,,how ,,to ,,use ,,your ,,mind    ,a    
,,psychology ,,of ,,study    ,,being ,a 
,,manual ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of         
,,students ,,and ,,teachers ,,in ,,the  
,,administration ,,of ,,supervised      
,,study    ,,by    ,,harry ,d4 ,,kitson1
 ,,ph4,d4    ,,professor ,,of           
,,psychology1 ,,indiana ,,university    
#aiba          ,,preface ,,to ,,the     
,,second ,,edition      ,the kindly     
reception accorded to the first edition 
of this book has  confirmed the author  
in his conviction that such a book was  
needed1 and  has tempted him to bestow  
additional labor upon it4 ,the chief    
changes  consist in the addition of two 
new chapters1 ,active ,imagination1 and 
,how to ,develop ,interest in a         
,subject2 the division into two parts of
  the unwieldy chapter on memory2 the   
addition of readings and exercises  at  
the end of each chapter2 the preparation
 of an analytical table of  contents2   
the correction of the bibliography to   
date2 the addition of  an index2 and    

some recasting of phraseology in the    
interest of  clearness and emphasis4    
,the author gratefully acknowledges the 
constructive suggestions of  reviewers  
and others who have used the book1 and  
hopes that he has  profited by them in  
this revision4    ,h4,d4,k4    ,april   
#a1 #aiba4          ,,preface ,,to ,,the
 ,,first ,,edition      ,educational    
leaders are seeing with increasing      
clearness the necessity  of teaching    
students not only the subject-matter of 
study but also  methods of study4       
,teachers are beginning to see that     
students waste a  vast amount of time   
and form many harmful habits because    
they do not  know how to use their      
minds4 ,the recognition of this         
condition is  taking the form of the    
movement toward supervised study1 which 
attempts to acquaint the student with   
principles of economy and  directness in
 using his mind4 ,it is generally agreed
 that there are  certain tricks which   
make for mental efficiency1 consisting  

of  methods of apperceiving facts1      
methods of review1 devices for arranging
  work4 ,some are the fruits of         
psychological experimentation2 others   
are  derived from experience4 ,many of  
them can be imparted by instruction1    
and it is for the purpose of            
systematizing these and making them     
available for students that this book is
 prepared4    ,the evils of             
unintelligent and unsupervised study are
 evident to all  who have any connection
 with modern education4 ,they pervade   
the entire  educational structure from  
kindergarten through college4 ,in       
college  they are especially apparent in
 the case of freshmen1 who1 in addition 
to the numerous difficulties incident to
 entrance into the college  world1      
suffer peculiarly because they do not   
know how to attack the  difficult       
subjects of the curriculum4 ,in         
recognition of these  conditions1       
special attention is given at ,the      
,university of ,chicago  toward         

supervision of study4 ,all freshmen in  
the ,school of ,commerce and            
,administration of the ,university are  
given a course in ,methods of  ,study1  
in which practical discussions and      
demonstrations are given  regarding the 
ways of studying the freshman subjects4 
,in addition to  the group-work1 cases  
presenting special features are given   
individual  attention1 for it must be   
admitted that while certain difficulties
 are  common to all students1 there are 
individual cases that present  peculiar 
phases and these can be served only by  
personal consultations4  ,these personal
 consultations are expensive both in    
time and patience1  for it frequently   
happens that the mental habits of a     
student must be  thoroughly             
reconstructed1 and this requires much   
time and attention1  but the results    
well repay the effort4 ,a valuable      
accessory to such  individual           
supervision over students has been found
 in the use of  psychological tests     

which have been described by the author 
in a  monograph entitled1 ,the          
,scientific ,study of the ,college      
,student4#a    ,footnote #a3 ,princeton 
,university ,press4    ,but the college 
is not the most strategic point at which
 to administer  guidance in methods of  
study4 ,such training is even more      
acceptably  given in the high school and
 grades4 ,here habits of mental         
application  are largely set1 and it is 
of the utmost importance that they be   
set  right1 for the sake of the welfare 
of the individuals and of the           
institutions of higher education that   
receive them later4 ,another  reason for
 incorporating training in methods of   
study into secondary  and elementary    
schools is that more individuals will be
 helped1  inasmuch as the eliminative   
process has not yet reached its         
culmination4    ,in high schools where  
systematic supervision of study is a    
feature1  classes are usually conducted 
in ,methods of ,study1 and it is hoped  

that  this book will meet the demand for
 a text-book for such classes1 the      
material being well within the reach of 
high school students4 ,in high  schools 
where instruction in ,methods of ,study 
is given as part of a  course in        
elementary psychology1 the book should  
also prove useful1  inasmuch as it gives
 a summary of psychological principles  
relating to  the cognitive processes4   
,in the grades the book cannot be put   
into the hands of the pupils1 but  it   
should be mastered by the teacher and   
applied in her supervising and  teaching
 activities4 ,embodying1 as it does1 the
 results of researches  in educational  
psychology1 it should prove especially  
suitable for use  in teachers' reading  
circles where a concise presentation of 
the facts  regarding the psychology of  
the learning process is desired4        
,there is another group of students who 
need training in methods of  study4     
,brain workers in business and industry 
feel deeply the need of  greater mental 

efficiency and seek eagerly for means to
 attain it4  ,their earnestness in this 
search is evidenced by the success of   
various  systems for the training of    
memory1 will1 and other mental traits4  
,further evidence is found in the       
efforts of many corporations to         
maintain schools and classes for the    
intellectual improvement of their       
employees4 ,to all such the author      
offers the work with the hope that it   
may be useful in directing them toward  
greater mental efficiency4    ,in       
courses in ,methods of ,study in which  
the book is used as a  class-text1 the  
instructor should lay emphasis not upon 
memorization of  the facts in the book1 
but upon the application of them in     
study4 ,he  should expect to see        
parallel with progress through the book1
  improvement in the mental ability of  
the students4 ,specific problems  may   
well be arranged on the basis of the    
subjects of the curriculum1  and        
students should be urged to utilize the 

suggestions immediately4  ,the subjects 
treated in the book are those which the 
author has found  in his experience with
 college students to constitute the most
 frequent  sources of difficulty1 and   
under these conditions1 the sequence of 
topics followed in the book has seemed  
most favorable for presentation4  ,with 
other groups of students1 however1      
another sequence of topics may  be found
 desirable2 if so1 the order of topics  
may be changed4 ,for  example1 in case  
the chapter on brain action is found to 
presuppose  more physiological knowledge
 than that possessed by the students1 it
  may be omitted or may be used merely  
for reference when enlightenment  is    
desired upon some of the physiological  
descriptions in later  chapters4        
,likewise1 the chapter dealing with     
intellectual difficulties  of college   
students may be omitted with            
non-collegiate groups4    ,the heavy    
obligation of the author to a number of 
writers will be  apparent to one        

familiar with the literature of         
theoretical and  educational psychology4
 ,no attempt is made to render specific 
acknowledgments1 but special mention    
should be made of the large  draughts   
made upon the two books by ,professor   
,stiles which treat so  helpfully of the
 bodily relations of the student4 ,these
 books contain  so much good sense and  
scientific information that they should 
receive  a prominent place among the    
books recommended to students4 ,thanks  
are  due to ,professor ,edgar ,james    
,swift and ,charles ,scribner's ,sons   
for  permission to use a figure from    
,mind in the ,making2 and to ,j4,b4     
,lippincott ,company for adaptation of  
cuts from ,villiger's ,brain and        
,spinal ,cord4    ,the author gratefully
 acknowledges helpful suggestions from  
,professors  ,james ,r4 ,angell1        
,charles ,h4 ,judd and ,c4 ,judson      
,herrick1 who have read  the greater    
part of the manuscript and have         
commented upon it to its  betterment4   

,the obligation refers1 however1 not    
only to the immediate  preparation of   
this work but also to the encouragement 
which1 for  several years1 the author   
has received from these scientists1     
first as  student1 later as colleague4  
,,the ,,author4    ,,chicago1 ,september
 #be1 #aiaf4          ,,contents        
,,chapter    ,i4 ,,intellectual         
,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,college         
,,freshman    ,number4 ,variety4        
,lecture ,method4 ,note ,taking4 ,amount
 of ,library ,work4  ,high ,quality     
,demanded4 ,necessity for ,making       
,schedule4 ,a ,college ,course          
,consists in the ,formation of ,habits4 
,requires ,active ,effort on ,part of   
,student4 ,importance of ,good ,form4   
,,ii4 ,,note ,,taking    ,uses of       
,notes4 ,,lecture ,,notes--,avoid       
,verbatim ,reports4 ,maintain ,attitude 
of ,mental ,activity4 ,seek ,outline    
,chiefly4 ,use ,notes in ,preparing     
,next  ,lesson4 ,,reading               
,,notes--,summarize ,rather ,than ,copy4

 ,read ,with ,questions  in ,mind4 ,how 
to ,read4 ,how to ,make ,bibliographies4
 ,,laboratory  ,,notes--,content4 ,form4
 ,miscellaneous ,hints4    ,,iii4       
,,brain ,,action ,,during ,,study       
,the ,organ of ,mind4 ,gross ,structure4
 ,microscopic ,structure4 ,the ,neurone4
  ,the ,nervous ,impulse4 ,the ,synapse4
 ,properties of ,nervous ,tissue        
--,impressibility1 ,conductivity1       
,modifiability4 ,pathways ,used in      
,study--,sensory1 ,motor1 ,association4 
,study is a ,process of ,making         
,pathways in ,brain4    ,,iv4           
,,formation ,,of ,,study-,,habits       
,definition of ,habit4 ,examples4       
,inevitableness of ,habits in ,brain and
  ,nervous ,system4 ,how to ,insure     
,useful ,habits--,choose ,what ,shall   
,enter2  ,choose ,mode of ,entrance2    
,choose ,mode of ,egress2 ,go ,slowly at
 ,first2  ,observe ,four ,maxims4       
,advantages and ,disadvantages of       
,habit4 ,ethical  ,consequences4    ,v4 
,,active ,,imagination    ,nature of the

 ,image4 ,its ,use in ,imagination4     
,necessity for ,number1  ,variety1      
,sharpness4 ,source of ,imaginative     
,productions4 ,method of  ,developing   
,active ,imaginative ,powers3 ,cultivate
 ,images in ,great  ,number1 ,variety1  
,sharpness2 ,actively ,combine the      
,elements of ,past  ,experience4        
,,vi4 ,,first ,,aids ,,to               
,,memory--,,impression    ,four ,phases4
 ,conditions of ,impression3 ,care1     
,clearness1 ,choice of  ,favorable      
,sense ,avenue1 ,repetition1            
,overlearning1 ,primacy1 ,distribution  
of ,repetitions1 7,inferences ,bearing  
,upon ,theme-writing71 ,whole vs4  ,part
 ,method1 ,rote vs4 logical ,method1    
,intention4    ,,vii4 ,,second ,,aids   
,,to ,,memory--,,retention1 ,,recall    
,,and ,,recognition    ,retention4      
,recall4 ,recall ,contrasted ,with      
,impression4 ,practise ,recall  in      
,impression4 ,recognition4 ,advantages  
of ,review4 ,memory ,works  ,according  
to ,law4 ,possibility of ,improvement4  

,connection ,with ,other  ,mental       
,processes4    ,,viii4 ,,concentration  
,,of ,,attention    ,importance in      
,mental ,life4 ,analysis of ,concrete   
,attentive ,state4  ,cross-section of   
,mental ,stream4 ,focal ,object1 ,clear2
 ,marginal ,objects1  ,dim4             
,fluctuation4 ,ease of ,concentration   
,requires 7#a7 ,removal of ,all         
,marginal ,distractions ,possible1 7#b7 
,ignoring ,others4 ,conditions          
,favorable for ,concentration4 ,relation
 to ,other ,mental ,processes4    ,,ix4 
,,how ,,we ,,reason    ,reasoning       
,contrasted with ,simpler ,mental       
,operations4 ,illustrated by  ,method of
 ,studying ,geometry4 ,analysis of      
,reasoning ,act3 ,recognition of        
,problem1 ,efforts to ,solve ,it1       
,solution4 ,study in ,problems4         
,requirements  for ,effective           
,reasoning3 ,many ,ideas1 ,accessible1  
,clear4 ,how to ,clarify  ,ideas3       
,define1 ,classify4 ,relation ,between  
,habit and ,reasoning4 ,summary4    ,x4 

,,expression ,,as ,,an ,,aid ,,in       
,,study    ,expression an ,inevitable   
,accompaniment of ,nervous ,activity4   
,extent of  ,expressive ,movements4     
,relation ,between ,ideas and           
,expressive ,acts4  ,ethical            
,considerations4 ,methods of ,expression
 ,chiefly ,used in ,study3  ,speech1    
,writing1 ,drawing4 ,effects of         
,expression3 7#a7 ,on ,brain1 7#b7 ,on  
,ideas4 ,hints on ,development of       
,freedom of ,expression4    ,,xi4 ,,how 
,,to ,,become ,,interested ,,in ,a      
,,subject    ,nature of ,interest4      
,intellectual ,interests ,gained        
,through ,experience4  ,many ,possible  
,fields of ,interest4 ,laws of          
,interest4    ,,xii4 ,,the ,,plateau    
,,of ,,despond    ,measurement of       
,mental ,progress4 ,analysis of the     
,learning ,curve4  ,irregularity4 ,rapid
 ,progress at ,beginning4 ,the ,plateau4
 ,causes4  ,remedies4    ,,xiii4        
,,mental ,,second-,,wind                
,description3 7#a7 ,physical1 7#b7      

,mental4 ,hidden ,sources of ,energy4   
,retarding ,effect of ,fatigue4         
,analysis of ,fatigue4 ,how to ,reduce  
,fatigue in ,study4    ,,xiv4           
,,examinations    ,purposes4 ,continuous
 ,effort and ,cramming4 ,effective      
,methods of  ,reviewing4 ,immediate     
,preparation for an ,examination        
,conduct in  ,examination-room4         
,attitude of ,activity4 ,attitude of    
,confidence4    ,,xv4 ,,bodily          
,,conditions ,,fob ,,effective ,,study  
,,food3 ,quantity1 ,quality1            
,surroundings4 ,,sleep3 ,amount1        
,conditions1  ,avoidance of ,insomnia4  
,,exercise3 ,regularity1 ,emphasis4     
,,suggestions ,,fob ,,further ,,reading 
,,index          ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,your
 ,,mind          ,,chapter ,i           
,,intellectual ,,problems ,,of ,,the    
,,college ,,freshman      ,in entering  
upon a college course you are taking a  
step that may  completely revolutionize 
your life4 ,you are facing new          
situations  vastly different from any   

you have previously met4 ,they are also 
of  great variety1 such as finding a    
place to eat and sleep1 regulating  your
 own finances1 inaugurating a new social
 life1 forming new  friendships1 and    
developing in body and mind4 ,the       
problems connected  with mental         
development will engage your chief      
attention4 ,you are now  going to use   
your mind more actively than ever before
 and should survey  some of the         
intellectual difficulties before        
plunging into the fight4    ,perhaps the
 first difficulty you will encounter is 
the substitution of  the lecture for the
 class recitation to which you were     
accustomed in  high school4 ,this       
substitution requires that you develop a
 new technic  of learning1 for the      
mental processes involved in an oral    
recitation  are different from those    
used in listening to a lecture4 ,the    
lecture  system implies that the        
lecturer has a fund of knowledge about a
  certain field and has organized this  

knowledge in a form that is not         
duplicated in the literature of the     
subject4 ,the manner of  presentation1  
then1 is unique and is the only means of
 securing the  knowledge in just that   
form4 ,as soon as the words have left   
the mouth  of the lecturer they cease to
 be accessible to you4 ,such conditions 
require a unique mental attitude and    
unique mental habits4 ,you will be      
obliged1 in the first place1 to maintain
 sustained attention over long  periods 
of time4 ,the situation is not like that
 in reading1 in which a  temporary lapse
 of attention may be remedied by turning
 back and  rereading4 ,in listening to a
 lecture1 you are obliged to catch the  
words on the fly4 ,accordingly you must 
develop new habits of paying  attention4
 ,you will also need to develop a new   
technic for memorizing1  especially for 
memorizing things heard4 ,as a partial  
aid in this1 and  also for purposes of  
organizing material received in         
lectures1 you will  need to develop     

ability to take notes4 ,this is a       
process with which you  have heretofore 
had little to do4 ,it is a most         
important phase of  college life1       
however1 and will repay earnest study4  
,another characteristic of college study
 is the vast amount of reading          
required4 ,instead of using a single    
text-book for each course1 you may  use 
several4 ,they may cover great          
historical periods and represent the    
ideas of many men4 ,in view of the      
amount of reading assigned1 you will    
also be obliged to learn to read faster4
 ,no longer will you have time  to      
dawdle sleepily through the pages of    
easy texts2 you will have to  cover     
perhaps fifty or a hundred pages of     
knotty reading every day4  ,accordingly 
you must learn to handle books          
expeditiously and to  comprehend        
quickly4 ,in fact1 economy must be your 
watchword throughout4  ,a ,german lesson
 in high school may cover thirty or     
forty lines a day1  requiring an hour's 

preparation4 ,a ,german assignment in   
college1  however1 may cover four or    
five or a dozen pages1 requiring hard   
work  for two or three hours4    ,you   
should be warned also that college      
demands not only a greater  quantity but
 also a higher quality of work4 ,when   
you were a high school  student the     
world expected only a high school       
student's accomplishments  of you4 ,now 
you are a college student1 however1 and 
your intellectual  responsibilities have
 increased4 ,the world regards you now  
as a person  of considerable scholastic 
attainment and expects more of you than 
before4 ,in academic terms this means   
that in order to attain a grade of  #ie 
in college you will have to work much   
harder than you did for that  grade in  
high school1 for here you have not only 
more difficult  subject-matter1 but also
 keener competition for the first place4
 ,in  high school you may have been the 
brightest student in your class4 ,in    
college1 however1 you encounter the     

brightest students from many  schools4  
,if your merits are going to stand out  
prominently1 therefore1  you must work  
much harder4 ,your work from now on must
 be of better  quality4    ,not the     
least of the perplexities of your life  
as a college student  will arise from   
the fact that no daily schedule is      
arranged for you4  ,the only time       
definitely assigned for your work is the
 fifteen hours a  week1 more or less1   
spent in the class-room4 ,the rest of   
your schedule  must be arranged by      
yourself4 ,this is a real task and will 
require care  and thought if your work  
is to be done with greatest economy of  
time  and effort4    ,this brief survey 
completes the catalogue of problems of  
mental  development that will vex you   
most in adjusting your methods of study 
to college conditions4 ,in order to make
 this adjustment you will be  obliged to
 form a number of new habits4 ,indeed1  
as you become more and  more expert as a
 student1 you will see that the whole   

process resolves  itself into one of    
habit-formation1 for while a college    
education has  two phases--the          
acquisition of facts and the formation  
of habits--it is  the latter which is   
the more important4 ,many of the facts  
that you  learn will be forgotten2 many 
will be outlawed by time2 but the habits
  of study you form will be permanent   
possessions4 ,they will consist of  such
 things as methods of grasping facts1   
methods of reasoning about  facts1 and  
of concentrating attention4 ,in         
acquiring these habits you  must have   
some material upon which you may        
concentrate your attention1  and it will
 be supplied by the subjects of the     
curriculum4 ,you will be  asked1 for    
instance1 to write innumerable themes in
 courses in ,english  composition2 not  
for the purpose of enriching the world's
 literature1  nor for the delectation of
 your ,english instructor1 but for the  
sake of  helping you to form habits of  
forceful expression4 ,you will be asked 

to  enter the laboratory and perform    
numerous experiments1 not to discover   
hitherto unknown facts1 but to obtain   
practice in scientific procedure  and to
 learn how to seek knowledge by         
yourself4 ,the curriculum and the       
faculty are the means1 but you yourself 
are the agent in the  educational       
process4 ,no matter how good the        
curriculum or how renowned  the faculty1
 you cannot be educated without the most
 vigorous efforts  on your part4 ,banish
 the thought that you are here to have  
knowledge  pumped into you4 ,to acquire 
an education you must establish and     
maintain not a passive attitude but an  
active attitude4 ,when you go to  the   
gymnasium to build up a good physique1  
the physical director does  not tell you
 to hold yourself limp and passive while
 he pumps your arms  and legs up and    
down4 ,rather he urges you to put forth 
effort1 to exert  yourself until you are
 tired4 ,only by so doing can you       
develop physical  power4 ,this principle

 holds true of mental development4      
,learning is not  a process of passive  
soaking-in4 ,it is a matter of vigorous 
effort1  and the harder you work the    
more powerful you become4 ,in securing a
  college education you are your own    
master4    ,in the development of       
physical prowess you are well aware of  
the  importance of doing everything in  
good form4 ,in such sports as  swimming 
and hurdling1 speed and grace depend    
primarily upon it4 ,the  same principle 
holds true in the development of the    
mind4 ,the most  serviceable mind is    
that which accomplishes results in the  
shortest  time and with least waste     
motion4 ,take every precaution1         
therefore1 to  rid yourself of all      
superfluous and impeding methods4       
,strive for the development of good form
 in study4 ,especially is this          
necessary at the start4 ,now is the time
 when you are laying the  foundations   
for your mental achievements in college4
 ,keep a sharp  lookout1 then1 at every 

point1 to see that you build into the   
foundation only those materials and that
 workmanship which will support  a      
masterly structure4    ,,readings ,,and 
,,exercises    ,,note4--,numbers in     
parentheses refer to complete citations 
in  ,bibliography at end of book4       
,readings3 ,fulton 7#e7 ,lockwood 7#aa7 
,exercise #a4 ,list concrete problems   
that have newly come to you since  your 
arrival upon the campus4    ,exercise   
#b4 ,list in order the difficulties that
 confront you in  preparing your daily  
lessons4    ,exercise #c4 ,prepare a    
work schedule similar to that provided  
by the  form in ,chart ,i4 ,specify the 
subject with which you will be occupied 
at  each period4    ,exercise #d4 ,try  
to devise some way of registering the   
effectiveness  with which you carry out 
your schedule4 ,suggestions are         
contained in  the summary3 ,disposition 
of 7#a7 as planned2 7#b7 as spent4 ,to  
divide the  number of hours wasted by   
#bd will give a partial index of        

efficiency4          ,,chapter ,,ii     
,,note-,,taking      ,most educated     
people find occasion1 at some time or   
other1 to take  notes4 ,although this is
 especially true of college students1   
they have  little success1 as any       
college instructor will testify4        
,students1 as a  rule1 do not realize   
that there is any skill involved in     
taking notes4  ,not until examination   
time arrives and they try vainly to     
labor through  a maze of scribbling1 do 
they realize that there must be some    
system in  note-taking4 ,a careful      
examination of note-taking shows that   
there are  rules or principles1 which1  
when followed1 have much to do with     
increasing ability in study4    ,one    
criterion that should guide in the      
preparation of notes is the use  to     
which they will be put4 ,if this is kept
 in mind1 many blunders will  be saved4 
,notes may be used in three ways3 as    
material for directing  each day's      
study1 for cramming1 and for permanent1 

professional use4  ,thus a note-book may
 be a thing of far-reaching value4      
,notes you take  now as a student may be
 valuable years hence in professional   
life4  ,recognition of this will help   
you in the preparation of your notes and
  will determine many times how they    
should be prepared4    ,the chief       
situations in college which require     
note-taking are lectures1  library      
reading and laboratory work4            
,accordingly the subject will be        
considered under these three heads4     
,,lecture ,,notes4--,when taking notes  
on a lecture1 there are two extremes    
that present themselves1 to take        
exceedingly full notes or to take       
almost no notes4 ,one can err in either 
direction4 ,true1 on first  thought1    
entire stenographic reports of lectures 
appear desirable1 but  second thought   
will show that they may be dispensed    
with1 not only  without loss1 but with  
much gain4 ,the most obvious objection  
is that  too much time would be consumed

 in transcribing short-hand notes4      
,another is that much of the material in
 a lecture is undesirable for  permanent
 possession4 ,the instructor repeats    
much for the sake of  emphasis2 he      
multiplies illustrations1 not important 
in themselves1 but  important for the   
sake of stressing his point4 ,you do not
 need these  illustrations in written   
form1 however1 for once the point is    
made you  rarely need to depend upon the
 illustrations for its retention4 ,a    
still  more cogent objection is that if 
you occupy your attention with the  task
 of copying the lecture verbatim1 you do
 not have time to think1  but become    
merely an automatic recording machine4  
,experienced  stenographers say that    
they form the habit of recording so     
automatically that they fail utterly to 
comprehend the meaning of what  is said4
 ,you as a student cannot afford to have
 your attention so  distracted from the 
meaning of the lecture1 therefore reduce
 your  classroom writing to a minimum4  

