
the solution1#a when after a short time 
the dye will mount through the          
flower-stalk and tinge the parts of the 
perianth according to the course of the 
bundles4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,if the stems 
of flowers are cut under water they will
 last a wonderfully long time4 ,one of  
the most interesting characteristics of 
the woody tissues in relation to the    
transfer of water is the immediate      
change which the cut surface of a stem  
undergoes upon exposure to the air1     

unfitting it for its full conductive    
work4 ,de ,vries has shown that when a  
shoot of a vigorous plant1 for instance 
a ,helianthus1 is bent down under water1
 care being taken not to break it even  
in the slightest degree1 a clean1 sharp 
cut will give a surface which will      
retain the power of absorbing water for 
a long time2 while a similar shoot cut  
in the open air1 even if the end is     
instantly plunged under water1 will     
wither much sooner than the             
first4--,physiological ,botany1 p4 #bfc4
  ,footnote #b3 ,physiological ,botany1 
p4 #bfj4  7#f7 ,let the leaves of a     
growing plant rest against the          
window-pane4 ,moisture will be condensed
 on the cold surface of the glass1      
wherever the leaf is in contact with it4
 ,this is especially well seen in       
,nasturtium 7,tropaeolum7 leaves1 which 
grow directly against a window1 and     
leave the marks even of their veining on
 the glass1 because the moisture is only
 given out from the green tissue1 and   

where the ribs are pressed against the  
glass it is left dry4  ,sometimes the   
water is drawn up into the cells of the 
leaves faster than it can escape into   
the atmosphere4#a ,this is prettily     
shown if we place some of our           
,nasturtium seedlings under a ward-case4
 ,the air in the case is saturated with 
moisture1 so that evaporation cannot    
take place1 but the water is1           
nevertheless1 drawn up from the roots   
and through the branches1 and appears as
 little drops on the margins of the     
leaves4 ,that this is owing to the      
absorbing power of the roots1 may be    
shown by breaking off the seedling1 and 
putting the slip in water4 ,no drops now
 appear on the leaves1 but as soon as   
the cutting has formed new roots1 the   
drops again appear4  ,footnote #a3 ,see 
,lectures on the ,physiology of ,plants4
 ,by ,sidney ,howard ,vines1 ,cambridge1
 ,england4 ,university ,press1 #ahhf4   
,page #ib4  ,this constant escape of    
water from the leaves causes a current  

to flow from the roots through the stem 
into the cells of the leaves4 ,the      
dilute mineral solutions absorbed by the
 roots#a are thus brought where they are
 in contact with the external air1      
concentrated by the evaporation of      
water1 and converted in these cells into
 food materials1 such as starch4 ,the   
presence of certain mineral matters1 as 
potassium1 iron1 etc41 are necessary to 
this assimilating process1 but the      
reason of their necessity is imperfectly
 understood1 as they do not enter in the
 products formed4  ,footnote #a3 ,see   
page #dh4  ,the amount of water exhaled 
is often very great4 ,certain plants are
 used for this reason for the drainage  
of wet and marshy places4 ,the most     
important of these is the ,eucalyptus   
tree4#a  ,footnote #a3 ,reader in       
,botany4 ,,xii4 ,transpiration4  ,the   
amount of water taken from the soil by  
the trees of a forest and passed into   
the air by transpiration is not so large
 as that accumulated in the soil by the 

diminished evaporation under the        
branches4 ,hence1 there is an           
accumulation of water in the shade of   
forests which is released slowly by     
drainage4#a ,but if the trees are so    
scattered as not materially to reduce   
evaporation from the ground1 the effect 
of transpiration in diminishing the     
moisture of the soil is readily shown4  
,it is noted1 especially in case of     
large plants having a great extent of   
exhaling surface1 such1 for instance1 as
 the common sunflower4 ,among the plants
 which have been successfully employed  
in the drainage of marshy soil by       
transpiration probably the species of   
,eucalyptus 7notably ,e4 globulus7 are  
most efficient4#b  ,footnote #a3 ,reader
 in ,botany4 ,,xiii4 ,uses of the       
,forests4  ,footnote #b3 ,physiological 
,botany1 page #bhc4   #d4               
,assimilation4--,it is not easy to find 
practical experiments on assimilation4  
,those which follow are taken from      
,physiological ,botany 7p4 #cje74       