,probably the chief reason why students 
are so eager to secure full  lecture    
notes is that they fear to trust their  
memory4 ,such fears  should be put at   
rest1 for your mind will retain facts if
 you pay close  attention and make      
logical associations during the time of 
impression4  ,keep your mind free1 then1
 to work upon the subject-matter of the 
lecture4 ,debate mentally with the      
speaker4 ,question his statements1      
comparing them with your own experience 
or with the results of your  study4 ,ask
 yourself frequently1 ,is that true8    
,the essential thing is  to maintain an 
attitude of mental activity1 and to     
avoid anything that  will reduce this   
and make you passive4 ,do not think of  
yourself as a  vat into which the       
instructor pumps knowledge4 ,regard     
yourself rather  as an active force1    
quick to perceive and to comprehend     
meaning1  deliberate in acceptance and  
firm in retention4    ,after observing  
the stress laid1 throughout this book1  

upon the  necessity for logical         
associations1 you will readily see that 
the  key-note to note-taking is1 ,let   
your notes represent the logical        
progression of thought in the lecture4  
,strive above all else to secure  the   
skeleton--the framework upon which the  
lecture is hung4 ,a lecture  is a       
logical structure1 and the form in which
 it is presented is the  outline4 ,this 
outline1 then1 is your chief concern4   
,in the case of some  lectures it is an 
easy matter4 ,the lecturer may place the
 outline in  your hands beforehand1 may 
present it on the black-board1 or may   
give  it orally4 ,some lecturers1 too1  
present their material in such          
clear-cut divisions that the outline is 
easily followed4 ,others1  however1 are 
very difficult to follow in this regard4
    ,in arranging an outline you will   
find it wise to adopt some device by    
which the parts will stand out          
prominently1 and the progression of     
thought will be indicated with proper   

subordination of titles4 ,adopt  some   
system at the beginning of your college 
course1 and use it in all  your notes4  
,the system here given may serve as a   
model1 using first the  ,roman numerals1
 then capitals1 then ,arabic numerals3  
,i4  ,,ii4     ,a4     ,b4       #a4    
#b4         a4         b4           7#a7
           7#b7              7a7        
7b7    ,in concluding this discussion of
 lecture notes1 you should be urged to  
make good use of your notes after they  
are taken4 ,first1 glance over  them as 
soon as possible after the lecture4     
,inasmuch as they will then  be fresh in
 your mind1 you will be able to recall  
almost the entire  lecture2 you will    
also be able to supply missing parts    
from memory4  ,some students make it a  
rule to reduce all class-notes to       
typewritten  form soon after the        
lecture4 ,this is an excellent practice1
 but is  rather expensive in time4 ,in  
addition to this after-class review1 you
  should make a second review of your   

notes as the first step in the          
preparation of the next day's lesson4   
,this will connect up the lessons  with 
each other and will make the course a   
unified whole instead of a  series of   
disconnected parts4 ,too often a course 
exists in a student's  mind as a series 
of separate discussions and he sees only
 the horizon  of a single day4 ,this    
condition might be represented by a     
series of  disconnected links3          
,o ,o ,o ,o ,o    ,a summary of each    
day's lesson1 however1 preceding the    
preparation for  the next day1 forges   
new links and welds them all together   
into an  unbroken chain3                
,,oooooooooo    ,a method that has been 
found helpful is to use a double-page   
system of  notetaking1 using the        
left-hand page for the bare outline1    
with  largest divisions1 and the        
right-hand page for the details4 ,this  
device  makes the note-book readily     
available for hasty review or for more  
extended study4    ,,reading            

,,notes4--,the question of full or      
scanty notes arises in reading  notes as
 in lecture notes4 ,in general1 your    
notes should represent a  summary1 in   
your own words1 of the author's         
discussion1 not a  duplication of it4   
,students sometimes acquire the habit of
 reading  single sentences at a time1   
then of writing them down1 thinking that
 by  making an exact copy of the book1  
they are playing safe4 ,this is a       
pernicious practice2 it spoils          
continuity of thought and application4  
,furthermore1 isolated sentences mean   
little1 and fail grossly to  represent  
the real thought of the author4 ,a      
better way is to read  through an entire
 paragraph or section1 then close the   
book and  reproduce in your own words   
what you have read4 ,next1 take your    
summary  and compare with the original  
text to see that you have really grasped
  the point4 ,this procedure will be    
beneficial in several ways4 ,it will    
encourage continuous concentration of   

attention to an entire argument2  it    
will help you to preserve relative      
emphasis of parts2 it will lead  you to 
regard thought and not words4 7,you are 
undoubtedly familiar with  the state of 
mind wherein you find yourself reading  
merely words and  not following the     
thought47 ,lastly1 material studied in  
this way is  remembered longer than     
material read scrappily4 ,in short1 such
 a method  of reading makes not only for
 good memory1 but for good mental habits
  of all kinds4 ,in all your reading1   
hold to the conception of yourself  as a
 thinker1 not a sponge4 ,remember1 you  
do not need to accept  unqualifiedly    
everything you read4 ,a worthy ideal for
 every student to  follow is expressed  
in the motto carved on the wall of the  
great  reading-room of the ,harper      
,memorial ,library at ,the ,university  
of  ,chicago3 ,read not to contradict1  
nor to believe1 but to weigh and        
consider4 ,ibsen bluntly states the same
 thought3    ,don't read to swallow2    

read to choose1 for ',tis but to see    
what one  has use for4    ,ask yourself1
 when beginning a printed discussion1   
,what am ,i looking  for8 ,what is the  
author going to talk about8 ,often this 
will be  indicated in topical headings4 
,keep it in the background of your mind 
while reading1 and search for the       
answer4 ,then1 when you have read the   
necessary portion1 close the book and   
summarize1 to see if the author         
furnished what you sought4 ,in short1   
always read for a purpose4  ,formulate  
problems and seek their solutions4 ,in  
this way will there be  direction in    
your reading and your thought4    ,this 
discussion of reading notes has turned  
into an essay on ,how to  ,read1 and you
 must be convinced by this time that    
there is much to  learn in this respect1
 so much that we may profitably spend   
more time  in discussing it4    ,every  
book you take up should be opened with  
some preliminary ceremony4  ,this does  
not refer to the physical operation of  

opening a new book1  but to the mental  
operation4 ,in general1 take the        
following steps3    #a4 ,observe the    
title4 ,see exactly what field the book 
attempts to  cover4    #b4 ,observe the 
author's name4 ,if you are to use his   
book frequently1  discover his position 
in the field4 ,remember1 you are going  
to accept  him as authority1 and you    
should know his status4 ,you may be told
 this  on the title-page1 or you may    
have to consult ,who's ,who1 or the     
biographical dictionary4    #c4 ,glance 
over the preface4 ,under some           
circumstances you should read it        
carefully4 ,if you are going to refer to
 the book very often1 make  friends with
 the author2 let him introduce himself  
to you2 this he will  do in the preface4
 ,observe the date of publication1 also1
 in order to  get an idea as to the     
recency of the material4    #d4 ,glance 
over the table of contents4 ,if you are 
very familiar with the  field1 and the  
table of contents is outlined in detail1

 you might  advantageously study it and 
dispense with reading the book4 ,on the 
other hand1 if you are going to consult 
the book only briefly1 you  might find  
it necessary to study the table of      
contents in order to see  the relation  
of the part you read to the entire work4
    #e4 ,use the index intelligently2 it
 may save you much time4    ,you will   
have much to do throughout your college 
course with the making  of              
bibliographies1 that is1 with the       
compilation of lists of books  bearing  
upon special topics4 ,you may have      
bibliographies given you in  some of    
your courses1 or you may be asked to    
compile your own4 ,under  all           
circumstances1 prepare them with the    
greatest care4 ,be scrupulous  in giving
 references4 ,there is a standard form  
for referring to books  and periodicals1
 as follows3    ,c4,r4 ,henderson1      
,industrial ,insurance 7#b;d ed42       
,chicago3 ,the ,university  of ,chicago 
,press1 #aiab71 p4 #cba4    ,s4,i4      

,curtis1 ,the ,place of ,sacrifice1     
,biblical ,world1 ,vol4 ,,xxi 7#aijb71  
p4 #bdh ff4    ,,laboratory             
,,notes4--,the form for laboratory notes
 varies with the  science and is usually
 prescribed by the instructor4 ,reports 
of  experiments are usually written up  
in the order3 ,object1 ,apparatus1      
,method1 ,results1 ,conclusions4 ,when  
detailed instructions are given by  the 
instructor1 follow them accurately4 ,pay
 special attention to  neatness4        
,instructors say that the greatest fault
 with laboratory  note-books is lack of 
neatness4 ,this reacts upon the         
instructor1  causing him much trouble in
 correcting the note-book4 ,the         
resulting  annoyance frequently         
prejudices him1 against his will1       
against the  student4 ,it is safe to    
assert that you will materially increase
 your  chances of a good grade in a     
laboratory course by the preparation of 
a  neat note-book4    ,the key-note of  
the twentieth century is economy1 the   

tendency in all  lines being toward the 
elimination of waste4 ,college students 
should  adopt this aim in the regulation
 of their study affairs1 and there is   
much opportunity for applying it in     
note-taking4 ,so far1 the discussion    
has had to do with the content of the   
note-book1 but its form is  equally     
important4 ,much may be done by         
utilization of mechanical  devices to   
save time and energy4    ,first1 write  
in ink4 ,pencil marks blur badly and    
become illegible in a  few months4      
,remember1 you may be using the notebook
 twenty years hence1  therefore make it 
durable4    ,second1 write plainly4     
,this injunction ought to be            
superfluous1 for  common sense tells us 
that writing which is illegible cannot  
be read  even by the writer1 once it has
 grown cold4 ,third1 take care in       
forming sentences4 ,do not make your    
notes consist simply of separate1       
scrappy jottings4 ,true1 it is          
difficult1 under stress1 to form        

complete sentences4 ,the great          
temptation is to jot down a word here   
and there and trust to luck or an       
indulgent memory to supply the  context 
at some later time4 ,a little           
experience1 however1 will quickly       
demonstrate the futility of such hopes2 
therefore strive to form  sensible      
phrases1 and to make the parts of the   
outline cohere4 ,apply  the principles  
of ,english composition to the          
preparation of your  note-book4    ,a   
fourth question concerns size and shape 
of the note-book4 ,these  features      
depend partly upon the nature of the    
course and partly upon  individual      
taste4 ,it is often convenient and      
practicable to keep the  notes for all  
courses in a single note-book4 ,men find
 it advantageous  to use a small        
note-book of a size that can be carried 
in the coat  pocket and studied at odd  
moments4    ,a fifth question of a      
mechanical nature is1 ,which is         
preferable1 bound  or loose-leaf        

note-books8 ,generally the latter will  
be found more  desirable4 ,leaves are   
easily inserted and the sections are    
easily filed  on completion of a course4
    ,it goes without saying that the    
manner in which notes1 are to be taken  
will be determined by many factors1 such
 as the nature of individual  courses1  
the wishes of instructors1 personal     
tastes and habits4  ,nevertheless1 there
 are certain principles and practices   
which are  adaptable to nearly all      
conditions1 and it is these that we have
  discussed4 ,remember1 note-taking is  
one of the habits you are to form  in   
college4 ,see that the habit is started 
rightly4 ,adopt a good plan at  the     
start and adhere to it4 ,you may be     
encouraged1 too1 with the  thought that 
facility in note-taking will come with  
practice4  ,note-taking is an art and as
 you practise you will develop skill4   
,we have noted some of the most obvious 
and immediate benefits derived  from    
well-prepared notes1 consisting of      

economy of time1 ease of  review1 ease  
of permanent retention4 ,there are other
 benefits1 however1  which1 though less 
obvious1 are of far greater importance4 
,these are  the permanent effects upon  
the mind4 ,habits of correct thinking   
are the  chief result of correct        
note-taking4 ,as you develop in this    
particular  ability1 you will find      
corresponding improvement in your       
ability to  comprehend and assimilate   
ideas1 to retain and reproduce facts1   
and to  reason with thoroughness and    
independence4    ,,readings ,,and       
,,exercises    ,readings3    ,adams 7#a7
 ,chapter ,,viii4    ,dearborn 7#b7     
,chapter ,,ii4    ,kerfoot 7#aj7        
,seward 7#ag7    ,exercise #a4 ,contrast
 the taking of notes from reading and   
from  lectures4    ,exercise #b4 ,make  
an outline of this chapter4    ,exercise
 #c4 ,make an outline of some lecture4  
,,chapter ,,iii    ,,brain ,,action     
,,during ,,study      ,though most      
people understand more or less vaguely  

that the brain acts  in some way during 
study1 exact knowledge of the nature of 
this action  is not general4 ,as you    
will be greatly assisted in             
understanding mental  processes by such 
knowledge1 we shall briefly examine the 
brain and its  connections4 ,it will be 
manifestly impossible to inquire into   
its  nature very minutely1 but by means 
of a description you will be able to    
secure some conception of it and thus   
will be able better to control  the     
mental processes which it underlies4    
,to the naked eye the brain is a large  
jelly-like mass enclosed in a  bony     
covering1 about one-fourth of an inch   
thick1 called the skull4  ,inside the   
skull it is protected by a thick        
membrane4 ,at its base  emerges the     
spinal cord1 a long strand of nerve     
fibers extending down  the spine4 ,for  
most of its length1 the cord is about as
 large around as  your little finger1   
but it tapers at the lower end4 ,from it
 at right  angles throughout its length 

branch out thirty-one pairs of fibrous  
nerves which radiate to all parts of the
 body4 ,the brain and spinal  cord1 with
 all its ramifications1 are known as the
 nervous system4 ,you  see now that1    
though we started with the statement    
that the mind is  intimately connected  
with the brain1 we must now enlarge our 
statement  and say it is connected with 
the entire nervous system4 ,it is       
therefore  to the nervous system that we
 must turn our attention4    ,although  
to the naked eye the nervous system is  
apparently made up of a  number of      
different kinds of material1 still we   
see1 when we turn our  microscopes upon 
it1 that its parts are structurally the 
same4 ,reduced  to lowest terms1 the    
nervous system is found to be composed  
of minute  units of structure called    
nerve-cells or neurones4 ,each of these 
looks  like a string frayed out at both 
ends1 with a bulge somewhere along its  
length4 ,the nervous system is made up  
of millions of these little cells       

packed together in various combinations 
and distributed throughout the  body4   
,some of the neurones are as long as    
three feet2 others measure  but a       
fraction of an inch in length4    ,we do
 not know exactly how the mind1 that    
part of us which feels1  reasons and    
wills1 is connected with this mass of   
cells called the  nervous system4 ,we do
 know1 however1 that every time anything
 occurs in  the mind1 there is a change 
in some part of the nervous system4     
,applying this fact to study1 it is     
obvious that when you are performing    
any of the operations of study1         
memorizing foreign vocabularies1 making 
arithmetical calculations1 reasoning out
 problems in geometry1 you are  making  
changes in your nervous system4 ,the    
question before us1 then1  is1 ,what is 
the nature of these changes8            
,according to present knowledge1 the    
action of the nervous system is  best   
conceived as a form of chemical change  
that spreads among the  nerve-cells4 ,we

 call this commotion the nervous        
current4 ,it is very  rapid1 moving     
faster than one hundred feet a second1  
and runs along the  cells in much the   
same way as a spark runs along a train  
of  gunpowder4 ,it is important to note 
that neurones never act singly2  they   
always act in groups1 the nervous       
current passing from neurone to         
neurone4 ,it is thought that the most   
important changes in the nervous  system
 do not occur within the individual     
neurones1 but at the points  where they 
join with each other4 ,this point of    
connection is called the  synapse and   
although we do not understand its exact 
nature1 it may well  be pictured as a   
valve that governs the passage of the   
nervous current  from neurone to        
neurone4 ,at time of birth1 most of the 
valves are  closed4 ,only a few are     
open1 mainly those connected with the   
vegetative  processes such as breathing 
and digestion4 ,but as the individual is
  played upon by the objects of the     

environment1 the valves open to the     
passage of the nervous current4 ,with   
increased use they become more and  more
 permeable1 and thus learning is the    
process of making easier the  passage of
 the nervous current from one neurone to
 another4    ,we shall secure further   
light upon the action of the nervous    
system if  we examine some of the       
properties belonging to nerve-cells4    
,the first  one is impressibility4      
,nerve-cells are very sensitive to      
impressions  from the outside4 ,if you  
have ever had the dentist touch an      
exposed  nerve1 you know how extreme    
this sensitivity is4 ,naturally such a  
property is very important in education1
 for had we not the power to  receive   
impressions from the outside world we   
should not be able to  acquire          
knowledge4 ,we should not even be able  
to perceive danger and  remove ourselves
 from harm4 ,if we compare a man's body 
to a building1  calling the steel       
frame-work his skeleton and the furnace 

and power  station his digestive organs 
and lungs1 the nervous system would     
include1 with other things1 the         
thermometers1 heat regulators1 electric 
buttons1 door-bells1 valve-openers1--the
 parts of the building1 in  short1 which
 are specifically designed to respond to
 influences of the  environment4 ,the   
second property of nerve-cells which is 
important in  study is conductivity4 ,as
 soon as a neurone is stimulated at one 
end1  it communicates its excitement1 by
 means of the nervous current1 to the   
next neurone or to neighboring neurones4
 ,just as an electric current  might    
pass along one wire1 thence to another1 
and along it to a third1  so the nervous
 current passes from neurone to neurone4
 ,as might be  expected1 the two        
functions of impressibility and         
conductivity are  aided by such an      
arrangement of the nerve-cells that the 
nervous  current may pass over          
definitely laid pathways4 ,these systems
 of  pathways will be described in a    

later paragraph4    ,the third property 
of nerve-cells which is important in    
study is  modifiability4 ,that is1      
impressions made upon the nerve-cells   
are  retained4 ,most living tissue is   
modifiable to some extent4 ,the features
  of the face are modifiable1 and if one
 habitually assumes a peevish           
expression1 it becomes1 after a time1   
permanently fixed4 ,the nervous  system1
 however1 possesses the power of        
modifiability to a marked  degree1 even 
a single impression sufficing to make   
striking  modification4 ,this is very   
important in study1 being the basis for 
the  retentive powers of the mind4      
,having examined the action of the      
nervous system in its simplicity1 we    
have now to examine the ways in which   
the parts of the nervous system  are    
combined4 ,we shall be helped if we keep
 to the conception of it as  an         
aggregation of systems or groups of     
pathways4 ,some of these we shall       
attempt to trace out4 ,beginning with   

those at the outermost parts of  the    
body1 we find them located in the       
sense-organs1 not only within  the      
traditional five1 but also within the   
muscles1 tendons1 joints1  and internal 
organs of the body such as the heart1   
and digestive  organs4 ,in all these    
places we find ends of neurones which   
converge at  the spinal cord and travel 
to the brain4 ,they are called sensory  
neurones and their function is to carry 
messages inward to the brain4  ,thus1   
the brain represents1 in great part1 a  
central receiving station  for          
impressions from the outside world4 ,the
 nerve-cells carrying  messages from the
 various parts of the body terminate in 
particular  areas4 ,thus an area in the 
back part of the brain receives messages
  from the eyes2 another area near the  
top of the brain receives messages  from
 the skin4 ,these areas are quite       
clearly marked out and may be  studied  
in detail by means of the accompanying  
diagram4    ,there is another large     

group of nerve-cells which1 when traced 
out1 are  found to have one terminal in 
the brain and the other in the muscles  
throughout the body4 ,the area in the   
brain1 where these neurones  emerge1 is 
near the top of the brain in the area   
marked ,motor on the  diagram4 ,from    
here the fibers travel down through the 
spinal cord and  out to the muscles4    
,the nerve-cells in this group are      
called motor  neurones and their        
function is to carry messages from the  
brain out to  the muscles1 for a muscle 
ordinarily does not act without a       
nervous  current to set it off4    ,so  
far we have seen that the brain has the 
two functions of receiving  impressions 
from the sense-organs and of sending out
 orders to the  muscles4 ,there is a    
further mechanism that must now be      
described4 ,when  messages are received 
in the sensory areas1 it is necessary   
that there  be some means within the    
brain of transmitting them over to the  
motor  area so that they may be acted   

upon4 ,such an arrangement is provided  
by  another group of nerve-cells in the 
brain1 having as their function the     
transmission of the nervous current from
 one area to another4 ,they are  called 
association neurones and transmit the   
nervous current from  sensory areas to  
motor areas or from one sensory area to 
another4 ,for  example1 suppose you see 
a brick falling from above and you dodge
  quickly back4 ,the neural action      
accompanying this occurrence consists   
of an impression upon the nerve-cells in
 the eye1 the conduction of the  nervous
 current back to the visual area of the 
brain1 the transmission  of the current 
over association neurones to the motor  
area1 then its  transmission over the   
motor neurones1 down the spinal cord1 to
 the  muscles that enable you to dodge  
the missile4 ,the association neurones  
have the further function of connecting 
one sensory area in the brain  with     
another4 ,for example1 when you see1    
smell1 taste and touch an  orange1 the  

corresponding areas in the brain act in 
conjunction and are  associated by means
 of the association neurones connecting 
them4 ,the  association neurones play a 
large part in the securing and          
organizing  of knowledge4 ,they are very
 important in study1 for all learning   
consists in building up associations4   
,from the foregoing description we see  
that the nervous system consists  merely
 of a mechanism for the reception and   
transmission of incoming  messages and  
their transformation into outgoing      
messages which produce  movement4 ,the  
brain is the center where such          
transformations are made1  being a sort 
of central switchboard which permits the
 sense-organs to  come into             
communication with muscles4 ,it is also 
the instrument by  means of which the   
impressions from the various senses can 
be united  and experience can be        
unified4 ,the brain serves further as   
the medium  whereby impressions once    
made can be retained4 ,that is1 it is   

the great  organ of memory4 ,hence we   
see that it is to this organ we must    
look for  the performance of the        
activities necessary to study4          
,everything that  enters it produces    
some modification within it4 ,education 
consists in a  process of undergoing a  
selected group of experiences of such a 
nature  as to leave beneficial results  
in the brain4 ,by means of the changes  
made there1 the individual is able      
better to adjust himself to new         
situations4 ,for when the individual    
enters the world1 he is not  prepared to
 meet many situations2 only a few of the
 neural connections  are made and he is 
able to perform only a meagre number of 
simple acts1  such as breathing1 crying1
 digestion4 ,the pathways for complex   
acts1  such as speaking ,english or     
,french1 or writing1 are not formed at  
birth  but must be built up within the  
life-time of the individual4 ,it is the 
process of building them up that we call
 education4 ,this process is a  physical

 feat involving the production of       
changes in physical material  in the    
brain4 ,study involves the overcoming of
 resistance in the  nervous system4     
,that is why it is so hard4 ,in your    
early school-days1  when you set about  
laboriously learning the multiplication 
table1 your  unwilling protests were    
wrung because you were being compelled  
to force  the nervous current through   
new pathways1 and to overcome the       
inertia  of physical matter4 ,today1    
when you begin a train of reasoning1 the
  task is difficult because you are     
opening hitherto untravelled  pathways4 
,there is a comforting thought1 however1
 which is derived from  the factor of   
modifiability1 in that with each        
succeeding repetition1  the task becomes
 easier1 because the path becomes worn  
smoothly and the  nervous current seeks 
it of its own accord2 in other words1   
each act  and each thought tends to     
become habitualized4 ,education is then 
a  process of forming habits1 and the   

rest of the book will be devoted to  the
 description and discussion of habits   
which a student should form4            
,,reading ,,and ,,exercise    ,reading3 
,herrick 7#g7    ,exercise #a4 ,draw a  
picture of the brain1 showing roughly   
what takes  place there 7a7 when you    
read a book1 7#f7 listen to a lecture1  
7c7 take  notes4          ,,chapter ,,iv
    ,,formation ,,of ,,study-,,habits   
,as already intimated1 this book adopts 
the view that education is a  process of
 forming habits in the brain4 ,in the   
formation of habits  there are several  
principles that must be observed4       
,accordingly we  shall devote a chapter 
to the consideration of habits in       
general before  discussing the specific 
habits involved in various kinds of     
study4    ,habit may be defined roughly 
as the tendency to act time after time  
in  the same way4 ,thus defined1 you see
 that the force of habit extends        
throughout the entire universe4 ,it is a
 habit for the earth to revolve  on its 

axis once every twenty-four hours and to
 encircle the sun once  every year4     
,when a pencil falls from your hand it  
has a habit of  dropping to the floor4  
,a piece of paper once folded tends to  
crease in  the same place4 ,these are   
examples of the force of habit in       
nonliving  matter4 ,living matter shows 
its power even more clearly4 ,if you    
assume  a petulant expression for some  
time1 it gets fixed and the expression  
becomes habitual4 ,the hair may be      
trained to lie this way or that4  ,these
 are examples of habit in living tissue4
 ,but there is one  particular form of  
living tissue which is most susceptible 
to habit2  that is nerve tissue4 ,let us
 review briefly the facts which underlie
  this characteristic4 ,in nerve tissue1
 impressibility1 conductivity and       
modifiability are developed to a marked 
degree4 ,the nerve-cells in the  sense  
organs are impressed by stimulations    
from the outside world4 ,the  nervous   
current thus generated is conducted over

 long nerve fibers1  through the spinal 
cord to the brain where it is received  
and we  experience a sensation4 ,thence 
it pushes on1 over association neurones 
in the brain to motor neurones1 over    
which it passes down the spinal  cord   
again to muscles1 and ends in some      
movement4 ,in the pathway which  it     
traverses it leaves its impression1 and1
 thereafter1 when the first  neurone is 
excited1 the nervous current tends to   
take the same pathway  and to end in the
 same movement4    ,it should be        
emphasized that the nervous current1    
once started1 always  tends to seek     
outlet in movement4 ,this is an         
extremely important  feature of neural  
action1 and1 as will be shown in another
 chapter1 is  a vital factor in study4  
,movement may be started by the         
stimulation of  a sense organ or by an  
idea4 ,in the latter case it starts from
 regions  in the brain without the      
immediately preceding stimulation of a  
sense  organ4 ,howsoever it starts you  

may be sure that it seeks a way out1 and
  prefers pathways already traversed4   
,hence you see you are bound to have    
habits4 ,they will develop whether you  
wish them or not4 ,already you are  a   
bundle of habits2 they manifest         
themselves in two ways--as habits  of   
action and habits of thought4 ,you      
illustrate the first every time  you tie
 your shoes or sign your name4 ,to      
illustrate the second1 ,i need  only ask
 you to supply the end of this sentence3
 ,columbus discovered  ,america in----4 
,speech reveals many of these habits of 
thought4 ,certain  phrases persist in   
the mind as habits so that when the     
phrase is once  begun1 you proceed      
habitually with the rest of it4 ,when   
some one starts  in spite1 your mind    
goes on to think of2 more or calls up   
less4  ,when ,i ask you what word is    
called up by black1 you reply white     
according to the principles of mental   
habit4 ,your mind is arranged in  such  
habitual patterns1 and from these       

examples you readily see that a  large  
part of what you do and think during the
 course of twenty-four  hours is        
habitual4 ,twenty years hence you will  
be even more bound by  this overpowering
 despot4    ,our acts our angels are1 or
 good1 or ill1  ,our constant shadows   
that walk with us still4    ,since you  
cannot avoid forming habits1 how        
important it is that you  seek to form  
those that are useful and desirable4 ,in
 acquiring them1  there are several     
general principles deducible from the   
facts of  nervous action4 ,the first is3
 ,guard the pathways leading to the     
brain4  ,nerve tissue is impressible and
 everything that touches it leaves an   
ineradicable trace4 ,you can control    
your habits to some extent1 then1  by   
observing caution in permitting things  
to impress you4 ,many  unfortunate      
habits of study arise from neglect of   
this4 ,the habit of  using a pony1 for  
example1 arises when one permits oneself
 to depend  upon a group of ,english    

words in translating from a foreign     
language4    ,nerve pathways should then
 be guarded with respect to what enters4
  ,they should also be guarded with     
respect to the way things enter4        
,remember1 as the first pathway is cut1 
subsequent nervous currents will  be    
directed4 ,consequently if you make a   
wrong pathway1 you will have  trouble   
undoing it4    ,another maxim which will
 obviously prevent undesirable pathways 
is1 go  slowly at first4 ,this is an    
important principle in all learning4    
,if1  when trying to learn the date     
#adec1 you carelessly impress it first  
as  #adce1 you are likely to have       
trouble ever after in remembering which 
is  right1 #adec or #adce4 ,as you value
 your intellectual salvation1 then1 go  
slowly in making the first impression   
and be sure it is right4 ,the next  rule
 is3 ,guard the exits of the nervous    
currents4 ,that is1 watch the  movements
 you make in response to impressions and
 ideas4 ,this is  necessary because the 

nervous current pushes on past          
obstructions1  through areas in the     
brain1 until it ends in some form of    
movement1 and  in finding the way out1  
it seeks those pathways that have been  
most  frequently travelled4 ,in study1  
it usually takes the form of movements  
of speech or writing4 ,you will need to 
guard this part of the process  just as 
you did the incoming pathway ,you must  
see that the movement is  made which you
 wish to build into a habit4 ,in        
learning the  pronunciation of a foreign
 word1 for example1 see that your first 
pronunciation of it is absolutely right4
 ,when learning to typewrite  see that  
you always hit the right key during the 
early trials4 ,the  point of exit of a  
nervous current is the point also where 
precautions  are to be taken in         
developing good form4 ,the path should  
be the  shortest possible1 involving    
only those muscles that are absolutely  
necessary4 ,this makes for economy of   
effort4    ,the third general principle 

to be kept in mind is that habits are   
most  easily formed in youth1 for this  
is the period when nerve tissue is  most
 easily impressed and modified4 ,with   
respect to habit formation1  then1 you  
see that youth is the time when emphasis
 should be laid upon  the formation of  
as many useful habits as possible4 ,the 
world  recognizes this to some extent   
and society is so organized that the    
youth of the race are given leisure and 
protection so that they may  form useful
 habits4 ,the world asks nothing of you 
during the next four  years except that 
you develop yourself and form useful    
habits which  will enable you in later  
life to take your place as a useful and 
stable  member of society4    ,in       
addition to the principles just         
discussed1 there are a number of  other 
maxims which have been laid down as     
guides in the formation of  new habits4 
,the first is1 make an assertion of     
will4 ,vow to yourself  that you will   
form the habit1 and keep that resolve   

ever before you4    ,the second maxim   
is1 make an emphatic start4 ,surround   
yourself with  every aid possible4 ,make
 it easy at first to perform the act and
  difficult not to perform it4 ,for     
example1 if you desire to form the      
habit of arising at six every morning1  
surround yourself with a number  of     
aids4 ,buy an alarm clock1 and tell some
 one of your decision4 ,such  efforts at
 the start will give your new beginning 
such a momentum that  the temptation to 
break down will not occur as soon as it 
otherwise  might2 and every day during  
which a breakdown is postponed adds to  
the  chances of its not occurring at    
all4 ,man has discovered the value of   
such devices during the course of his   
long history1 and has evolved  customs  
accordingly4 ,when men decide to swear  
off smoking1 they choose  the opening of
 a new year when many other new things  
are being started2  they make solemn    
promises to themselves1 to each other1  
and finally to  their friends4 ,such    

customs are precautions which help to   
bolster up  the determination at the    
time when extraordinary effort and      
determination are required4 ,in forming 
the habits incidental to college  life1 
take pains from the start to surround   
yourself with as many aids  as possible4
 ,this will not constitute a confession 
of weakness4 ,it is  only a wise and    
natural precaution which the whole      
experience of the  race has justified4  
,the third maxim is1 never permit an    
exception to  occur4 ,suppose you have a
 habit of saying aint which you wish to 
replace with a habit of saying isn't4   
,if the habit is deeply rooted1  you    
have worn a pathway in the brain to a   
considerable depth1  represented in the 
accompanying diagram by the line ,a ,x  
,b4         ,a              ,x      _/  
,b   ,c    ,let us suppose that you have
 already started the new habit1 and have
 said  the correct word ten times4 ,that
 means you have worn another pathway  ,a
 ,x ,c to a considerable depth4 ,during 

all this time1 however1 the old  pathway
 is still open and at the slightest     
provocation will attract the  nervous   
current4 ,your task is to deepen the new
 path so that the nervous  current will 
flow into it instead of the old4 ,now   
suppose you make an  exception on some  
occasion and allow the nervous current  
to travel over  the old path4 ,this     
unfortunate exception breaks down the   
bridge which  you had constructed at ,x 
from ,a to ,c4 ,but this is not the only
  result4 ,the nervous current1 as it   
revisits the old path1 deepens it  more 
than it was before1 so the next time a  
similar situation arises1  the current  
seeks the old path with much greater    
readiness than before1  and vastly more 
effort is required to overcome it4 ,some
 one has likened  the effect of these   
exceptions to that produced when one    
drops a ball  of string that is         
partially wound4 ,by a single slip1 more
 is undone  than can be accomplished in 
a dozen windings4    ,the fourth maxim  

is1 seize every opportunity to act upon 
your  resolution4 ,the reason for this  
will be understood better if you keep   
in mind the fact1 stated before1 that   
nervous currents once started1  whether 
from a sense-organ or from a            
brain-center1 always tend to seek       
egress in movement4 ,these outgoing     
nervous currents leave an imprint  upon 
the modifiable nerve tissues as         
inevitably as do incoming  impressions4 
,therefore1 if you wish your resolves to
 be firmly fixed1  you should act upon  
them speedily and often4 ,it is not in  
the moment  of their forming1 but in the
 moment of their producing motor        
effects1  that resolves and aspirations 
communicate the new 'set' to the brain4 
,no matter how full a reservoir of      
maxims one may possess1 and no  matter  
how good one's sentiments may be1 if one
 has not taken  advantage of every      
concrete opportunity to act1 one's      
character may  remain entirely          
unaffected for the better4 ,particularly

 at time of  emotional excitement one   
makes resolves that are very good1 and a
 glow  of fine feeling is present4      
,beware that these resolves do not      
evaporate  in mere feeling4 ,they should
 be crystallized in some form of action 
as  soon as possible4 ,let the          
expression be the least thing in the    
world--speaking genially to one's       
grandmother1 or giving up one's seat  in
 a 444 car1 if nothing more heroic      
offers--but let it not fail to take     
place4 ,strictly speaking you have not  
really completed a resolve until  you   
have acted upon it4 ,you may determine  
to go without lunch1 but you  have not  
consummated that resolve until you have 
permitted it to  express itself by      
carrying you past the door of the       
dining-room4 ,that  is the crucial test 
which determines the strength of your   
resolve4 ,many  repetitions will be     
required before a pathway is worn deep  
enough to be  settled4 ,seize the very  
earliest opportunity to begin grooving  

it out1  and seize every other          
opportunity for deepening it4    ,after 
this view of the place in your life     
occupied by habit1 you  readily see its 
far-reaching possibilities for welfare  
of body and  mind4 ,its most obvious1   
because most annoying1 effects are on   
the side  of its disadvantages4 ,bad    
habits secure a grip upon us that we are
  sometimes powerless to shake off4     
,true1 this ineradicableness need have  
no terrors if we have formed good       
habits4 ,indeed1 as will be pointed  out
 in the next paragraph1 habit may be a  
great asset4 ,nevertheless1 it  may work
 positive harm1 or at best1 may lead to 
stagnation4 ,the  fixedness of habit    
tends to make us move in ruts unless we 
exert  continuous effort to learn new   
things4 ,if we permit ourselves to move 
in old grooves we cease to progress and 
become old fogy4    ,but the advantages 
of habit far outweigh its disadvantages4
 ,habit helps  the individual to be     
consistent and helps people to know what

 to expect  from one4 ,it helps society 
to be stable1 to incorporate within     
itself  modes of action conducive to the
 common good4 ,for example1 the respect 
which we all have for the property of   
others is a habit1 and is so  firmly    
intrenched that we should find ourselves
 unable to steal if we  wished to4      
,habit is thus a very desirable asset   
and is truly called the  enormous       
fly-wheel of society4    ,a second      
advantage of habit is that it makes for 
accuracy4 ,acts that  have become       
habitualized are performed more         
accurately than those not  habitualized4
 ,movements such as those made in       
typewriting and  piano-playing1 when    
measured in the psychological           
laboratory1 are found  to copy each     
other with extreme fidelity4 ,the human 
body is a machine  which may be adjusted
 to a high degree of nicety1 and habit  
is the  mechanism by which this         
adjustment is made4    ,a third         
advantage is that a stock of habits     

makes life easier4 ,there  is no more   
miserable human being than one in whom  
nothing is habitual  but indecision1 for
 whom the lighting of every cigar1 the  
drinking of  every cup1 the time of     
rising and going to bed every day and   
the  beginning of every bit of work1 are
 subjects of express volitional         
deliberation4 ,full half the time of    
such a man goes to the deciding or      
regretting of matters which ought to be 
so ingrained in him as  practically not 
to exist for his consciousness at all4  
,have you ever  reflected how miserable 
you would be and what a task living     
would be if  you had to learn to write  
anew every morning when you go to class2
 or  if you had to relearn how to tie   
your necktie every day8 ,the burden of  
living would be intolerable4    ,the    
last advantage to be discerned in habit 
is economy4 ,habitual acts  do not have 
to be actively directed by              
consciousness4 ,while they are  being   
performed1 consciousness may be         

otherwise engaged4 ,the more of  the    
details of our daily life we can hand   
over to the effortless  custody of      
automatism1 the more our higher powers  
of mind will be set  free for their own 
proper work4 ,while you are brushing    
your hair or  tying your shoes1 your    
mind may be engaged in memorizing poetry
 or  calculating arithmetical problems4 
,habit is thus a great economizer4      
,the ethical consequences of habit are  
so striking that before leaving  the    
subject we must give them               
acknowledgment4 ,we can do no better    
than  to turn to the statement by       
,professor ,james1 whose wise remarks   
upon  the subject have not been improved
 upon3    ,the physiological study of   
mental conditions is thus the most      
powerful  ally of hortatory ethics4 ,the
 hell to be endured hereafter1 of which 
theology tells1 is no worse than the    
hell we make for ourselves in this      
world by habitually fashioning our      
characters in the wrong way4 ,could  the

 young but realize how soon they will   
become mere walking bundles of  habits1 
they would give more heed to their      
conduct while in the plastic  state4 ,we
 are spinning our own fates1 good or    
evil1 and never to be  undone4 ,every   
smallest stroke of virtue or of vice    
leaves its  never-so-little scar4 ,the  
drunken ,rip ,van ,winkle1 in           
,jefferson's play1  excuses himself for 
every fresh dereliction by saying1 ',i  
won't count  this time6' ,well6 he may  
not count it and a kind heaven may not  
count  it2 but it is being counted none 
the less4 ,down among his nerve-cells   
and fibers the molecules are counting   
it1 registering it1 and storing  it up  
to be used against him when the next    
temptation comes4 ,nothing we  ever do  
is1 in strict scientific literalness1   
wiped out4 ,of course this  has its good
 side as well as its bad one4 ,as we    
become permanent  drunkards by so many  
drinks1 so we become saints in the      
moral1 and  authorities and experts in  

the practical and scientific1 spheres1  
by so  many separate acts and hours of  
work4 ,but let no youth have any anxiety
  about the upshot of his education1    
whatever the line of it may be4 ,if  he 
keep faithfully busy each hour of the   
working day1 he may safely  leave the   
final result to itself4 ,he can with    
perfect certainty count  on waking up   
some fine morning1 to find himself one  
of the competent  ones of his           
generation1 in whatever pursuit he has  
singled out4  ,silently1 between all the
 details of his business1 the power of  
judging in all that class of matter will
 have built itself up within  him as a  
possession that will never pass away4   
,young people should know  the truth of 
this in advance4 ,the ignorance of it   
has probably  engendered more           
discouragement and faintheartedness in  
youths embarking  on arduous careers    
than all other causes put together4     
,,exercise    ,exercise #a4 ,point out  
an undesirable habit that you are       

determined to  eradicate4 ,describe the 
desirable habit which you will adopt in 
its  place4 ,give the concrete steps you
 will take in forming the new habit4    
,how long a time do you estimate will be
 required for the formation of  the new 
habit8 ,mark down the date and refer    
back to it when you have  formed the    
habit1 to see how accurately you        
estimated4          ,,chapter ,v        
,,active ,,imagination      ,a very     
large part of the mental life of a      
student consists in the  manipulation of
 images4 ,by images we mean the revivals
 of things that  have been impressed    
upon the senses4 ,call to mind for the  
moment your  house-number as it appears 
upon the door of your home4 ,in so doing
 you  mentally reinstate something which
 has been impressed upon your senses    
many times2 and you see it almost as    
clearly as if it were actually  before  
you4 ,the mental thing thus revived is  
called an image4    ,the word image is  
somewhat ill-chosen2 for it usually     

signifies  something connected with the 
eye1 and implies that the stuff of      
mental  images is entirely visual4 ,the 
true fact of the matter is1 we can image
  practically anything that we can      
sense4 ,we may have tactual images of   
things touched2 auditory images of      
things heard2 gustatory images of       
things tasted2 olfactory images of      
things smelled4 ,how these behave in    
general and how they interact in study  
will engage our attention in  this      
chapter4    ,the most highly dramatic   
use of images is in connection with that
  mental process known as ,imagination4 
,as we study the writings of ,jack      
,london1 ,poe1 ,defoe1 ,bunyan1 we move 
in a realm almost wholly imaginary4     
,and as we take a cross-section of our  
minds when thus engaged1 we find  them  
filled with images4 ,furthermore1 they  
are of great variety--images  of colors1
 sounds1 tastes1 smells1 touches1 even  
of sensations from our  own internal    
organs1 such as the palpitations of the 

heart that  accompany feelings of pride1
 indignation1 remorse1 exaltation4 ,a   
further characteristic is that they are 
sharp1 clean-cut1 vivid4    ,note in the
 balcony scene from ,romeo and ,juliet1 
the number1 variety  and vividness of   
the images3    ,but1 soft6 ,what light  
through yonder window breaks8  ,it is   
the east1 and ,juliet is the sun4       
,arise1 fair sun1 and kill the envious  
moon1  ,who is already sick and pale    
with grief  ,that thou1 her maid1 art   
far more fair than she4  ,be not her    
maid1 since she is envious2  ,her vestal
 livery is but sick and green4444  ,two 
of the fairest stars in all the heaven1 
,having some business1 do entreat her   
eyes  ,to twinkle in their spheres till 
they return4  ,what if her eyes were    
there1 they in her head8  ,the          
brightness in her cheek would shame     
those stars1  ,as daylight doth a lamp2 
her eyes in heaven  ,would through the  
airy regions stream so bright  ,that    
birds would sing and think it were not  

night4  ,see1 how she leans her cheek   
upon her hand6  ,o1 that ,i were a glove
 upon that hand1  ,that ,i might touch  
that cheek6    ,we may conclude1 then1  
that three of the desirable attributes  
of great  works of the imagination are  
number1 variety and vividness of  mental
 images4    ,one question that          
frequently arises concerning works of   
the imagination  is1 ,what is their     
source8 ,superficial thinkers have      
loosely answered1  ,inspiration1        
implying1 7according to the literal     
meaning of the word1  to breathe in71   
that some mysterious external force     
7called by the  ancients1 ,a ,muse7     
enters into the mind of the author with 
a special  revelation4    ,psychological
 analysis of these imaginative works    
shows that this  explanation is untrue4 
,that the bizarre and apparently novel  
products  arise from the experiences of 
the author1 revived in imagination and  
combined in new ways4 ,the horrendous   
incidents depicted in ,dante's  ,divine 