,fill a five-inch test tube1 provided   
with a foot1 with fresh drinking        
water4 ,in this place a sprig of one of 
the following water    plants1--,elodea 
,canadensis1 ,myriophyllum spicatum1 ,m4
    verticillatum1 or any leafy         
,myriophyllum 7in fact1 any small-      
leaved water plant with rather crowded  
foliage74 ,this sprig should be         
prepared as follows3 ,cut the stem      
squarely off1 four inches or so    from 
the tip1 dry the cut surface quickly    
with blotting paper1 then    cover the  
end of the stein with a quickly drying  
varnish1 for    instance1               
asphalt-varnish1 and let it dry         
perfectly1 keeping the rest    of the   
stem1 if possible1 moist by means of a  
wet cloth4 ,when the    varnish is dry1 
puncture it with a needle1 and immerse  
the stem in    the water in the test    
tube1 keeping the varnished larger end  
uppermost4 ,if the submerged plant be   
now exposed to the strong rays    of the
 sun1 bubbles of oxygen gas will begin  

to pass off at a rapid    and even rate1
 but not too fast to be easily counted4 
,if the simple    apparatus has begun to
 give off a regular succession of small 
bubbles1 the following experiments can  
be at once conducted3     7#a7          
,substitute for the fresh water some    
which has been boiled a few    minutes  
before1 and then allowed to completely  
cool3 by the boiling1    all the        
carbonic acid has been expelled4 ,if the
 plant is immersed in    this water and 
exposed to the sun's rays1 no bubbles   
will be evolved2    there is no carbonic
 acid within reach of the plant for the 
assimilative process4 ,but1     7#b7 ,if
 breath from the lungs be passed by     
means of a slender glass    tube through
 the water1 a part of the carbonic acid 
exhaled from the    lungs will be       
dissolved in it1 and with this supply of
 the gas the    plant begins the work of
 assimilation immediately4     7#c7 ,if 
the light be shut off1 the evolution of 
bubbles will presently    cease1 being  

resumed soon after light again has      
access to the plant4     7#e7 ,place    
round the base of the test tube a few   
fragments of ice1 in    order to        
appreciably lower the temperature of the
 water4 ,at a certain    point it will  
be observed that no bubbles are given   
off1 and their    evolution does not    
begin again until the water becomes     
warm4  ,the evolution of bubbles shows  
that the process of making food is going
 on4 ,the materials for this process are
 carbonic acid gas and water4 ,the      
carbonic acid dissolved in the          
surrounding water is absorbed1 the      
carbon unites with the elements of water
 in the cells of the leaves1 forming    
starch1 etc41 and most of the oxygen is 
set free1 making the stream of bubbles4 
,when the water is boiled1 the dissolved
 gas is driven off and assimilation     
cannot go on2 but as soon as more       
carbonic acid gas is supplied1 the      
process again begins4 ,we have seen by  
these experiments that sunlight and     

sufficient heat are necessary to        
assimilation1 and that carbonic acid gas
 and water must be present4 ,the        
presence of the green coloring matter of
 the leaves 7chlorophyll7 is also       
essential1 and some salts1 such as      
potassium1 iron1 etc41 are needful1     
though they may not enter into the      
compounds formed4  ,the food products   
are stored in various parts of the plant
 for future use1 or are expended        
immediately in the growth and movements 
of the plant4 ,in order that they shall 
be used for growth1 free oxygen is      
required1 and this is supplied by the   
respiration of the plant4  ,some plants 
steal their food ready-made4 ,such a one
 is the ,dodder1 which sends its roots  
directly into the plant on which it     
feeds4 ,this is a parasite4#a ,it has no
 need of leaves to carry on the process 
of making food4 ,some parasites with    
green leaves1 like the mistletoe1 take  
the crude sap from the host-plant and   
assimilate it in their own green leaves4