,comedy never occurred within the       
lifetime experience of the  author as   
such4 ,their separate elements did1     
however1 and furnished the  basis for   
,dante's clever combinations4 ,the      
oft-heard saying that there  is nothing 
new under the sun is psychologically    
true4    ,in the light of this brief    
analysis of products of the imagination 
we  are ready to develop a program which
 we may follow in cultivating an  active
 imagination4    ,recognizing that      
images have their source in sensory     
experience1 we see  that the first step 
to take is to seek a multitude of       
experiences4 ,make  intimate            
acquaintance with the objects of your   
environment4 ,handle  them1 tear them   
apart1 put them together1 place them    
next to other  objects1 noting the      
likenesses and differences4 ,thus you   
will acquire  the stuff out of which    
images are made and will stock your mind
 with a  number of images4 ,then when   
you wish to convey your ideas you will  

have  a number of terms in which to do  
it--one of the characteristics of a     
free-flowing imagination4    ,the second
 characteristic we found to be variety4 
,to secure this1 seek  a variety of     
sensational experiences4 ,perceive the  
objects of your  experience through     
several senses--touch1 smell1 sight1    
hearing1  taste4 ,by means of this      
variety in sensations you will secure   
corresponding variety in your images4   
,to revive them easily sometimes        
requires practice4 ,for it has been     
discovered that all people do not       
naturally call up images related to  the
 various senses with equal ease4 ,most  
people use visual and auditory  images  
more freely than they do other kinds4   
,in order to develop skill  in evoking  
the others1 practise recalling them4    
,sit down for an hour of  practice1 as  
you would sit down for an hour of piano 
practice4 ,try to  recall the taste of  
raisins1 ,english walnuts2 the smell of 
hyacinths1  of witch-hazel2 the rough   

touch of an orange-skin4 ,though you may
 at  first have difficulty you will     
develop1 with practice1 a gratifying    
facility in recalling all varieties of  
images4    ,the third characteristic    
which we observed in works of the       
imagination  is vividness4 ,to achieve  
this1 pay close attention to the details
 of  your sensory experiences4 ,observe 
sharply the minute but characteristic   
items--the accent mark on aprs2 the     
coarse stubby beard of the  typical     
alley tough4 ,stock your mind with a    
wealth of such detailed  impressions4   
,keep them alive by the kind of practice
 recommended in the  preceding          
paragraph4 ,then describe the objects of
 your experience in  terms of these     
significant details4    ,we discovered1 
in discussing the source of imaginative 
works1 that the  men whom we are        
accustomed to call imaginative geniuses 
do not have  unique communication with  
heaven or with any external reservoir of
  ideas4 ,instead1 we found their       

wonder-evoking creations to be merely   
new combinations of old images4 ,the    
true secret of their success is  their  
industrious utilization of past         
experiences according to the  program   
outlined above4 ,they select certain    
elements from their  experiences and    
combine them in novel ways4 ,this is the
 explanation of  their strange1         
beautiful and bizarre productions4 ,this
 is what ,carlyle  meant when he        
characterized genius as the transcendent
 capacity for  taking trouble ,this is  
what ,hogarth meant when he said1       
,genius is  nothing but labor and       
diligence4 ,for concrete exemplification
 of this  truth we need only turn to the
 autobiographies of great writers4 ,in  
this passage from ,john ,barleycorn1    
,jack ,london describes his methods3    
,early and late ,i was at it--writing1  
typing1 studying grammar1  studying     
writing and all forms of writing1 and   
studying the writers who  succeeded in  
order to find out how they succeeded4 ,i

 managed on five  hours' sleep in the   
twenty-four1 and came pretty close to   
working the  nineteen waking hours left 
to me4    ,by saying that the novel     
effects of imagination come by way of   
industry1 we do not mean to imply that  
one should strain after novelty  and    
eccentricity4 ,unusual and happy        
combinations will come of  themselves   
and naturally if one only makes a       
sufficient number4    ,there are laws of
 combination1 known as the psychological
 laws of  association1 by which images  
will unite naturally4 ,the number of    
possible combinations is infinite4 ,by  
industriously making a large  number1   
you will by the very laws of chance1    
stumble upon some that are  especially  
happy and striking4    ,in summarizing  
this discussion1 we may conclude that an
 active fertile  imagination comes from 
crowding into one's life a large number 
of  varied and vivid experiences2       
storing them up in the mind in the form 
of images2 and industriously recalling  

and combining them in novel             
relationships4 ,mental images occur in  
other mental processes besides          
,imagination4 ,they bulk importantly in 
memorizing1 as we shall see in          
,chapters ,,vi and ,,vii2 and in        
reasoning1 as we shall see in ,chapter  
,,ix4  ,throughout the book we shall    
find that as we develop ability to      
manipulate mental images1 we shall      
increase the adaptability of all the    
mental processes4    ,,reading ,,and    
,,exercises    ,reading3 ,dearborn 7#b7 
,chapter ,,iii4    ,exercise #a4 ,call  
up in imagination the sound of your     
,french  instructor's voice as he says  
tudiant4 ,call up the appearance on the 
page of the conjugation of tre1 present 
tense4    ,exercise #b4 ,choose some    
word which you have had difficulty in   
learning4  ,look at it attentively1     
securing a perfectly clear impression of
 it2  then practise calling up the      
visual image of it1 until you secure    
perfect reproduction4    ,exercise #c4  

,list the different images called up by 
the passage from  ,romeo and ,juliet4   
,,chapter ,,vi    ,,first ,,aids ,,to   
,,memory2 ,,impression      ,of all the 
mental operations employed by the       
student1 memory is  probably the one in 
which the greatest inefficiency is      
manifested4  ,though we often fail to   
realize it1 much of our life is taken up
 with  memorizing4 ,every time we make  
use of past experience1 we rely upon    
this function of the mind1 but in no    
occupation is it quite so  practically  
important as in study4 ,we shall begin  
our investigation of  memory by dividing
 it into four phases or                 
stages--,impression1  ,retention1       
,recall and ,recognition4 ,any act of   
memory involves them all4  ,there is    
first a stage when the material is being
 impressed2 second1 a  stage when it is 
being retained so that it may be revived
 in the  future2 third1 a stage of      
recall when the retained material is    
revived  to meet present needs2 fourth1 

a feeling of recognition1 through which 
the material is recognized as having    
previously been in the mind4            
,impression is accomplished through the 
sense organs2 and in the  foregoing     
chapter we laid down the rule3 ,guard   
the avenues of  impression and admit    
only such things as you wish to retain4 
,this  necessitates that you go slowly  
at first4 ,this is a principle of all   
habit formation1 but is especially      
important in habits of memorizing4      
,much of the poor memory that people    
complain about is due to the fact  that 
they make first impressions carelessly4 
,one reason why people fail  to remember
 names is that they do not get a clear  
impression of the  name at the start4   
,they are introduced in a hurry or the  
introducer  mumbles2 consequently no    
clear impression is secured4 ,under such
  circumstances how could one expect to 
retain and recall the name8 ,go  slowly1
 then1 in impressing material for the   
first time4 ,as you look up  the words  

of a foreign language in the lexicon1   
trying to memorize  their ,english      
equivalents1 take plenty of time4       
,obtain a clear  impression of the sound
 and appearance of the words4           
,inasmuch as impressions may be made    
through any of the sense organs1  one   
problem in the improvement of memory    
concerns the choice of sense  avenues4  
,as an infant you used all senses       
impartially in your eager  search after 
information4 ,you voraciously put things
 into your mouth  and discovered that   
some things were sweet1 some sour4 ,you 
bumped your  head against things and    
learned that some were hard and some    
soft4 ,in  your insatiable curiosity you
 pulled things apart and peered into    
them2  in short1 utilized all the sense 
organs4 ,in adult life1 however1 and in 
education as it takes place through the 
agency of books and  instructors1 most  
learning depends upon the eye and ear4  
,even yet1  however1 you learn many     
things through the sense of touch and   

through  muscle movement1 though you may
 be unaware of it4 ,you probably have   
better success retaining impressions    
made upon one sense than another4  ,the 
majority of people retain better things 
that are visually  impressed4 ,such     
persons think often in terms of visual  
images4 ,when  thinking of water running
 from a faucet1 they can see the water  
fall1  see it splash1 but have no trace 
of the sound4 ,the whole event is       
noiseless in memory4 ,when they think of
 their instructor1 they can see  him    
standing at his desk but cannot imagine 
the sound of his voice4  ,when striving 
to think of the causes leading to the   
,civil ,war1 they  picture them as they 
are listed on the page of the text-book 
or  note-book4 ,other people have not   
this ability to recall in visual  terms1
 but depend to greater extent upon      
sounds4 ,when asked to think  about     
their instructor1 they do it in terms of
 his voice4 ,when asked to  conjugate a 
,french verb1 they hear it pronounced   

mentally but do not  see it on the page4
 ,these are extremes of imagery type1   
but they  illustrate preferences as they
 are found in many persons4 ,some       
persons  use all senses with ease2      
others unconsciously work out           
combinations1  preferring one sense for 
some kinds of material and another for  
other  kinds4 ,for example1 one might   
prefer visual impression for remembering
  dates in history but auditory         
impression for conjugating ,french      
verbs4  ,you will find it profitable to 
examine yourself and discover your      
preferences4 ,if you find that you have 
greater difficulty in  remembering      
material impressed through the ear than 
through the eye1  reduce things to      
visual terms as much as possible4 ,make 
your lecture  notes more complete or    
tabulate things that you wish to        
remember1 thus  securing impression from
 the written form4 ,the writer has      
difficulty in  remembering names that   
are only heard4 ,so he asks that the    

name be  spelled1 then projects the     
letters on an imaginary background1 thus
  forming visual stuff which can easily 
be recalled4 ,if1 on the contrary1  you 
remember best the things that you hear1 
you may find it a good plan  to read    
your lessons aloud4 ,many a student1    
upon the discovery of such  a           
preference1 has increased his memory    
ability many fold by adopting  the      
simple expedient of reading his lessons 
aloud4 ,it might be pointed  out that   
while you are reading aloud1 you are    
making more than auditory  impressions4 
,by the use of the vocal organs you are 
making muscular  impressions1 which also
 aid in learning1 as will be pointed out
 in  ,chapter ,x4    ,after this        
discussion do not jump to the conclusion
 that just because  you find some       
difficulty in using one sense avenue for
 impression1 it  is therefore impossible
 to develop it4 ,facility in using      
particular  senses can be gained by     
practice4 ,to improve ability to form   

visual  images of things1 practise      
calling up visions of things4 ,try to   
picture  a page of your history         
textbook4 ,can you see the headlines of 
the  sections and the paragraphs8 ,to   
develop auditory imagery1 practise      
calling up sounds4 ,try to image your   
,french instructor's voice in  saying   
lve4 ,the development of these sense    
fields is a slow and  laborious process 
and one questions whether it is worth   
while for a  student to undertake the   
labor involved when another sense is    
already  very efficient4 ,probably it is
 most economical to ,arrange impressions
  so as to favor the sense that is      
already well developed and reliable4    
,another important condition of         
impression is repetition4 ,it is well   
known that material which is repeated   
several times is remembered more  easily
 than that impressed but once4 ,if two  
repetitions induce a given  liability to
 recall1 four or eight will secure still
 greater liability  of recall4 ,your    

knowledge of brain action makes this    
rule intelligible1  because you know the
 pathway is deepened every time the     
nervous current  passes over it4        
,experiments in the psychological       
laboratory have shown that it is best   
in making impressions to make more than 
enough impressions to insure  recall4   
,if material is to be retained for any  
length of time1 a simple  mastery of it 
for immediate recall is not sufficient4 
,it should be  learned far beyond the   
point of immediate reproduction if time 
and  energy are to be saved4 ,this      
principle of learning points out the    
fact  that there are two kinds of       
memory--immediate and deferred4 ,the    
first  kind involves recall immediately 
after impression is made2 the second    
involves recall at some later time4 ,it 
is a well-known fact that things        
learned a long time before they are to  
be recalled fade away4 ,if you  are not 
going to recall material until a long   
time after the  impression1 store up    

enough impressions so that you can      
afford to lose  a few and still retain  
enough until time for recall4 ,another  
reason for  overlearning is that when   
the time comes for recall you are likely
 to  be disturbed4 ,if it is a time of  
public performance1 you may be          
embarrassed2 or you may be hurried or   
under distractions4 ,accordingly  you   
should have the material exceedingly    
well memorized so that these            
distractions will not prove detrimental4
    ,the mere statement made above1 that
 repetition is necessary in  impression1
 is not sufficient4 ,it is important to 
know how to  distribute the repetitions4
 ,suppose you are memorizing ,psalm of  
,life  to be recited a month from       
to-day1 and that you require thirty     
repetitions of the poem to learn it4    
,shall you make these thirty            
repetitions at one sitting8 ,or shall   
you distribute them among several       
sittings8 ,in general1 it is better to  
spread the repetitions over a  period of

 time4 ,the question then arises1 what  
is the most effective  distribution8    
,various combinations are possible4 ,you
 might rehearse the  poem once a day    
during the month1 or twice a day for the
 first fifteen  days1 or the last       
fifteen days1 four times every fourth   
day1 ad  infinitum4 ,in the face of     
these possibilities is there anything   
that  will guide us in distributing the 
repetitions8 ,we shall get some light   
on the question from an examination of  
the curve of forgetting--a curve  that  
has been plotted showing the rate at    
which the mind tends to  forget4        
,forgetting proceeds according to law1  
the curve descending  rapidly at first  
and then more slowly4 ,the larger       
proportion of the  material learned is  
forgotten the first day or so4 ,after   
that a  constantly decreasing amount is 
forgotten on each succeeding day for    
perhaps a week1 when the amount remains 
practically stationary4 ,this  gives us 
some indication that the early          

repetitions should be closer  together  
than those at the end of the period4 ,so
 long as you are  forgetting rapidly you
 will need more repetitions in order to 
counterbalance the tendency to forget4  
,you might well make five  repetitions2 
then rest4 ,in about an hour1 five more2
 within the next  twenty-four hours1    
five more4 ,by this time you should have
 the poem  memorized1 and all within two
 days4 ,you would still have fifteen    
repetitions of the thirty1 and these    
might be used in keeping the poem  fresh
 in the mind by a repetition every other
 day4    ,as intimated above1 one       
important principle in memorizing is to 
make  the first impressions as early as 
possible1 for older impressions have    
many chances of being retained4 ,this is
 evidenced by the vividness of          
childhood scenes in the minds of our    
grandparents4 ,an old soldier  recalls  
with great vividness events that        
happened during the ,civil ,war1  but   
forgets events of yesterday4 ,there is  

involved here a principle of  nervous   
action that you have already            
encountered2 namely1 that  impressions  
are more easily made and retained in    
youth4 ,it should also  be observed that
 pathways made early have more chances  
of being used  than those made recently4
 ,still another peculiarity of nervous  
action  is revealed in these extended   
periods of memorizing4 ,it has been     
discovered that if a rest is taken      
between impressions1 the impressions    
become more firmly fixed4 ,this points  
to the presence of a surprising  power1 
by which we are able to learn1 as it    
were1 while we sleep4 ,we  shall        
understand this better if we try to     
imagine what is happening in  the       
nervous system4 ,processes of nutrition 
are constantly going on4 ,the  blood    
brings in particles to repair the nerve 
cells1 rebuilding them  according to the
 pattern left by the last impression4   
,indeed1 the  entrance of this new      
material makes the impression even more 

fixed4 ,the  nutritional processes seem 
to set the impression much as a hypo    
bath  fixes or sets an impression on a  
photographic plate4 ,this peculiarity   
of memory led ,professor ,james to      
suggest1 paradoxically1 that we learn   
to skate in summer and to swim in       
winter4 ,and1 indeed1 one usually       
finds1 in beginning the skating season1 
that after the initial  stiffness of    
muscles wears off1 one glides along with
 surprising  agility4 ,you see then that
 if you plan things rightly1 ,nature    
will do  much of your learning for you4 
,it might be suggested that perhaps     
things impressed just before going to   
sleep have a better chance to  set than 
things impressed at other times for the 
reason that sleep is  the time when the 
reparative processes of the body are    
most active4    ,since the brain pattern
 requires time to set1 it is important  
that  after the first impression you    
refrain from introducing anything       
immediately into the mind that might    

disturb it4 ,after you have  impressed  
the poem you are memorizing1 do not     
immediately follow it by  another poem4 
,let the brain rest for three or four   
minutes until after  the first          
impressions have had a chance to set4   
,now that we have regarded this         
unconscious memorizing from the         
neurological standpoint1 let us consider
 it from the psychological  standpoint4 
,how are the ideas being modified during
 the intervals  between impressions8    
,modern psychology has discovered that  
much  memorizing goes on without our    
knowing it1 paradoxical as that may     
seem4 ,the processes may be described in
 terms of the doctrine of  association1 
which is that whenever two things have  
once been  associated together in the   
mind1 there is a tendency thereafter if 
the  first of them recurs1 for the other
 to come with it4 ,after the poem of    
our illustration has once been repeated1
 there is a tendency for events  in     
everyday experience that are like it to 

associate themselves with  it4 ,for     
example1 in the course of a day or week 
many things might arise  and recall to  
you the line1 ,life is real1 life is    
earnest1 and it  would become1 by that  
fact1 more firmly fixed in the mind4    
,this  valuable semi-conscious recall   
requires that you must make the first   
impression as early as possible before  
the time for ultimate recall4  ,this    
persistence of ideas in the mind means  
that the process of  learning does not  
cease with the actual work of learning1 
but that1 if  not disturbed1 this       
process runs on of itself for a time1   
and adds a  little to the result of our 
labors4 ,it also means that1 if it is to
 our  advantage to stand in readiness   
with some word or thought1 we shall be  
able to do so1 if only this word or     
thought recur to us but once1 some  time
 before the critical moment4 ,so we     
remember to keep a promise to  pay a    
call1 to make a remark at the proper    
time1 even though we turn  our mind to  

other work or talk for some hours       
between4 ,we can do this  because1 if   
not vigorously prevented1 ideas and     
words keep on  reappearing in the mind4 
,you may utilize this principle in      
theme-writing to good advantage4 ,as    
soon as the instructor announces  the   
subject for a theme1 begin to think     
about it4 ,gather together all  the     
ideas you have about the subject and    
start your mind to work upon  it4       
,suppose you take as a theme-subject    
,the ,value of ,training in ,public     
,speaking for a ,business ,man4 ,the    
first time this is suggested to you1 a  
few thoughts1 at least1 will come to    
you4 ,write them down1 even though  they
 are disconnected and heterogeneous4    
,then as you go about your  other work  
you will find a number of occasions that
 will arouse ideas  bearing upon this   
subject4 ,you may read in a newspaper of
 a brilliant  speech made before the    
,chamber of ,commerce by a leading      
business man1  which will serve as an   

illustration to support your affirmative
  position2 or you may attend a banquet 
where a prominent business man          
disappoints his audience with a wretched
 speech4 ,such experiences1 and  many   
others1 bearing more or less directly   
upon the subject1 will come  to you1 and
 will call up the theme-subject1 with   
which they will unite  themselves4      
,write down these ideas as they occur1  
and you will find  that when you start  
to compose the theme formally1 it almost
 writes  itself1 requiring for the most 
part only expansion and arrangement of  
ideas4 ,while thus organizing the theme 
you will reap even more benefits  from  
your early start1 for1 as you are       
composing it1 you will find new  ideas  
crowding in upon you which you did not  
know you possessed1 but  which had been 
associating themselves in your mind with
 this topic even  when you were unaware 
of the fact4    ,in writing themes1 the 
principle of distribution of time may   
also be  profitably employed4 ,after you

 have once written a theme1 lay it aside
  for a while--perhaps a week4 ,then    
when you take it up1 read it in a       
detached manner and you will note many  
places where it may be improved4  ,these
 benefits are to be enjoyed only when a 
theme is planned a long  time ahead4    
,hence the rule to start as early as    
possible4    ,before leaving the subject
 of theme-writing1 which was called up  
by the  discussion of unconscious       
memory1 another suggestion will be given
 that  may be of service to you4 ,when  
correcting a theme1 employ more than one
  sense avenue4 ,do not simply glance   
over it with your eye4 ,read it  aloud1 
either to yourself or1 better still1 to 
someone else4 ,when you  do this you    
will be amazed to discover how different
 it sounds and what  a new view you     
secure of it4 ,when you thus change your
 method of  composition1 you will find a
 new group of ideas thronging into your 
mind4 ,in the auditory rendition of a   
theme you will discover faults of       

syntax which escaped you in silent      
reading4 ,you will note duplication  of 
words1 split infinitives1 mixed tenses1 
poorly balanced sentences4  ,moreover1  
if your mind has certain peculiarities1 
you may find even  more advantages      
accruing from such a practice4 ,the     
author1 for example1  has a slightly    
different set of ideas at his disposal  
according to the  medium of expression  
employed4 ,when writing with a pencil1  
one set of  ideas comes to mind2 with a 
typewriter slightly different ideas     
arise2  when talking to an audience1    
still different ideas4 ,three sets of   
ideas  and three vocabularies are thus  
available for use on any subject4 ,in   
adopting this device of composing       
through several mediums1 you should     
combine with it the principle of        
distributing time already discussed in  
connection with repetition of           
impressions4 ,write a theme one day1    
then lay it aside for a few days and go 
back to it with a fresh mind4  ,the     

rests will be found very beneficial in  
helping you to get a new  viewpoint of  
the subject4    ,reverting to our       
discussion of memory1 we come upon      
another question3  ,in memorizing       
material like the poem of our example1  
should one impress  the entire poem at  
once1 or break it up into parts1        
impressing a stanza  each day8 ,most    
people would respond1 without thought1  
the latter1 and1  as a matter of fact1  
most memorizing takes place in this way4
  ,experimental psychology1 however1 has
 discovered that this is  uneconomical4 
,the selection1 if of moderate length1  
should be impressed  as a whole4 ,if too
 long for this1 it should be broken up  
as little as  possible4 ,in order to see
 the necessity for this let us examine  
your  experiences with the memorization 
of poems in your early school days4     
,you probably proceeded as follows3     
,after school one day1 you learned  the 
first stanza1 then went out to play4    
,the next day you learned the  second   

one1 and so on4 ,you thought at the end 
of a week that you had  memorized it    
because1 at the end of each day's       
sitting1 you were able  to recite       
perfectly the stanza learned that day4  
,on speaking day you  started out       
bravely and recited the first stanza    
without mishap4 ,when  you started to   
think of the second one1 however1 it    
would not come4 ,the  memory balked4    
,now what was the matter8 ,how can we   
explain this  distressing blank8 ,in    
psychological terms1 we ascribe the     
difficulty to  the failure to make      
proper associations between stanzas4    
,association  was made effectively      
between the lines of the single stanzas1
 but not  between the separate stanzas4 
,after you finished impressing the first
  stanza1 you went about something else2
 playing ball1 perhaps4 ,when you       
approached the poem the next day you    
started in with the second stanza4      
,there was then no bridge between the   
two4 ,there was nothing to link the     

last line of the first stanza1    ,and  
things are not what they seem1    with  
the first line of the next stanza1      
,life is real1 life is earnest4    ,this
 makes clear the necessity of impressing
 the poem as a whole  instead of by     
parts4    ,according to another         
classification1 there are two ways of   
memorizing--by rote and by logical      
associations4 ,rote memorizing  involves
 the repetition of material just as it  
stands1 and usually  requires such long 
and laborious drill that it is seldom   
economical4  ,true1 some matter must be 
memorized this way2 such as the days of 
the  week and the names of the months2  
but there is another and gentler  method
 which is usually more effective and    
economical than that of  brutal         
repetition4 ,that is the method of      
logical association1 by which  one links
 up a new fact with something already in
 the mind4 ,if1 for  example1 you wish  
to remember the date of the ,world's    
,fair in ,chicago1  you might proceed as

 follows3 ,ask yourself1 ,what did the  
,fair  commemorate8 ,the discovery of   
,america in #adib1 the four hundredth   
anniversary occurring in #ahib4 ,the    
,fair could not be made ready in that   
year1 however1 so was postponed a year4 
,such a process of memorizing  the date 
is less laborious than the method of    
rote memory1 and is  usually more likely
 to lead to ready recall4 ,the old fact 
already in  mind acts as a magnet which 
at some later time may call up other    
facts  that had once been associated    
with it4 ,you can easily see that this  
new  fact might have been associated    
with several old facts1 thus securing   
more chances of being called up4 ,from  
this it may be inferred that the  more  
facts you have in your mind about a     
subject the more chances you  have of   
retaining new facts4 ,it is sometimes   
thought that if a person  stores so much
 in his memory it will soon be so full  
that he cannot  memorize any more4 ,this
 is a false notion1 involving a         

conception of  the brain as a hopper    
into which impressions are poured until 
it runs  over4 ,on the contrary1 it     
should be regarded as an interlacing of 
fibers with infinite possibilities of   
inter-connection1 and no one ever       
exhausts the number of associations that
 can be made4    ,the method of logical 
association may be employed with telling
 effect  in the study of foreign        
languages4 ,when you meet a new word    
scrutinize  it carefully for some trace 
of a word already familiar to you either
 in  that language or in another4 ,this 
independent discovery of meanings is  a 
very great aid in saving time and in    
fixing the meaning of new words4        
,opportunities for this method are      
especially frequent in the ,german      
language1 since so many ,german words   
are formed by compounding other  words4 
,rathausmarkt is a long and apparently  
difficult ,german word1  and one's first
 temptation is to look it up in the     
lexicon and promptly  forget it4 ,let us

 analyze it1 however1 and we shall see  
that it is only  a compound of already  
familiar words4 ,rat is already familiar
 as  the word for counsel 7raten to give
 advice72 haus is equally  familiar4 ,so
 we see that the first part of the word 
means  council-house2 the council-house 
of a city is called a city hall4  ,markt
 is equally familiar as market-square1  
so the significance of  the entire word 
stands1 city-hall-square4 ,by such a    
method of utilizing  facts already      
known1 you may make yourself much more  
independent of the  lexicon and may make
 your memory for foreign words much more
 tenacious4    ,we approach a phase of  
impression the importance of which is   
often  unsuspected2 namely1 the         
intention with which memorizing is done4
 ,the  fidelity of memory is greatly    
affected by the intention4 ,if1 at the  
time of impression1 you intend to retain
 only until the time of recall1  the    
material tends to slip away after that  
time4 ,if1 however1 you  impress with   

the intention to retain permanently the 
material stays by  you better4 ,students
 make a great mistake when they study   
for the  purpose merely of retaining    
until after examination time4 ,intend to
  retain facts permanently1 and there   
will be greater likelihood of their     
permanence4    ,,readings ,,and         
,,exercises    ,readings3 ,adams 7#a7   
,chapter ,,iii4 ,seashore 7#af7 ,chapter
 ,,ii4 ,swift 7#bj7  ,chapter ,,vii4    
,watt 7#ba74    ,exercise ,i4 ,cite     
examples from your own experience       
showing the effects  of the following   
faults in making impressions4 a4 ,first 
impression  not clear4 b4 ,insufficient 
number of repetitions4 c4 ,use of rote  
method instead of method of logical     
association4 d4 ,impressions not        
distributed4 e4 ,improper use of part   
method4    ,exercise #b4 ,after         
experimentation1 state what is your most
 effective  sense avenue for the        
impression of foreign words1 facts in   
history1 the  pronunciation of ,english 

words4    ,exercise #c4 ,make a         
preliminary draft of your next theme2   
lay it aside  for a day or two2 then    
write another on the same subject2      
combine the  two1 using the best parts  
of each2 lay this aside for a day or    
two2  then read it aloud1 making such   
changes as are prompted by the auditory 
presentation4 ,can you find elements of 
worth in this method1 which will        
warrant you in adopting it1 at least1 in
 part8          ,,chapter ,,vii         
,,second ,,aids ,,to ,,memory3          
,,retention1 ,,recall ,,and             
,,recognition      ,our discussion up to
 this point has centred around the phase
 of memory  called impression4 ,we have 
described some of the conditions        
favorable  to impression and have seen  
that certain and accurate memory depends
  upon adherence to them4 ,the next     
phase of memory--,retention--cannot be  
described in psychological terms4 ,we   
know we retain facts after they  are    
once impressed1 but as to their status  

in the mind we can say  nothing4 ,if you
 were asked when the ,declaration of    
,independence was  signed1 you would    
reply instantly4 ,when asked1 however1  
where that fact  was five minutes ago1  
you could not answer4 ,somewhere in the 
recesses  of the mind1 perhaps1 but as  
to immediate awareness of it1 there was 
none4 ,we may try to think of retention 
in terms of nerve cells and say  that at
 the time when the material was first   
impressed there was some  modification  
made in certain nerve cells which       
persisted4 ,this trait of  nerve        
modifiability is one factor which       
accounts for greater retentive  power in
 some persons than in others4 ,it must  
not be concluded1  however1 that all    
good memory is due to the inheritance of
 this trait4  ,it is due partly to      
observance of proper conditions of      
impression1 and  much can be done to    
overcome or offset innate difficulty of 
modification by such observance4    ,we 
are now ready to examine the third phase

 of memory--,recall4 ,this is  the stage
 at which material that has been        
impressed and retained is  recalled to  
serve the purpose for which it was      
memorized4 ,recall is  thus the goal of 
memory1 and all the devices so far      
discussed have it  for their object4    
,can we facilitate recall by any other  
means than by  faithful and intelligent 
impressions8 ,for answer let us examine 
the  state of mind at time of recall4   
,we find that it is a unique mental     
state4 ,it differs from impression in   
being a period of more active search for
 facts in the mind accompanied  by      
expression1 instead of a concentration  
upon the external impression4  ,it is   
also usually accompanied by motor       
expressions1 either talking or  writing4
 ,since recall is a unique mental state1
 you ought to prepare  for it by means  
of a rehearsal4 ,when you are memorizing
 anything to be  recalled1 make part of 
your memorizing a rehearsal of it1 if   
possible1  under same conditions as     

final recall4 ,in memorizing from a     
book1 first  make impression1 then close
 the book and practise recall4 ,when    
memorizing a selection to be given in a 
public speaking class1  intersperse the 
periods of impression with periods of   
recall4 ,this is  especially necessary  
in preparation for public speaking1 for 
facing an  audience gives rise to a     
vastly different psychic attitude from  
that of  impression4 ,the sight of an   
audience may be embarrassing or         
exciting4  ,furthermore1 unforeseen     
distractions may arise4 ,accordingly1   
create  those conditions as nearly as   
possible in your preparation4 ,imagine  
yourself facing the audience4 ,practise 
aloud so that you will become           
accustomed to the sound of your own     
voice4 ,the importance of the  practice 
of recall as a part of the memory       
process can hardly be  overestimated4   
,one psychologist has advised that in   
memorizing  significant material more   
than half the time should be spent in   

practising recall4    ,there still      
remains a fourth phase of               
memory--,recognition4 ,whenever a       
remembered fact is recalled1 it is      
accompanied by a characteristic  feeling
 which we call the feeling of           
recognition4 ,it has been described  as 
a feeling of familiarity1 a glow of     
warmth1 a sense of ownership1 a  feeling
 of intimacy4 ,as you walk down the     
street of a great city you  pass        
hundreds of faces1 all of them strange4 
,suddenly in the crowd you  catch sight 
of some one you know and are instantly  
suffused with a glow  of feeling that is
 markedly different from your feeling   
toward the  others4 ,that glow          
represents the feeling of recognition4  
,it is always  present during recall and
 may be used in great advantage in      
studying4  ,it derives its virtue for   
our purpose from the fact that it is a  
feeling1 and at the time of feeling the 
bodily activities in general  are       
affected4 ,changes occur in heart beat1 

breathing2 various glandular  secretions
 are affected1 the digestive organs     
respond4 ,in this general  quickening of
 bodily activity we have reason to      
believe that the  nervous system        
partakes1 and things become impressed   
more readily4 ,thus  the feeling of     
recognition that accompanies recall is  
responsible for  one of the benefits of 
reviews4 ,at such a time material once  
memorized  becomes tinged with a        
feelingful color different from that    
which  accompanied it when new4 ,review1
 then1 not merely to produce additional 
impressions1 but also to take advantage 
of the feeling of recognition4    ,we   
have now discussed memory in its four   
phases and have seen clearly  that it   
operates not in a blind1 chaotic manner1
 but according to law4  ,certain        
conditions are required and when they   
are met memory is good4  ,after         
providing proper conditions for memory1 
then1 trust your memory4  ,an attitude  
of confidence is very necessary4 ,if1   

when you are  memorizing1 you           
continually tremble for fear that you   
will not recall  at the desired moment1 
the fixedness of the impression will be 
greatly  hindered4 ,therefore1 after    
utilizing all your knowledge about the  
conditions of memorizing1 rest content  
and trust to the laws of ,nature4  ,they
 will not fail you4    ,by this time you
 have seen that memory is not a         
mysterious mental  faculty with which   
some people are generously endowed1 and 
of which  others are deprived4 ,all     
people of normal intelligence can       
remember and  can improve their ability 
if they desire4 ,the improvement does   
not take  the form that some people     
expect1 however4 ,no magic wand can     
transform  you into a good memorizes    
,you must work the transformation       
yourself4  ,furthermore1 it is not an   
instantaneous process to be accomplished
  overnight4 ,it will come about only   
after you have built up a set of        
habits1 according to our conception of  

study as a process of habit  formation4 
,a final word of caution should be      
added4 ,some people think of memory as  
a separate division or compartment of   
the mind which can be controlled  and   
improved by exercising it alone4 ,such a
 conception is fallacious4  ,improvement
 in memory will involve improvement in  
other mental  abilities1 and you will   
find that as you improve your ability to
  remember1 you will develop at the same
 time better powers to  concentrate     
attention1 to image1 to associate facts 
and to reason4    ,,reading ,,and       
,,exercise    ,reading3 ,see readings   
for ,chapter ,,vi4    ,exercise ,i4     
,compare the mental conditions of       
impression with those of  recall4       
,,chapter ,,viii    ,,concentration ,,of
 ,,attention      ,nearly everyone has  
difficulty in the concentration of      
attention4 ,brain  workers in business  
and industry1 students in high school   
and college1  and even professors in    
universities1 complain of the same      

difficulty4  ,attention seems in some   
way to be at the very core of mental    
activity1  for no matter from what      
aspect we view the mind1 its excellence 
seems  to depend upon the power to      
concentrate attention4 ,when we examine 
a  growing infant1 one of the first     
signs by which we judge the awakening   
of intelligence is the power to pay     
attention or to notice things4  ,when we
 examine the intellectual ability of    
normal adults we do so by  means of     
tests that require close concentration  
of attention4 ,in  judging the          
intelligence of people with whom we     
associate every day1 we  regard one who 
is able to maintain close attention for 
long periods of  time as a person of    
strong mind4 ,we rate ,thomas ,edison as
 a powerful  thinker when we read that  
he becomes so absorbed in work that he  
neither eats nor sleeps4 ,finally1 when 
we examine the insane and the           
feeble-minded1 we find that one form    
which their derangements take is  an    

inability to control the attention4     
,this evidence1 added to our own        
experience1 shows us the importance of  
concentration of attention in  study and
 we become even more desirous of        
investigating attention to  see how we  
may develop it4    ,we shall be better  
able to discuss attention if we select  
for analysis  a concrete situation when 
the mind is in a state of concentrated  
attention4 ,concentrate for a moment    
upon the letter ,o4 ,although you are   
ostensibly focussing all your powers of 
attention upon the letter1  nevertheless
 you are really aware of a number of    
things besides3 of  other words on the  
page2 of other objects in the field of  
vision2 of  sounds in the room and on   
the street2 of sensations from your     
clothing2  and of sensations from your  
bodily organs1 such as the heart and    
lungs4  ,in addition to these           
sensations1 you will find1 if you       
introspect  carefully enough1 that your 
mind also contains a number of ideas and

  imaginings2 thoughts about the        
paragraph you just read or about one of 
your lessons4 ,thus we see that at a    
time when we apparently focus our       
attention upon but one thing1 we really 
have a large number of things  in our   
mind1 and they are of a great variety4  
,the mental field might be  represented 
by a circle1 at the centre of which is  
the object of  attention4 ,it may be an 
object in the external world perceived  
through  one of the senses1 or it may be
 an idea we are thinking about1 such1   
for example1 as the idea of infinity4   
,but whether the thing attended to  is a
 perception or an idea1 we may properly 
speak of it as the object  of attention 
or the focal object4 ,in addition to    
this1 we must  recognize the presence of
 a large number of other objects1 both  
sensory  and ideational4 ,these are     
nearer the margin of the mental field1  
so we  call them marginal4    ,the      
distinctive thing about a state of mind 
such as that just described  is that the

 focal object is much clearer than the  
marginal objects4 ,for  example1 when   
you fixated the letter ,o1 it was only  
in the vaguest sort  of fashion that you
 were aware of the contact of your      
clothing or the  lurking ideas of other 
lessons4 ,as we examine these marginal  
objects  further1 we find that they are 
continually seeking to crowd into the   
centre of attention and to become clear4
 ,you may be helped in forming a  vivid 
picture of conditions if you think of   
the mind as a stream ever  in motion1   
and as it flows on1 the objects in it   
continually shift  their positions4 ,a  
cross-section of the stream at any      
moment may show  the contents of the    
mind arranged in a particular pattern1  
but at the  very next moment they may be
 arranged in a different pattern1       
another  object occupying the focus1    
while the previous tenant is pushed to  
the  margin4 ,thus we see that it is a  
tendency of the mind to be forever      
changing4 ,if left to itself1 it would  

be in ceaseless fluctuation1 the  whim  
of every passing fancy4 ,this tendency  
to fluctuate comes with more  or less   
regularity1 some psychologists say every
 second or two4 ,true1  we do not always
 yield to the fluctuating tendency1     
nevertheless we are  recurrently        
tempted1 and we must exercise continuous
 effort to keep a  particular object at 
the focus4 ,the power to exert effort   
and to  regulate the arrangement of our 
states of mind is the peculiar gift of  
man1 and is a prime function of         
education4 ,viewed in this light1 then1 
we see that the voluntary focusing of   
our attention consists in the  selecting
 of certain objects to be attended to1  
and the ignoring of  other objects which
 act as distractions4 ,we may           
conveniently classify  the latter as    
external sensations1 bodily sensations  
and irrelevant  ideas4    ,let us take  
an actual situation that may arise in   
study and see how  this applies4        
,suppose you are in your room studying  

about ,charlemagne1  a page of your     
history text occupying the centre of    
your attention4 ,the  marginal          
distractions in such a case would       
consist1 first1 in external  sensations1
 such as the glare from your study-lamp1
 the hissing of the  radiator1 the      
practising of a neighboring vocalist1   
the rattle of  passing street-cars4 ,the
 bodily distractions might consist of   
sensations of weariness referred to the 
back1 the arms and the eyes1  and       
fainter sensations from the digestive   
organs1 heart and lungs4 ,the           
irrelevant ideas might consist of       
thoughts about a ,german lesson which   
you are going to study1 visions of a    
face1 or thoughts about some  social    
engagement4 ,these marginal objects are 
in the mind even when you               
conscientiously focus your mind upon the
 history lesson1 and1 though  vague1    
they try to force their way into the    
focus and become clear4 ,the  task of   
paying attention1 then1 consists in     

maintaining the desired  object at the  
centre of the mental field and keeping  
the distractions  away4 ,with this      
definition of attention1 we see that in 
order to  increase the effectiveness of 
attention during study1 we must devise  
means for overcoming the distractions   
peculiar to study4 ,obviously the  first
 thing is to eliminate every distraction
 possible4 ,such a plan of  elimination 
may require a radical rearrangement of  
study conditions1  for students often   
fail to realize how wretched their      
conditions of  study are from a         
psychological standpoint4 ,they attempt 
to study in  rooms with two or three    
others who talk and move about          
continually2  they drop down in any spot
 in the library and expose themselves   
needlessly to a great number of         
distractions4 ,if you wish to become a  
good student1 you must prepare          
conditions as favorable as possible for 
study4 ,choose a quiet room to live in1 
free from distracting sounds and        

sights4 ,have your room at a temperature
 neither too hot nor too cold2  #fh ,f4 
is usually considered favorable for     
study4 ,when reading in the  library1   
sit down in a quiet spot1 with your back
 to the door1 so you  will not be       
tempted to look up as people enter the  
room4 ,do not sit  near a group of      
gossipers or near a creaking door4      
,having made the  external conditions   
favorable for study1 you should next    
address  yourself to the task of        
eliminating bodily distractions4 ,the   
most  disturbing of these in study are  
sensations of fatigue1 for1 contrary  to
 the opinion of many people1 study is   
very fatiguing work and  involves       
continual strain upon the muscles in    
holding the body still1  particularly   
those of the back1 neck1 arms1 hands    
and1 above all1 the  eyes4 ,how many    
movements are made by your eyes in the  
course of an  hour's study6 ,they sweep 
back and forth across the page          
incessantly1  being moved by six muscles

 which are bound to become fatigued4    
,still  more fatigue comes from the     
contractions of delicate muscles within 
the  eyeball1 where adjustments are made
 for far and near vision and for        
varying amounts of light4 ,the eyes1    
then1 give rise to much fatigue1  and1  
altogether1 are the source of a great   
many bodily distractions in  study4     
,other distractions may consist of      
sensations from the clothing4 ,we are   
always vaguely aware of pressure of our 
clothing4 ,usually it is not            
sufficiently noticeable to cause much   
annoyance1 but occasionally it  is1 as  
is demonstrated at night when we take   
off a shoe with such a  sigh of relief  
that we realize in retrospect it had    
been vaguely  troubling us all day4     
,in trying to create conditions for     
efficient study1 many bodily            
distractions can be eliminated4 ,the    
study chair should be easy to sit  in so
 as to reduce fatigue of the muscles    
supporting the body2 the  book-rest     

should be arranged so as to require     
little effort to hold the  book2 the    
light should come over the left         
shoulder4 ,this is especially  necessary
 in writing1 so that the writing hand   
will not cast a shadow  upon the work4  
,the muscles of the eyes will be rested 
and fatigue will  be retarded if you    
close the eyes occasionally4 ,then in   
order to lessen  the general fatigue of 
the body1 you may find it advantageous  
to rise  and walk about occasionally4   
,lastly1 the clothing should be loose   
and  unconfining2 especially should     
there be plenty of room for circulation4
    ,in the overcoming of distractions1 
we have seen that much may be done  by  
way of eliminating distractions1 and we 
have pointed out the way to  accomplish 
this to a certain extent4 ,but in spite 
of our most careful  provisions1 there  
will still be distractions that cannot  
be eliminated4  ,you cannot1 for        
example1 chloroform the vocalist in the 
neighboring  apartment1 nor stop the    

street-cars while you study2 you cannot 
rule  out fatigue sensations entirely1  
and you cannot build a fence around  the
 focus of your mind so as to keep out   
unwelcome and irrelevant  ideas4 ,the   
only thing to do then is to accept as   
inevitable the  presence of some        
distractions1 and to realise that to pay
 attention1 it  is necessary to         
habituate yourself to the ignoring of   
distractions4    ,in the accomplishment 
of this end it will be necessary to     
apply the  principles of habit formation
 already described4 ,start out by making
 a  strong determination to ignore all  
distractions4 ,practise ignoring  them1 
and do not let a slip occur4 ,try to    
develop interest in the  object of      
attention1 because we pay attention to  
those things in which  we are most      
interested4 ,a final point that may help
 you is to use the  first lapse of      
attention as a reminder of the object   
you desire to  fixate upon4 ,this may be
 illustrated by the following example3  