 ,plants that are nourished by decaying 
matter in the soil are called           
saprophytes4 ,indian ,pipe and          
,beech-,drops are examples of this4     
,they need no green leaves as do plants 
that are obliged to support themselves4 
,footnote #a3 ,reader in ,botany4 ,,xiv4
 ,parasitic ,plants4  ,some plants are  
so made that they can use animal matter 
for food4 ,this subject of insectivorous
 plants is always of great interest to  
pupils4 ,if some ,sundew 7,drosera7 can 
be obtained and kept in the schoolroom1 
it will supply material for many        
interesting experiments4#a ,that plants 
should possess the power of catching    
insects by specialized movements and    
afterwards should digest them by means  
of a gastric juice like that of animals1
 is one of the most interesting of the  
discoveries that have been worked out   
during the last thirty years4#b         
,footnote #a3 ,see ,insectivorous       
,plants1 by ,charles ,darwin4 ,new      
,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 #ahge4   

,how ,plants ,behave1 ,chap4 ,,iii4  ,a 
bibliography of the most important works
 on the subject will be found in        
,physiological ,botany1 page #cea1 note4
  ,footnote #b3 ,reader in ,botany4     
,,xv4 ,insectivorous ,plants4   #e4     
,respiration4--,try the following       
experiment in germination4  ,place some 
seeds on a sponge under an air-tight    
glass4 ,will they grow8 ,what causes    
them to mould8   ,seeds will not        
germinate without free access of air4   
,they must have free oxygen to breathe1 
as must every living thing4 ,we know    
that an animal breathes in oxygen1 that 
the oxygen unites with particles of     
carbon within the body and that the     
resulting carbonic acid gas is          
exhaled4#a ,the same process goes on in 
plants1 but it was until recently       
entirely unknown1 because it was        
completely masked during the daytime by 
the process of assimilation1 which      
causes carbonic acid to be inhaled and  
decomposed1 and oxygen to be exhaled4#b 

,in the night time the plants are not   
assimilating and the process of         
breathing is not covered up4 ,it has1   
therefore1 long been known that carbonic
 acid gas is given off at night4 ,the   
amount1 however1 is so small that it    
could not injure the air of the room1 as
 is popularly supposed4 ,respiration    
takes place principally through the     
stomata of the leaves4#c ,we often see  
plants killed by the wayside dust1 and  
we all know that on this account it is  
very difficult to make a hedge grow well
 by a dusty road4 ,the dust chokes up   
the breathing pores of the leaves1      
interfering with the action of the      
plant4 ,it is suffocated4  ,the oxygen  
absorbed decomposes starch1 or some     
other food product of the plant1 and    
carbonic acid gas and water are formed4 
,it is a process of slow combustion4#d  
,the energy set free is expended in     
growth1 that is1 in the formation of new
 cells1 and the increase in size of the 
old ones1 and in the various movements  

of the plant4  ,footnote #a3 ,see page  
#ac4  ,footnote #b3 ,this table         
illustrates the differences between the 
processes4  ,,assimilation ,,proper4    
,,respiration4  ,takes place only in    
cells          ,takes place in all      
active cells4 containing chlorophyll4   
,requires light4                    ,can
 proceed in darkness4  ,carbonic acid   
absorbed1            ,oxygen absorbed1  
carbonic oxygen set free4               
acid set free4  ,carbohydrates formed4  
,carbohydrates consumed4  ,energy of    
motion becomes           ,energy of     
position becomes energy of position4    
energy of motion4  ,the plant gains in  
dry             ,the plant loses dry    
weight4 weight4  ,physiological ,botany1
 page #cef4  ,transcriber's ,note3 ,two 
footnote marks #c and #d above in       
original text1 but no footnote text was 
found in the book  ,this process of     
growth can take place only when living  
protoplasm is present in the cells of   
the plant4 ,the substance we call       

protoplasm is an albuminoid1 like the   
white of an egg1 and it forms the flesh 
of both plants and animals4 ,a living   
plant can assimilate its own protoplasm1
 an animal must take it ready-made from 
plants4 ,but a plant can assimilate its 
food and grow only under the mysterious 
influence we call life4 ,life alone     
brings forth life1 and we are as far as 
ever from understanding its nature4     
,around our little island of knowledge1 
built up through the centuries by the   
labor of countless workers1 stretches   
the infinite ocean of the unknown4      
,gray's ,first ,lessons4 ,sect4 ,,vii1  
,,xvi1 sec4 #b1 sec4 #d1 sec4 #e1 sec4  
#f1 #dgf-dhj4  ,how ,plants ,grow4      
,chap4 ,i1 #aai-aec1 ,chap4 ,,iii1      
#bfa-bhj4