,suppose1  in studying a history lesson1
 you come upon a reference to the royal 
apparel of ,charlemagne4 ,the word royal
 might call up purple1 a  ,northwestern 
,university pennant1 the person who gave
 it to you1 and  before you know it you 
are off in a long day-dream leading far 
from the  history lesson4 ,such         
migrations as these are very likely to  
occur in  study1 and constitute one of  
the most treacherous pitfalls of student
  life4 ,in trying to avoid them1 you   
must form habits of disregarding        
irrelevant ideas when they try to       
obtrude themselves4 ,and the way to do  
this is to school yourself so that the  
first lapse of attention will  remind   
you of the lesson in hand4 ,it can be   
done if you keep yourself  sensitive to 
wanderings of attention1 and let the    
first slip from the  topic with which   
you are engaged remind you to pull      
yourself back4 ,do  this before you have
 taken the step that will carry you far 
away1 for  with each step in the series 

of associations it becomes harder to    
draw  yourself back into the correct    
channel4    ,in reading1 one frequent   
cause for lapses of attention and for   
the  intrusion of unwelcome ideas is    
obscurity in the material being read4   
,if you trace back your lapses of       
attention1 you will often find that     
they first occur when the thought       
becomes difficult to follow1 the        
sentence ambiguous1 or a single word    
unusual4 ,as a result1 the meaning      
grows hazy in your mind and you fail to 
comprehend it4 ,naturally1 then1  you   
drift into a channel of thought that is 
easier to follow4 ,this  happens because
 the mental stream tends to seek        
channels of least  resistance4 ,if you  
introspect carefully1 you will          
undoubtedly discover  that many of your 
annoying lapses of attention can be     
traced to such  conditions4 ,the obvious
 remedy is to make sure that you        
understand  everything as you read4 ,as 
soon as you feel the thought growing    

difficult to follow1 begin to exert more
 effort2 consult the dictionary  for the
 meanings of words you do not           
understand4 ,probably the ordinary      
freshman in college ought to look up the
 meaning of as many as twenty  words    
daily4    ,again1 the thought may be    
difficult to follow because your        
previous  knowledge is deficient2       
perhaps the discussion involves some    
fact which  you never did comprehend    
clearly1 and you will naturally fail to 
understand something built upon it4 ,if 
deficiency of knowledge is the  cause of
 your lapses of attention1 the obvious  
remedy is to turn back  and study the   
fundamental facts2 to lay a firm        
foundation in your  subjects of study4  
,this discussion shows that the         
conditions at time of concentrated      
attention are very complex2 that the    
mind is full of a number of  things2    
that your object as a student is to keep
 some one thing at the  focus of your   
mind1 and that in doing so you must     

continuously ignore  other mental       
contents4 ,in our psychological         
descriptions we have  implied that the  
mind stands still at times1 permitting  
us to take a  cross-section and examine 
it minutely4 ,as a matter of fact1 the  
mind  never stands still4 ,it           
continually moves along1 and at no two  
moments  is it exactly the same4 ,this  
results in a condition whereby an idea  
which is at one moment at the centre    
cannot remain there unless it  takes on 
a slightly different appearance from    
moment to moment4 ,when  you attempted  
to fix your attention upon the letter   
,o1 you found a  constant tendency to   
shift the attention1 perhaps to a       
variation in the  intensity of the type 
or to a flaw in the type or in the      
paper4 ,in view  of the inevitable      
nature of these changes1 you see that in
 spite of  your best efforts you cannot 
expect to maintain any object of study  
inflexibly at the centre of attention4  
,the way to do is to manipulate  the    

object so that it will appear from      
moment to moment in a slightly          
different light4 ,if1 for example1 you  
are trying to concentrate upon a  rule  
of ,english grammar long enough to      
memorize it1 do not read it over  and   
over again1 depending solely upon       
repetition4 ,a better way1 after        
thoroughly comprehending it1 is to think
 about it in several relations2  compare
 it with other rules1 noting points of  
likeness and difference2  apply it to   
the construction of a sentence4 ,the    
essential thing is to  do something with
 it4 ,only thus can you keep it in the  
focus of  attention4 ,this is equivalent
 to the restatement of another fact     
stressed in a previous chapter1 namely1 
that the mind is not a passive  thing   
that stands still1 but an active thing4 
,when you give attention1  you actively 
select from a number of possible objects
 one to be clearer  than the rest4 ,this
 selection requires effort under most   
conditions of  study1 but you may be    

cheered by the thought that as you      
develop  interest in the fields of      
study1 and as you develop habits of     
ignoring  distractions1 you will be able
 to fixate your attention with less and 
less effort4 ,a further important fact  
is that as you develop power to  select 
objects for the consideration of        
attention1 you develop  simultaneously  
other mental processes--the ability to  
memorize1 to  economize time and effort 
and to control future thoughts and      
actions4  ,in short1 power to           
concentrate attention means power in all
 the mental  processes4    ,,exercises  
,exercise ,i4 ,watch a small dot so far 
away that it can just be seen4  ,can you
 see it all the time8 ,how many times a 
minute does it come and  go8 ,make what 
inference you can from this regarding   
the fluctuation of  attention during    
study4    ,exercise #b4 ,what concrete  
steps will you take in order to         
accommodate  your study to the          
fluctuations of attention8    ,exercise 

#c4 ,the next time you have a lapse of  
attention during study1  retrace your   
steps of thought1 write down the ideas  
from the last one  in your mind to the  
one which started the digression4       
,represent the  digression graphically  
if you can4    ,exercise #d4 ,make a    
list of the things that most            
persistently distract  your attention   
during study4 ,what specific steps will 
you take to  eliminate them2 to ignore  
the unavoidable ones8          ,,chapter
 ,,ix    ,,how ,,we ,,reason      ,if   
you were asked to describe the most     
embarrassing of your class-room         
experiences1 you would probably cite the
 occasions when the instructor  asks you
 a series of questions demanding close  
reasoning4 ,as he pins  you down to     
statement of facts and forces you to    
draw valid  conclusions1 you feel in a  
most perplexed frame of mind4 ,either   
you  find yourself unable to give       
reasons1 or you entangle yourself in    
contradictions4 ,in short1 you flounder 

about helplessly and feel as  though the
 bottom of your ship of knowledge has   
dropped out4 ,and when  the ordeal is   
over and you have made a miserable botch
 of a recitation  which you thought you 
had been perfectly prepared for1 you    
complain  that if the instructor had    
followed the book1 or if he had asked   
straight questions1 you would have      
answered every one perfectly1  having   
memorized the lesson word for word4     
,this complaint1 so often voiced by     
students1 reveals the fundamental       
characteristic which distinguishes the  
mental operation of reasoning  from the 
others we have studied4 ,in reasoning we
 face a new kind of  situation          
presenting difficulties not encountered 
in the simpler  processes of sensation1 
memory1 and imagery1 and when we attempt
 to  substitute these simple processes  
for reasoning1 we fail miserably1 for   
the two kinds of processes are          
essentially different1 and cannot be    
substituted one for the other4          

,broadly speaking1 the mental activities
 of study may be divided into  two      
groups1 which1 for want of better names1
 we shall call processes of  acquisition
 and processes of construction4 ,the    
mental attitude of the  first is that of
 acquirement4 ,sometimes our main       
business seems to be  to acquire        
knowledge2 certain matters are placed   
before us in books or  by our teachers1 
and we are required to master them1 to  
make them part  of our stock of         
knowledge4 ,at other times we are called
 upon to use the  knowledge we already  
possess in order to attain some end that
 is set  before us4 ,in geography1 for  
example1 so long as we are merely       
learning the bare facts of the subject1 
the size and contours of the  different 
continents1 the political divisions1 the
 natural features1 we  are at the       
acquisitive stage4 ,but when we go on to
 try to find out  the reasons why       
certain facts that we have learned      
should be as they  are and not          

otherwise1 we pass to the constructive  
stage4 ,we are  working constructively  
when we seek to discover why it is that 
great  cities are so often found on the 
banks of rivers1 why peninsulas more    
frequently turn southward than          
northward4 ,you readily see that this   
constructive method of study involves   
the setting and solving of  problems as 
its distinguishing feature1 and that in 
the solution of  these problems we make 
use of reason4    ,a little reflection  
will show that though there is a        
distinct  difference between processes  
of acquisition and of construction1     
nevertheless the two must not be        
regarded as entirely separate from  each
 other4 ,in acquiring new facts we must 
always use a little reason1  while in   
constructive work1 we cannot always rely
 upon having all the  necessary matter  
ready to hand4 ,we have frequently to   
stop our  constructive work for a little
 in order to acquire some new facts that
  we find to be necessary4 ,thus we     

acquire a certain number of new facts   
while we are reasoning about things1 and
 while we are engaged in  acquiring new 
matter we must use our reason at least  
to some small  extent4 ,the two overlap1
 then4 ,but there is a difference       
between them  from the standpoint of the
 student1 and the terms denote two      
fundamentally different attitudes which 
students take in study4 ,the two        
attitudes may be illustrated by         
contrasting the two methods often used  
in studying geometry4 ,some students    
memorize the theorem and the steps  in  
the demonstration1 reciting them        
verbatim at class-hour4 ,others do  not 
memorize1 but reason out each step to   
see its relation to the  preceding step1
 and when they see it must necessarily  
follow1 they pass  on to the next and do
 the same4 ,these two types of students 
apparently  arrive at the same          
conclusions1 but the mental operations  
leading up to  the ,q4,e4,d4 of each are
 vastly different4 ,the one student does

 his  studying by the rote memory       
method1 the other by the road of        
reasoning4  ,the former road is usually 
considered the easier1 and so we find it
  most frequently followed4 ,to memorize
 a table1 a definition1 or a  series of 
dates is relatively easy4 ,one knows    
exactly where one is1 and  can keep     
track of one's progress and test one's  
success4 ,some people  are attracted by 
such a task and are perfectly happy to  
follow this  plan of study4 ,the kind of
 mind that contents itself with such    
phonographic records1 however1 must be  
acknowledged to be a commonplace  sort  
of affair4 ,we recognize its limitations
 in ordinary life1  invariably rating it
 lower than the mind that can reason to 
new  conclusions and work independently4
 ,accordingly1 if we wish to possess    
minds of superior quality1 we see that  
we must develop the reasoning           
processes4    ,when we examine the      
mental processes by which we think      
constructively1  or1 in other words1    

reason1 we find first of all that there 
is  recognition of a problem to be      
solved4 ,when we start to reason1 we do 
it because we find ourselves in a       
situation from which we must  extricate 
ourselves4 ,the situation may be        
physical1 as when our  automobile stops 
suddenly on a country road2 or it may be
 mental1 as  when we are deciding what  
college to attend4 ,in both cases1 we   
recognize that we are facing a problem  
which must be solved4    ,after         
recognition of the problem1 our next    
step is to start vigorous  efforts to   
solve it4 ,in doing this1 we cast about 
for means2 we summon  all the powers at 
our disposal4 ,in the case of the       
automobile1 we call  to mind other      
accidents and the causes of them2 we    
remember that once  the spark-plug      
played out1 so we test this hypothesis4 
,at another time  some dust got into the
 carburetor1 so we test this4 ,so we go 
on1  calling up possible causes and     
applying appropriate remedies until the 

right one is found and the engine is    
started4 ,in bringing to bear upon  the 
problem facts from our past experience1 
we form a series of  judgments4 ,in the 
case of the problem as to what college  
to attend1 we  might form these         
judgments3 this college is nearer home2 
that one has a  celebrated faculty2 this
 one has good laboratories2 that one is 
my  father's alma mater4 ,so we might go
 on1 bringing up all the facts          
regarding the problem and fitting each  
one mentally to see how it  works4 ,note
 that this utilization of ideas should  
not consist merely of  fumbling about in
 a vague hope of hitting upon some      
solution4 ,it must  be a systematic     
search1 guided by carefully chosen      
ideas4 ,for example1  if the clock on   
the mantle-piece has stopped1 and we    
have no idea how  to make it go again1  
but mildly shake it in the hope that    
something  will happen to set it going1 
we are merely fumbling4 ,but if1 on     
moving  the clock gently so as to set   

the pendulum in motion1 we hear it      
wobbling about irregularly1 and at the  
same time observe that there is  no     
ticking of any kind1 we come to the     
conclusion that the pendulum has        
somehow or other escaped the little     
catch that connects it with the         
mechanism1 we have been really thinking4
 ,from the fact that the  pendulum      
wobbles irregularly1 we infer that it   
has lost its proper  catch4 ,from the   
fact that there is no ticking1 we infer 
the same thing1  for even when there is 
something wrong with the clock that will
 prevent  it from going permanently1 if 
the pendulum is set in motion by force  
from without it will tick for a few     
seconds before it comes to rest  again4 
,the important point to observe is that 
there must be inference4  ,this is      
always indicated by the word therefore  
or its equivalent4 ,if  you reach a     
conclusion without having to use or at  
any rate to imply a  therefore1 you may 
take it for granted that you have not   

been really  thinking1 but only jumping 
to conclusions4    ,this process of     
putting facts in the form of judgments  
and drawing  inferences1 may be likened 
to a court-room scene where arguments   
are  presented to the judge4 ,as each   
bit of evidence is submitted1 it is     
subjected to the test of its            
applicability to the situation or to    
similar situations in the past4 ,it is  
rigidly examined and nothing is         
accepted as a candidate for the solution
 until it is found by trial 7of  course1
 in imagination7 to be pertinent to the 
situation4    ,the third stage of the   
reasoning process comes when some plan  
which has  been suggested as a possible 
solution of the difficulty proves       
effective1 and we make the decision2 the
 arguments support or overthrow  each   
other1 adding to and eliminating various
 considerations until  finally only one 
course appears possible4 ,as we said    
before1 the  solution comes inevitably1 
as represented by the word therefore4   

,little active work on our part is      
necessary1 for if we have gone  through 
these other phases properly the decision
 will make itself4 ,you  cannot make a  
wrong decision if you have the facts    
before you and have  given each the     
proper weight4 ,when the solution comes1
 it is recognized  as right1 for it     
comes tinged with a feeling that we call
 belief4    ,now that we have found the 
reasoning process to be one of          
problem-solving1 of which the first step
 is to acknowledge and  recognize the   
difficulty1 the second1 to call up      
various methods of  solution1 and the   
third1 to decide on the basis of one of 
the solutions  that comes tinged with   
certainty1 we are ready to apply this   
schema to  study in the hope that we may
 discover the causes and remedies for   
the  reasoning difficulties of students4
 ,in view of the fact that reasoning    
starts out with a problem1 you see at   
once that to make your study  effective 
you must study in problems4 ,avoid an   

habitual attitude of  mere acquisition4 
,do not memorize facts in the same      
pattern as they are  handed out to you4 
,in history1 in general literature1 in  
science1 do  not read facts merely as   
they come in the text1 but seek the     
relations  between them4 ,voluntarily   
set before yourself intellectual        
problems4  ,ask yourself1 why is this   
so8 ,in other words1 in your study do   
not  merely acquire1 but also construct4
 ,the former makes use mostly of  memory
 and though your memorizing be done ever
 so conscientiously1 if  it comprise the
 main part of your study1 you fail to   
utilize your mind  to its fullest       
extent4    ,let us now consider the     
second stage of the reasoning process as
 found  in study4 ,at this stage the    
facts in the mind are brought forward   
for  the purpose of being fitted into   
the present situation1 and the          
essential thing is that you have a large
 number of facts at your  disposal4 ,if 
you are going to reason effectively     

about problems in  history1 mathematics1
 geography1 it is absolutely            
indispensable that  you know many facts 
about the subjects4 ,one reason why you 
experience  difficulty in reasoning     
about certain subjects is that you do   
not know  enough about them4            
,particularly is this true in such      
subjects as  political economy1         
sociology and psychology4 ,the results  
of such  ignorance are often            
demonstrated in political and social    
movements4 ,why  do the masses so easily
 fall victims to doubtful reforms in    
national  and municipal policies8       
,because they do not know enough about  
these  matters to reason intelligently4 
,watch ignorant people listening to a   
demagogue and see what unreasonable     
things they accept4 ,the speaker        
propounds a question and then proceeds  
to answer it in his own way4 ,he  makes 
it appear plausible1 assuring his       
hearers it is the only way1 and  they   
agree because they do not have enough   

other facts at their command  to refute 
it4 ,they are unable1 as we say1 to see 
the situation in  several aspects4 ,the 
mistakes in reasoning which children    
make have a  similar basis4 ,the child  
reaches for the moon1 reasoning--,here  
is  something bright2 ,i can touch most 
bright things2 therefore1 ,i can  touch 
this4 ,his reasoning is fallacious      
because he does not have all  the facts4
 ,this condition is paralleled in the   
class-room when students  make what are 
shamefacedly looked back upon as        
miserable blunders4 ,when  one of these 
fiascos occurs the cause can many times 
be referred to the  fact that the       
student did not have enough facts at his
 command4  ,speaking broadly1 the most  
effective reasoning in a field can be   
done  by one who has had the most       
extensive experiences in that field4 ,if
 one  had complete acquaintance with all
 facts1 one would have perfect          
conditions for reasoning4 ,thus we see  
that effectiveness in reasoning  demands

 an extensive array of facts4           
,accordingly1 in your courses of  study 
you must read with avidity4 ,when you   
are given a list of readings  in a      
course1 some of which are required and  
some optional1 read both  sets1 and     
every new fact thus secured will make   
you better able to  reason in the field4
    ,but good reasoning demands more    
than mere quantity of ideas4 ,the ideas 
must conform to certain qualitative     
standards before they may be            
effectively employed in reasoning4 ,they
 must arise with promptness1 in  an     
orderly manner1 pertinent to the matter 
in hand1 and they must be  clear4 ,in   
securing promptness of association on   
the part of your ideas1  employ the     
methods described in the chapter on     
memory4 ,make many  logical associations
 with clearness and repetition4 ,in     
order to insure  the rise of ideas in an
 orderly manner1 pay attention to the   
manner in  which you acquire them4      
,remember1 things will be recalled as   

they were impressed1 so the value  of   
your ideas in reasoning will depend upon
 the manner in which you  make original 
impressions4 ,a further characteristic  
of serviceable  ideas is clarity4 ,ideas
 are sometimes described as clear in    
opposition to muddy4 ,you know what is  
meant by these distinctions1  and you   
may be assured that one cause for your  
failures in reasoning is  that your     
ideas are not clear4 ,this manifests    
itself in inability to  make clear      
statements and to comprehend clearly4   
,the latter condition  is easily        
illustrated4 ,when you began the study  
of geometry you faced a  multitude of   
new terms2 we call them technical terms1
 such as  projection1 scalene1 theory of
 limits4 ,these had to be clearly       
understood before you could reason in   
the subject4 ,and when1 in the  progress
 of your study1 you experienced         
difficulty in reasoning out  problems1  
it was very likely due to the fact that 
you did not master  the technical terms1

 and as soon as you encountered the     
difficulties of  the course1 you failed 
because your foundation laying did not  
involve  the acquisition of clear ideas4
 ,examine your difficulties in reasoning
  subjects and if you find them         
traceable to vagueness of ideas1 take   
steps to clarify them4    ,ideas may be 
clarified in two ways3 by definition and
 by  classification4 ,definition is a   
familiar device1 for you have had much  
to do with it in learning4 ,the         
memorization of definitions is an       
excellent practice1 not as an end in    
itself1 but as a means to the end  of   
effective reasoning4 ,throughout your   
study1 then1 pay much attention  to     
definitions4 ,some you will find in your
 texts1 but others you will  have to    
make for yourself4 ,in order to get     
practice in this1 undertake  the        
manufacture of a few definitions1 using 
terms such as charity1  benevolence1    
natural selection4 ,this exercise will  
reveal what an  exacting mental         

operation definition is and will prove  
how vague most of  your thinking really 
is4    ,a large stock of definitions    
will help you to think rapidly4         
,standing  as they do for a large group 
of experiences1 definitions are a means 
of  mental economy4 ,for illustration of
 their service in reasoning1 suppose    
you were asked to compare the serf1 the 
peon and the ,american slave4 ,if  you  
have a clean-cut definition of each of  
these terms1 you can readily            
differentiate between them1 but if you  
cannot define them1 you will  hardly be 
able to reason concerning them4    ,the 
second means of clarifying ideas is     
classification4 ,by this is  meant the  
process of grouping similar ideas or    
similar points of ideas4  ,for example1 
your ideas of serf1 peon and slave have 
some points in  common4 ,group the      
ideas1 then1 with reference to these    
points4 ,then in  reasoning you can     
quickly place an idea in its proper     
group4    ,the third stage of the       

reasoning process is decision1 based on 
belief1  and it comes inevitably1       
provided the other two processes have   
been  performed rightly4 ,accordingly1  
we need say little about its place in   
study4 ,one caution should be pointed   
out in making decisions4 ,do not  make  
them hastily on the basis of only one or
 two facts4 ,wait until you  have       
canvassed all the ideas that bear       
importantly upon the case4 ,the  masses 
that listen top eagerly to the demagogue
 do not err merely from  lack of ideas1 
but partly because they do not utilize  
all the facts at  their disposal4 ,this 
fault is frequently discernible in      
impulsive  people1 who notoriously make 
snap-judgments1 which means that they   
decide before canvassing all the        
evidence4 ,this trait marks the         
fundamental difference between          
superficial and profound thinkers4 ,the 
former accept surface facts and decide  
immediately1 while the latter  refuse to
 decide until after canvassing many     

facts4    ,in the improvement of        
reasoning ability your task is mainly   
one of  habit formation4 ,it is         
necessary1 first1 to form the habit of  
stating  things in the form of problems2
 second1 to form habits by which ideas  
arise promptly and profusely2 third1 to 
form habits of reserving  decisions     
until the important facts are in4 ,these
 are all specific  habits that must be  
built up if the reasoning processes of  
the mind are  to be effective4 ,already 
you have formed some habits1 if not     
habits of  careful looking into things1 
then habits of hasty1 heedless1         
impatient  glancing over the surface4   
,apply the principles of habit formation
  already enunciated1 and remember that 
with every act of reasoning you         
perform1 you are moulding yourself into 
a careless reasoner or an  accurate     
reasoner1 into a clear thinker or a     
muddy thinker4 ,this  chapter shows that
 reasoning is one of the highest powers 
of man4 ,it is  a mark of originality   

and intelligence1 and stamps its        
possessor not a  copier but an          
originator1 not a follower but a leader1
 not a slave1 to  have his thinking     
foisted upon him by others1 but a free  
and  independent intellect1 unshackled  
by the bonds of ignorance and           
convention4 ,the man who employs reason 
in acquiring knowledge1 finds  delights 
in study that are denied to a rote      
memorizer4 ,when one looks  at the world
 through glasses of reason1 inquiring   
into the eternal  why1 then facts take  
on a new meaning1 knowledge comes with  
new  power1 the facts of experience glow
 with vitality1 and one's own  relations
 with them appear in a new light4       
,,readings ,,and ,,exercises            
,readings3    ,adams 7#a7 ,chapter ,,iv4
    ,dearborn 7#b7 ,chapter ,v4         
,dewey 7#c7 ,chapters ,,iii and ,,vi4   
,exercise ,i4 ,illustrate the steps of  
the reasoning process1 by  describing   
the way in which you studied this       
chapter4    ,exercise #b4 ,try to define

 the following words without the        
assistance of  a dictionary3 ,college1  
university1 grammatical1 town-meeting4  
,exercise #c4 ,prepare a set of maxims  
designed to help a student change  from 
the rote memory method of study to the  
reason-why 7or  problem7 method4        
,,chapter ,x    ,,expression ,,as ,,an  
,,aid ,,in ,,study      ,in our         
discussion of the nervous basis         
underlying study we observed  that nerve
 pathways are affected not only by what 
enters over the  sensory pathways1 but  
also by what flows out over the motor   
pathways4  ,as the nerve currents travel
 out from the motor centres in the brain
 to  the muscles1 they leave traces     
which modify future thoughts and        
actions4 ,this being so1 it is easy to  
see that what we give out is  fully as  
important as what we take in2 in other  
words1 our  expressions are just as     
important as our impressions4 ,by       
expressions we mean the motor           
consequences of our thoughts1 and in    

study they usually take the form of     
speech and writing of a kind to be      
specified later4    ,the far-reaching   
effects of motor expressions are too    
infrequently  emphasized1 but psychology
 forces us to give them prime           
consideration4  ,we are first apprised  
of their importance when we study the   
nervous  system1 and find that every    
incoming sensory message pushes on and  
on  until it finds a motor pathway over 
which it may travel and produce         
movement4 ,this is inevitable4 ,the very
 structure and arrangement of the       
neurones is such that we are obliged to 
make some movement in response  to      
objects affecting our sense organs4 ,the
 extent of movement may vary  from the  
wide-spread tremors that occur when we  
are frightened by a  thunderstorm to the
 merest flicker of an eye-lash4 ,but    
whatever be its  extent1 movement       
invariably occurs when we are stimulated
 by some  object4 ,this has been        
demonstrated in startling ways in the   

psychological laboratory1 where even so 
simple a thing as a piece of  figured   
wall-paper has been shown to produce    
measurable bodily  disturbances4        
,ordinarily we do not notice these      
because they are so  slight1 sometimes  
being merely twitches of deep-seated    
muscles or  slight enlargements or      
contractions of arteries which are very 
responsive to nerve currents4 ,but no   
matter how large or how small1 we  may  
be sure that movements always occur on  
the excitation of a sense  organ4 ,this 
led us to assert in an earlier chapter  
that the function of  the nervous system
 is to convert incoming sensory currents
 into  outgoing motor currents4    ,so  
ingrained is this tendency toward       
movement that we do not need even  a    
sensory cue to start it off2 an idea    
will do as well4 ,in other words1  the  
nervous current need not start at a     
sense organ1 but may start in  the brain
 and still produce movement4 ,this fact 
is embodied in the law  of ideo-motor   

action 7distinguished from sensory-motor
 action71 every  idea in the mind tends 
to express itself in movement4 ,this    
motor  character of ideas is manifested 
in a most thorough-going way and        
renders our muscular system a faithful  
mirror of our thoughts4 ,we have  in the
 psychological laboratory delicate      
apparatus which enables us to  measure  
many of these slight movements4 ,for    
example1 we fasten a  recording device  
to the top of a person's head1 so that  
his slightest  movements will be        
recorded1 then we ask him while standing
 perfectly  still to think of an object 
at his right side4 ,after several       
moments  the record shows that he       
involuntarily leans in the direction of 
the  object about which he is thinking4 
,we find further illustration of this   
law when we examine people as they read1
 for they involuntarily  accompany the  
reading with movements of speech1       
measurable in the  muscles of the       
throat1 the tongue and the lips4 ,these 

facts1 and many  others1 constitute good
 evidence for the statement that ideas  
seek  expression in movement4    ,the   
ethical consequences of this are so     
momentous that we must remark  upon them
 in passing4 ,we now see the force of   
the biblical statement1  ,not that which
 entereth into the mouth defileth the   
man2 but that  which proceedeth out of  
the mouth1 this defileth the man4 ,think
 what  it means to one's character that 
every thought harbored in the mind is   
bound to come out4 ,it may not manifest 
itself at once in overt action1  but it 
affects the motor pathways and either   
weakens or strengthens  connections so  
that when the opportunity comes1 some   
act will be  furthered or hindered4 ,in 
view of the proneness to permit base    
thoughts  to enter the mind1 human      
beings might sometimes fear even to     
think4 ,a  more optimistic idea1        
however1 is that noble thoughts lead to 
noble  acts4 ,therefore1 keep in your   
mind the kind of thoughts that you wish 

to see actualized in your character and 
the appropriate acts will  follow of    
their own accord4    ,but it is with the
 significance of expressions in study   
that we are at  present concerned1 and  
here we find them of supreme importance4
 ,we  ordinarily regard learning as a   
process of taking things into the mind1 
and regard expression as a thing apart  
from acquisition of knowledge4  ,we     
shall find in this discussion1 however1 
that there is no such sharp  demarcation
 between acquiring knowledge and        
expressing knowledge1 but  that the two 
are intimately bound together1          
expressions being properly  a part of   
wise and economical learning4    ,when  
we survey the modes of expression that  
may be used in study1 we  find them to  
be of several kinds4 ,speech is one4    
,this is the form of  expression for    
which the class-recitation is provided4 
,if you wish to  grow as a student1     
utilize the recitation period and       
welcome every  chance to recite orally1 

for things about which you recite in    
class are  more effectively learned4    
,talking about a subject under all      
circumstances will help you learn4 ,when
 studying subjects like  political      
economy1 sociology or psychology1 seize 
every opportunity to  talk over the     
questions involved4 ,hold frequent      
conferences with your  instructor2 voice
 your difficulties freely1 and the very 
effort to  state them will help to      
clarify them4 ,it is a good plan for two
  students in the same course to come   
together and talk over the  problems2   
the debates thus stimulated and the     
questions aroused by  mental interaction
 are very helpful in impressing facts   
more vividly  upon the mind4    ,writing
 is a form of expression and is one     
thing that gives value to  note-taking  
and examinations4 ,its value is further 
recognized by the  requirements of      
themes and term-papers4 ,these are all  
mediums by which  you may develop       
yourself1 and they merit your earnest   

cooperation4    ,another medium of      
expression that students may profitably 
employ is  drawing4 ,this is especially 
valuable in such subjects as geology1   
physiology and botany4 ,students in     
botany are compelled to do much  drawing
 of the plant-forms which they study1   
and this is a wise  requirement1 for it 
makes them observe more carefully1      
report more  faithfully and recall with 
greater ease4 ,you may secure the same  
advantages by employing the graphic     
method in other studies4 ,for  example1 
when reading in a geology text-book     
about the stratification  of the earth  
in a certain region1 draw the parts     
described and label  them according to  
the description4 ,you will be surprised 
to see how  clear the description       
becomes and how easily it is later      
recalled4    ,let us examine the effects
 of the expressive movements of speech1 
writing and the like1 and see the       
mechanism by which they facilitate  the 
study process4 ,we may describe their   

effects in two ways3  neurologically and
 psychologically4 ,as may be expected   
from our  preliminary study of the      
nervous system1 we see their first      
effects  upon the motor pathways leading
 out to the muscles4 ,each passage of   
the  nerve current from brain to muscle 
leaves traces so that the resulting  act
 is performed with greater ease upon    
each repetition4 ,this fact has  already
 been emphasized by the warning1 ,guard 
the avenues of  expression4             
,especially is it important at the first
 performance of an act1  because this   
determines the path of later            
performances4 ,in such studies  as      
piano-playing1 vocalizing and           
pronunciation of foreign words1 see     
that your first performance is          
absolutely right1 then as the expressive
  movements are repeated1 they will be  
more firmly ingrained because of  the   
deepening of the motor pathways4    ,the
 next effect of acts of expression is to
 be found in the  modifications made in 

the sensory areas of the brain4 ,you    
will recall  that every movement of a   
muscle produces nervous currents which  
go back  to the brain and register there
 in the form of kinaesthetic sensations4
  ,to demonstrate kinaesthetic          
sensations1 close your eyes and move    
your  index finger up and down4 ,you can
 feel the muscles contracting and the   
tendons moving back and forth1 even into
 the back of the hand4 ,these           
sensations ordinarily escape our        
attention1 but they occupy a prominent  
place in the control of our actions4    
,for example1 when ascending  familiar  
stairs in the dark1 they notify us when 
we have reached the  top4 ,we are still 
further impressed with their importance 
when we are  deprived of them2 when we  
try to walk upon a foot or a leg that   
has  gone to sleep2 that is1 when the   
kinaesthetic nerves are temporarily     
paralyzed we find it difficult to walk4 
,but besides being used to  control     
muscular actions1 they may be used in   

study1 for they may be  made the source 
of impressions1 and impressions1 as we  
learned in the  chapter on memory1 are a
 prime requisite for learning4 ,each    
expression  becomes1 then1 through its  
kinaesthetic results1 the source of new 
impressions1 when1 for example1 you     
pronounce the ,german word1  anwenden1  
with the ,english word to employ1 in    
addition to the  impressions made       
through the ear1 you make impressions   
through the  muscles of speech          
7kinaesthetic impressions71 and these   
kinaesthetic  impressions enter into the
 body of your knowledge and later may   
serve  as the means by which the word   
may be revived4 ,when you write the     
word1  you make kinaesthetic impressions
 which may later serve as forms of      
revival4 ,so the movements of expression
 produce sensory material that  may     
serve as tentacles by means of which you
 can later reach back into  your memory 
and recall facts4    ,we shall now      
consider another service of expressions 

which1 though  little regarded1         
nevertheless is of much moment4 ,when we
 make  expressive movements1 much       
nervous energy is generated2 much more  
than  during passive impression4 ,energy
 is sent back to the brain over the     
kinaesthetic nerve cells1 and the       
greater the extent of the movement1  the
 greater is the amount of new energy    
sent to the brain4 ,it pours  into the  
brain and diffuses itself especially    
throughout the  association areas4 ,here
 it excites regions which could not be  
excited  by a more limited amount of    
energy4 ,this means1 in psychical terms1
  that new ideas are being aroused4 ,the
 obvious inference from this fact  is   
that you may1 by starting movements of  
expression1 actually summon  to your    
assistance added powers of mind4 ,for   
example1 when you are  called upon to   
recite in class1 your mind seems to be a
 complete  blank--in a state of         
deadlock4 ,you may break this deadlock  
and  start brain-action by some kind of 

movement4 ,it may be only to clear  your
 throat1 to ejaculate well1 or to squirm
 about in the seat1 but  whatever form  
the movement takes1 it will usually be  
effective in  creating the desired      
nervous energy1 and after the inertia is
 once  overcome the mental stream will  
flow freely4 ,the unconscious           
application of this device is seen when 
a man is called on suddenly to  make a  
speech for which he has not prepared4   
,he usually starts out by  telling a    
story1 thus liberating nervous energy to
 pour back into the  brain and start    
thinking processes4 ,with increasing    
vehemence of  expression1 the ideas come
 more and more freely1 and the result is
 a  speech which surpasses the          
expectations of the speaker himself4    
,the  gesticulations of many speakers   
have this same function1 being          
frequently of great service in arousing 
more nervous energy1 which goes  back to
 the brain and arouses more ideas4      
,the device of stimulating ideas by     

expressive movements may be utilized  in
 theme- or letter-writing4 ,it is       
generally recognized that the  difficult
 thing in such writing is to get a      
start1 and the too common  practice is  
to sit listlessly gazing into space     
waiting for  inspiration4 ,this is      
usually a futile procedure4 ,the better 
way is to  begin to write anything about
 the topic in hand4 ,what you write may 
have little merit1 either of substance  
or form4 ,nevertheless1 if you  persist 
in keeping up the activity of writing1  
making more and more  movements1 you    
will find that the ideas will begin to  
come in greater  profusion until they   
come so fast you can hardly write them  
down4    ,having tried to picture the   
neural effect of expression1 we may now 
translate them into psychological terms1
 asking what service the  expressions   
render to the conscious side of our     
study4 ,first of all1 we  note that the 
expressions help to make the acts and   
ideas in study  habitual4 ,we find      

ourselves1 with each expression1 better 
able to  perform such acts as the       
pronunciation of foreign words4 ,second1
 they  furnish new impressions through  
the kinaesthetic sense1 thus being a    
source of sense-impression4 ,third1 they
 give rise to a greater number  of ideas
 and link them up with the idea dominant
 at the moment4 ,there  is a further    
psychological effect of expression in   
the clarification of  ideas4 ,it is a   
well-attested fact that when we attempt 
to explain a  thing to someone else1 it 
becomes clearer in our own minds4 ,you  
can  demonstrate this for yourself by   
attempting to explain to someone an     
intricate conception such as the nebular
 hypothesis4 ,the effort  involved in   
making the explanation makes the fact   
more vivid to you4  ,the habit of thus  
utilizing your knowledge in conversation
 is an  excellent one to acquire4       
,indeed1 expression is the only         
objective test  of knowledge and we     
cannot say that we really know until we 

can express  our knowledge4 ,expression 
is thus the great clarification agency  
and  the test of knowledge4 ,before     
leaving this discussion1 it might be    
well  to remark upon one phase of       
expression that is sometimes a source of
  difficulty4 ,this is the embarrassment
 incident to some forms of  expression1 
notably oral4 ,many people are deterred 
from utilizing this  form of expression 
because of shyness and embarrassment in 
the presence  of others4 ,if you have   
this difficulty in such excess that it  
hinders  you from free expression1      
resolve at once to overcome it4 ,begin  
at the  very outset of your academic    
career to form habits of disregarding   
your  impulses to act in frightened     
manner4 ,take a course in public        
speaking4  ,the practice thus secured   
will be a great aid in developing habits
 of  fearless and free oral expression4 
,this discussion has shown that         
expression is a powerful aid in         
learning1 and is a most important       

feature of mental life4 ,cultivate  your
 powers of expression1 for your college 
education should consist  not only in   
the development of habits of impression1
 but also in the  development of habits 
of expression4 ,grasp eagerly every     
opportunity  for the development of     
skill in clear and forceful expression4 
,devote  assiduous attention to themes  
and all written work1 and make serious  
efforts to speak well4 ,remember you are
 forming habits that will  persist      
throughout your life4 ,emphasize1       
therefore1 at every step1  methods of   
expression1 for it is this phase of     
learning in which you  will find        
greatest growth4    ,,exercise          
,exercise ,i4 ,give an example from your
 own experience1 showing how  expression
 7a7 stimulates ideas1 7b7 clarifies    
ideas4          ,,chapter ,,xi    ,,how 
,,to ,,become ,,interested ,,in ,a      
,,subject      ,i can't get interested  
in ,mediaeval ,history4 ,this           
illustrates a kind  of complaint        

frequently made by college students4 ,it
 is our purpose in  this chapter to show
 the fallacy of this2 to prove that     
interest may be  developed in an        
uninteresting subject2 and to show how4 
,in order to lay a firm foundation for  
our psychologizing1 let us  examine into
 the nature of interest and see what it 
really is4 ,it has  been defined as3 the
 recognition of a thing which has been  
vitally  connected with experience      
before--a thing recognized as old2      
impulse  to attend2 interest naturally  
arouses tendencies to act2 the root     
idea of the term seems to be that of    
being engaged1 engrossed1 or  entirely  
taken up with some activity because of  
its recognized worth2  interest marks   
the annihilation of the distance between
 the person and  the materials and      
results of his action2 it is the sign of
 their  organic union4    ,in addition  
to the characteristics just mentioned   
should be noted the  pleasurableness    
that usually attends any activity in    

which we are  interested4 ,a growing    
feeling of pleasure is the sign which   
notifies  us that we are growing        
interested in a subject4 ,and it is such
 an aid  in the performance of work that
 we should seek earnestly to acquire it 
in connection with any work we have to  
do4    ,the persons who make the        
complaint at the head of this chapter   
notice  that they take interest easily  
in certain things3 a ,jack ,london      
story1  a dish of ice cream1 a foot-ball
 game4 ,and they take interest in them  
so spontaneously and effortlessly that  
they think these interests must  be born
 within them4    ,when we examine       
carefully the interests of man1 and     
trace their  sources1 we see that the   
above view is fallacious4 ,we acquire   
most of  our interests in the course of 
our experience4 ,professor ,james       
asserts3  ,an adult man's interests are 
almost every one of them intensely      
artificial2 they have been slowly built 
up4 ,the objects of professional        

interest are most of them in their      
original nature1 repulsive2 but by      
their connection with such natively     
exciting objects as one's personal      
fortune1 one's social responsibilities  
and especially by the force of          
inveterate habit1 they grow to be the   
only things for which in middle  life a 
man profoundly cares4    ,since         
interests are largely products of       
experience1 then1 it follows  that if we
 wish to have an interest in a given    
subject1 we must  consciously and       
purposefully develop it4 ,there is wide 
choice open to  us4 ,we may develop     
interest in early ,victorian literature1
 prize-fight  promoting1 social theory1 
lignitic rocks1 history of ,siam1 the   
collection of scarabs1 mediaeval        
history4    ,we should not be deceived  
by the glibness of the above statements 
into  assuming that the development of  
interest is an easy matter4 ,it         
requires adherence to certain definite  
psychological laws which we may  call   

the laws of interest4 ,the first may be 
stated as follows3 ,in  order to develop
 interest in a subject1 secure          
information about it4  ,the force of    
this law will be apparent as soon as we 
analyze one of our  already-developed   
interests4 ,let us take one that is     
quite common--the  interest which a     
typical young girl takes in a movie     
star4 ,her interest  in him comes       
largely from what she has been able to  
learn about him2  the names of the      
productions in which he has appeared1   
his age1 the  color of his automobile1  
his favorite novel4 ,her interest may be
 said  actually to consist1 at least in 
part1 of these facts4 ,the astute press 
agent knows the force of this law1 and  
at well-timed intervals he lets  slip   
through bits of information about the   
star1 which fan the interest  of the    
fair devotee to a still whiter heat4    
,the relation of information to interest
 is still further illustrated by  the   
case of the typical university professor

 or scientist4 ,he is  interested in    
certain objects of research--infusoria1 
electrons1 plant  ecology1--because he  
knows so much about them4 ,his interest 
may be  said to consist partly of the   
body of knowledge that he possesses4 ,he
  was not always interested in the      
specific1 obscure field1 but by         
saturating himself in facts about it1 he
 has developed an interest in  it       
amounting to passionate absorption1     
which manifests itself in               
absent-mindedness of such profundity as 
to make him often an object  of wonder  
and ridicule4    ,let us demonstrate the
 application of the law again showing   
how  interest may be developed in a     
specific college subject4 ,let us choose
  one that is generally regarded as so  
difficult and abstract that  not many   
people are interested in it--philology1 
the study of language  as a science4    
,let us imagine that we are trying to   
interest a student  of law in this4 ,as 
a first step we shall select some legal 

term and  show what philology can tell  
about it4 ,a term frequently encountered
 in  law is indenture--a certain form of
 contract4 ,philological researches     
have uncovered an interesting history   
regarding this word4 ,it seems  that in 
olden days when two persons made an     
agreement they wrote it on  two pieces  
of paper1 then notched the edges so that
 when placed  together1 the notches on  
the edge of one paper would just match  
those  of the other4 ,this protected    
both parties against substitution of a  
fraudulent contract at time of          
fulfillment4    ,still earlier in man's 
development1 before he could write1 it  
was  customary to record such agreements
 by breaking a stick in two pieces  and 
leaving the jagged ends to be fitted    
together at time of  fulfillment4       
,sometimes a bone was used this way4    
,because its critical  feature was the  
saw-toothed edge1 this kind of contract 
was called  indenture 7derived from the 
root dent--tooth1 the same one from     

which  we derive our word dentist74     
,the formal1 legal-looking document     
which we today call an indenture  gives 
us no hint of its humble origin1 but the
 word when analyzed by  the technique of
 philology tells the whole story1 and   
throws much light  upon the legal       
practices of our forbears4 ,having      
discovered one such  valuable fact in   
philology1 the student of law may be led
 to  investigate the science still      
further and find many more4 ,as a result
  still he will become interested in    
philology4    ,by this illustration we  
have demonstrated the first             
psychological law  of interest1 and also
 its corollary which is3 ,state the new 
in terms  of the old4 ,for we not only  
gave our lawyer new information culled  
from philological sources2 we also      
introduced our fact in terms of an  old 
fact which was already interesting to   
the lawyer4 ,this is  recognized as such
 an important principle in education    
that it has  become embodied in a maxim3

 ,proceed from the known to the unknown4
    ,a classic example of good          
educational practice in this connection 
is  the way in which ,francis ,w4       
,parker1 a progressive educator of a    
former  generation1 taught geography4   
,when he desired to show how water      
running  over hard rocky soil produced a
 ,niagara1 he took his class down to the
  creek behind the school house1 built a
 dam and allowed the water to  flow over
 it4 ,when he wished to show how water  
flowing over soft ground  resulted in a 
deltoid ,nile1 he took the class to a   
low1 flat portion of  the creek bed and 
pointed out the effect4 ,the creek bed  
constituted an  old familiar element in 
the children's experience4 ,niagara and 
the ,nile  described in terms of it were
 intelligible4    ,naturally in modern  
educational practice it is not always   
possible to  have miniature waterfalls  
and river bottoms at hand1 still it is  
possible to follow this principle4      
,when1 in studying ,mediaeval ,history1 

you read a description of the guilds1 do
 not regard them as distant1  cold1     
inert institutions devoid of            
significance in your life4 ,rather1     
think of them in terms of things you    
already know3 modern ,labor ,unions1    
technical schools1 in so far as the     
comparison holds good4 ,then trace      
their industrial descendants down to the
 present time4 ,by thus thinking  about 
the guilds1 hitherto distant and        
uninteresting1 you will begin to  see   
them suffused with meaning1 alight with 
significance1 a real part  of yourself4 
,in short1 you will have achieved       
interest4    ,there is still another    
psychological law of interest3 ,in order
 to  develop interest in a subject1     
exert activity toward it4 ,we see the   
force of this law when we observe a man 
in the process of developing an         
interest in golf4 ,at the start he may  
have no interest in it whatever2  he may
 even deride it4 ,yielding to the       
importunities of his friends1  however1 

he takes his stick in hand and samples  
the game4 ,then he  begins to relent2   
admits that perhaps there may be        
something  interesting about the game   
after all4 ,as he practises with greater
  frequency he begins to develop a      
warmer and still warmer interest until  
finally he thinks of little else2       
neglecting social and professional      
obligations and boring his friends ad   
nauseum with recitals of  golfing       
incidents4 ,the methods by which the    
new-fledged golfer develops  an interest
 in golf will apply with equal          
effectiveness in the case of  a student4
 ,in trying to become interested in     
,mediaeval ,history1 keep  actively     
engaged in it4 ,read book after book    
dealing with the subject4  ,apply it to 
your studies in ,political ,economy1    
,english1 and ,american  ,history4      
,choose sub-topics in ,mediaeval        
,history as the subjects for  themes in 
,english composition courses4 ,try to   
help some other student  in the class4  

,take part in class discussions and talk
 informally with  the instructor outside
 of the classroom4 ,use your ingenuity  
to devise  methods of keeping active    
toward the subject4 ,presently you will 
discover that the subject no longer     
appears cold and forbidding2 but  that  
it glows warm with virility2 that it has
 become interesting4    ,it will readily
 be noticed that the two laws of        
interest here set forth  are closely    
interrelated4 ,one can hardly seek      
information about a  subject without    
exerting activity toward it2 conversely1
 one cannot  maintain activity on behalf
 of a subject without at the same time  
acquiring information about it4 ,these  
two easily-remembered and               
easily-applied rules of study will go   
far toward solving some of the  most    
trying conditions of student life4      
,memorize them1 apply them1 and  you    
will find yourself in possession of a   
power which will stay with  you long    
after you quit college walls2 one which 

you may apply with  profit in many      
different situations of life4    ,we    
have shown in this chapter the fallacy  
of the assumption that a  student cannot
 become genuinely interested in a       
subject which at first  seems           
uninteresting4    ,we have shown that he
 may develop interest in any subject if 
he but  employs the proper psychological
 methods4 ,that he must obey the        
two-fold law--secure information about  
the subject 7stating the new in  terms  
of the old7 and exert activity toward   
it4 ,that when he has thus  lighted the 
flame of interest1 he will find his     
entire intellectual  life illuminated1  
glowing with purpose1 resplendent with  
success4    ,in concluding this         
discussion we should note the wide      
difference  between the quality of study
 which is done with interest and that   
done  without it4 ,under the latter     
condition the student is a slave1 a     
drudge2 under the former1 a god1 a      
creator4 ,touched by the galvanic  spark

 he sees new significance in every page1
 in every line4 ,as his  vision         
enlarges1 he perceives new relations    
between his study and his  future aims1 
indeed1 between his study and the       
progress of the  universe4 ,and he goes 
to his educational tasks not as a       
prisoner  weighted down by ball and     
chain1 but as an eager prospector       
infatuated  by the lust for gold4       
,encouraged by the continual stores of  
new things  he uncovers1 intoxicated by 
the ozone of mental activity1 he delves 
continually deeper until finally he     
emerges rich with knowledge and  full of
 power--the intellectual power that     
signifies mastery over a  subject4      
,,readings ,,and ,,exercises            
,readings3 ,james 7#h7 ,chapters ,x and 
,,xi4 ,dewey 7#c7    ,exercise ,i4 ,show
 how your interest in some subject1 for 
example1 the  game of foot-ball1 has    
grown in proportion to the number of    
facts you  have discovered about it and 
the activity you have exerted toward it4

    ,exercise #b4 ,choose some subject  
in which you are not at present         
interested4 ,make the statement3--,i am 
determined to develop an  interest in--4
 ,i will take the following specific    
steps toward this  end4                 
,,chapter ,,xii    ,,the ,,plateau ,,of 
,,despond      ,in our investigation of 
the psychology of study we have so far  
directed  our attention chiefly toward  
the subjective side of the question1    
seeking to discover the contents of mind
 during study4 ,we shall now  take an   
objective view of study1 examining not  
the contents of mind nor  methods of    
study1 but the objective results of     
study4 ,in doing this1 we  choose       
certain units of measurement1 the number
 of minutes required for  learning a    
given amount or the amount learned in a 
stated period of  time4 ,we may do this 
for the learning of any material1       
whether it be  ,greek verbs or          
typewriting4 ,all that is necessary is  
to decide upon  some method by which    

progress can be noted and expressed in  
numerical  units4 ,this1 you will       
observe1 constitutes a statistical      
approach to  the processes of study1    
such as is employed in science2 and just
 as the  statistical method has been    
useful in science1 so it may be of value
 in  education1 and by means of         
statistical investigations of learning  
we  may hope to discover some of the    
factors operative in good learning4     
,progress in learning is best observable
 when we represent our  measurements    
graphically1 when they take the form of 
a curve1 variously  called the curve of 
efficiency1 practice curve1 learning    
curve4  ,we shall take a sample curve   
for the basis of our discussion1 showing
  the progress of a beginner in the     
,russian language for sixty-five days   
7indicated in the figure by horizontal  
divisions74 ,the student studied        
industriously for thirty minutes each   
day and then translated as  rapidly as  
possible for fifteen minutes1 the number

 of words translated  being represented 
by the vertical spaces on the chart4    
,thus1 on the  tenth day1 twenty-five   
words were translated1 on the twentieth 
day1  forty-five words4    ,illustration
 7graph73 ,,study ,,of ,,russian    ,in 
making an analysis of this typical      
curve1 we note immediately an  exceeding
 irregularity4 ,at one time there is    
extraordinary  improvement1 but a later 
measurement registers pronounced loss4  
,this  irregularity is very common in   
learning4 ,some days we do a great      
amount  of work and do it well1 but     
perhaps the very next day shows marked  
diminution in our work4    ,the second  
characteristic we note is that there is 
extremely rapid  progress at the        
beginning1 the curve slanting up quite  
sharply4 ,this is  common in learning1  
and may be accounted for in several     
ways4 ,in the  first place1 the easiest 
things come first4 ,for example1 when   
you are  beginning the study of ,german1
 you are given mostly monosyllabic words

  to learn4 ,these are easily           
remembered1 hence progress is rapid4 ,a 
second reason is that at the beginning  
there are many different  respects in   
which progress can be made4 ,for        
example1 the beginner in  ,german must  
learn nouns1 case endings1 declension of
 adjectives1 days  of the week2 in      
short1 a vast number of new things all  
at once4 ,at a  later period however1   
the number of new things to be learned  
is much  smaller and improvement cannot 
be so rapid4 ,a third reason why        
learning  proceeds more rapidly at first
 is that the interest is greater at this
  time4 ,you have doubtless many times  
experienced this fact1 and you know     
that when a thing has the interest of   
novelty you work harder upon it4    ,if 
you will examine the learning curve     
closely1 you will note that  after the  
initial spurt1 there is a slowing up4   
,the curve at this point  resembles a   
plateau and indicates cessation of      
progress if not  retrogression4 ,this   

period of no progress is regarded as a  
characteristic of the learning curve and
 is a time of great  discouragement to  
the conscientious student1 so           
distressing that we may  designate it   
the plateau of despond4 ,most people    
describe it as a  time when they feel   
unable to learn more about a subject2   
the mind  seems to be sated2 new ideas  
cannot be assimilated1 and old ones seem
  to be forgotten4 ,the plateau may     
extend for a long or a short time1      
depending upon the nature of the        
subject-matter and the length of time   
over which the learning extends4 ,in the
 case of professional training1  it may 
extend over a year or more4 ,in the case
 of growing children in  school1 it     
sometimes happens that an entire year   
elapses during which  the learning of an
 apparently bright student is retarded4 
,in a course  of study in high school or
 college1 it may come on about the third
 week  and extend a month or more4      
,something akin to the plateau may come 

in  the course of a day1 when we realize
 that our efficiency is greatly         
diminished and we seem1 for an hour or  
more1 to make no progress4    ,inasmuch 
as the plateau is such a common         
occurrence in human activity1  we should
 analyze it and see what factors operate
 to influence it4 ,it  is interesting to
 note that the plateau generally occurs 
just before an  abrupt rise in          
efficiency4 ,this is significant1 for it
 may mean that  the plateau is necessary
 in learning1 especially just before    
reaching  the really advanced stages of 
proficiency4 ,accordingly1 when you are 
experiencing a plateau in the mastery of
 some accomplishment1 you may  perhaps  
derive some comfort from the prospect of
 an approaching rise in  efficiency4 ,on
 the theory that it is a necessary part 
of learning1 it  has been regarded as a 
resting place4 ,we are so constituted by
 nature  that we cannot run on          
indefinitely2 nature sometimes must call
 a halt4  ,consequently1 the plateau may

 be a warning that we cannot learn more 
for the present and that the proper     
remedy is to refrain for a little  while
 from further efforts in that line4 ,we 
have possible justification  for this   
interpretation when we reflect that a   
vacation does us much  good1 and though 
we begin it feeling stale1 we end it    
feeling much  fresher and more          
efficient4    ,but to stop work         
temporarily is not the only way to meet 
a plateau1 and  fatigue or ennui is     
probably not the sole or most compelling
  explanation4 ,it may be that we should
 not regard the objective results  as   
the true measure of learning2 perhaps   
learning is going on even  though the   
results are not apparent4 ,we discovered
 something in the  nature of unconscious
 learning in our discussion of memory1  
and it may  be that a period of little  
objective progress marks a period of    
active  unconscious learning4           
,another meaning which the plateau may  
have is simply to mark places of        

greater difficulty4 ,as already         
remarked1 the early period is a stage of
  comparative ease1 but as the work     
becomes more difficult1 progress is     
slower4 ,it is also quite likely that   
the plateau may indicate that some  of  
the factors operative at the start are  
operative no longer4 ,thus1  although   
the learning was rapid at the beginning 
because the material  learned at that   
time was easy1 the plateau may come     
because the things  to be learned have  
become difficult4 ,or1 whereas the      
beginning was  attacked with            
considerable interest1 the plateau may  
mean that the  interest is dying down1  
and that less effort is being exerted4  
,if these theories are the true         
explanation of the plateau1 we see that 
it is not to be regarded as a time of   
reduction in learning1 to be            
contemplated with despair4 ,the         
appropriate attitude may be one of      
resignation1 with the determination to  
make it as slightly disturbing  as      

possible4 ,but though the reasons just  
described may have something  to do with
 the production of the plateau1 as yet  
we have no evidence  that the plateau   
cannot be dispensed with4 ,it is        
practically certain  that the plateau is
 not caused entirely by necessity for   
rest or  unconscious learning4 ,it      
frequently is due1 we must regretfully  
admit1  to poor early preparation4 ,if  
at the beginning of a period of learning
  an insecure foundation is laid1 it    
cannot be expected to support the       
burden of more difficult subject-matter4
    ,we have enumerated a number of the 
explanations that have been advanced  to
 account for the plateau1 and have seen 
that it may have several  causes1 among 
which are necessity for rest1 increased 
difficulty of  subject-matter1 loss of  
interest and insufficient preparation4  
,in  trying to eliminate the plateau1   
our remedy should be adapted to the     
cause4 ,in recognition of the fact that 
learning proceeds irregularly1  we see  

that it is rational to expect the amount
 of effort to be exerted  throughout a  
period of learning1 to vary4 ,it will   
vary partly with the  difficulty of     
subject-matter and partly with          
fluctuations in bodily and  mental      
efficiency which are bound to occur from
 day to day4 ,since this  irregularity  
is bound to occur1 you may well make    
your effort vary from  one extreme to   
the other4 ,at times1 perhaps your most 
profitable move  may be to take a       
complete vacation4 ,the vacation might  
cover several  weeks1 a week-end1 or if 
the plateau is merely a low period in   
the  day's work1 then ten minutes may   
suffice for a vacation4 ,as an adjunct  
to such rest periods1 some form of      
recreation should usually be  planned1  
for the essential thing is to permit the
 mind to rest from the  tiresome        
activity4    ,if your plateau represents
 greater difficulty of subject-matter   
and  loss of interest1 your duty is     
plainly to work harder4 ,in exerting    

more  effort1 make some changes in your 
methods of study4 ,for example1 if you  
have been accustomed to study a certain 
subject by silent reading1  begin to    
read your lessons aloud4 ,change your   
method of taking notes1  or change the  
hour of day in which you prepare your   
lesson4 ,in short1  try any of the      
methods described in this book1 and use 
your own  ingenuity1 and the change in  
method may overcome the plateau4    ,if 
a plateau is due to our last-mentioned  
cause1 insufficient  preparation1 the   
remedy must be drastic4 ,to make new    
resolutions and to  put forth additional
 effort is not enough2 you must go back 
and relay  the foundation4 ,make a      
thorough review of the work which you   
covered  slightingly1 making sure that  
every step is clear4 ,this process was  
described in an earlier chapter as the  
clarification of ideas and is           
absolutely essential in building up a   
structure of knowledge that will  stand4
 ,indeed1 as you take various courses   

you will find that your  study will be  
much improved by periodical reviews4    
,the benefits cannot  all be enumerated 
here1 but we may reasonably claim that a
 review will  be very likely to remove a
 plateau1 and used with the other       
remedies  herein suggested1 will help   
you to rid yourself of one of the most  
discouraging features of student life4  
,,reading ,,and ,,exercise    ,reading3 
,swift 7#bj7 ,chapter ,,iv4    ,exercise
 ,i4 ,describe one or more plateaus that
 you have observed in  your own         
experience4 ,what do you regard as the  
causes8          ,,chapter ,,xiii       
,,mental ,,second-,,wind      ,did you  
ever engage in any exhausting physical  
work for a long period  of time8 ,if so1
 you probably remember that as you      
proceeded1 you became  more and more    
fatigued1 finally reaching a point when 
it seemed that  you could not endure the
 strain another minute4 ,you had just   
decided to  give up1 when suddenly the  
fatigue seemed to diminish and new      

energy  seemed to come from some source4
 ,this curious thing1 which happens     
frequently in athletic activities1 is   
known as second-wind1 and is  described1
 by those who have experienced it1 as a 
time of increased  power1 when the work 
is done with greater ease and           
effectiveness and  with a freshness and 
vigor in great contrast to the staleness
 that  preceded it4 ,it is as though one
 tapped a level of new energy1          
revealing hidden stores of unexpected   
power4 ,and it is commonly  reported    
that with persistence in pushing one's  
self farther and  farther1 a third and  
fourth wind may be uncovered1 each one  
leading to  greater heights of          
achievement4    ,this phenomenon occurs 
not alone on the physical plane2 it is  
discernible in mental exertion as well4 
,true1 we seldom experience it  because 
we are mentally lazy and have the habit 
of stopping our work at  the first signs
 of fatigue4 ,did we persist1 however1  
disregarding  fatigue and ennui1 we     

should find ourselves tapping vast      
reserves of  mental power and           
accomplishing mental feats of           
astonishing brilliancy4    ,the         
occasional occurrence of the phenomenon 
of second-wind gives ground  for the    
statement that we possess more energy   
than we ordinarily use4  ,there are     
several lines of evidence for this      
statement4 ,one is to be  found in the  
energizing effects of emotional         
excitement4 ,under the  impetus of      
anger1 a man shows far greater strength 
than he ordinarily  uses4 ,similarly1 a 
mother manifests the strength of a      
tigress when her  young is endangered4  
,a second line of evidence is furnished 
by the  effect of stimulants4 ,alcohol  
brings to the fore surprising reserves  
of  physical and psychic energy4        
,lastly1 we have innumerable instances  
of  accession of strength under the     
stimulus of an idea4 ,under the         
domination of an all-absorbing idea1 one
 performs feats of  extraordinary       

strength1 utilizing stores of energy    
otherwise out of  reach4 ,we have only  
to read of the heroic achievements of   
little ,joan  of ,arc for an example of 
such manifestation of reserve power4    
,when we examine this accession of      
energy we find it to be describable  in 
several ways--physiologically1          
neurologically and psychologically4     
,the physiological effects consist in a 
heightening of the bodily  functions in 
general4 ,the muscles become more ready 
to act1 the  circulation is accelerated1
 the breathing more rapid4 ,curious     
things  take place in various glands    
throughout the body4 ,one1 the adrenal  
gland1 has been the object of special   
study and has been shown1 upon  the     
arousal of these reserves of energy1 to 
produce a secretion of the  utmost      
importance in providing for sudden      
emergencies4 ,this little  gland is     
located above the kidney1 and is aroused
 to intense activity  at times1 pouring 
out into the blood a fluid that goes all

 over the  body4 ,some of its effects   
are to furnish the blood with chemicals 
that  act as fuel to the muscles1       
assisting them to contract more         
vigorously1  to make the lungs more     
active in introducing oxygen into the   
system1 to  make the heart more active  
in distributing the blood throughout the
  body4 ,such glandular activity is an  
important physiological condition  of   
these higher levels of energy4 ,in      
neurological terms1 the increase  in    
energy consists in the flow of more     
nervous energy into the brain1          
particularly into those areas where it  
is needed for certain kinds of          
controlled thought and action4 ,an      
abundance of nervous energy is very     
advantageous1 for1 as has been intimated
 in a former chapter1 nervous  energy is
 diffused and spread over all the       
pathways that are easily  permeable to  
its distribution4 ,this results in the  
use of considerable  areas of brain     
surface1 and knits up many associations1

 so that one  idea calls up many other  
ideas4 ,this leads us to recognize the  
psychological conditions of increased   
energy1 which are1 first1 the  presence 
of more ideas1 second1 the more facile  
flow of ideas2 the  whole accompanied by
 a state of marked pleasurableness4     
,pleasure is a  notable effect of       
increased energy4 ,when work progresses 
rapidly and  satisfactorily1 it is      
accomplished with great zest and a      
feeling almost  akin to exaltation4     
,these conditions describe to some      
degree the  conditions when we are doing
 efficient work4    ,since we are       
endowed with the energy requisite for   
such efficient work1  the obvious       
question is1 why do we not more         
frequently use it8 ,the  answer is to be
 found in the fact that we have formed  
the habit of  giving up before we create
 conditions of high efficiency4 ,you    
will note  that the conditions require  
long-continued exertion and resolute    
persistence4 ,this is difficult1 and we 

indulgently succumb to the first        
symptoms of fatigue1 before we have more
 than scratched the surface of  our real
 potentialities4    ,because of the     
prominent place occupied by fatigue in  
thus being  responsible for our         
diminished output1 we shall briefly     
consider its  place in study4 ,everyone 
who has studied will agree that fatigue 
is an  almost invariable attendant of   
continuous mental exertion4 ,we shall   
lay  down the proposition at the start1 
however1 that the awareness of  fatigue 
is not the same as the objective fatigue
 in the organs of the  body4 ,fatigue   
should be regarded as a twofold thing--a
 state of mind1  designated its         
subjective aspect1 and a condition of   
various parts of  the body1 designated  
its objective aspect4 ,the former is    
observable by  introspection1 the latter
 by analysis of bodily secretions and by
  measurement of the diminution of work1
 entirely without reference to  the way 
the mind regards the work4 ,fatigue     

subjectively1 or fatigue as  we feel it1
 is not at all the same as fatigue as   
manifested in the  body4 ,if we were to 
make two curves1 the one showing the    
advancement of  the feeling of fatigue1 
and the other showing the advancement of
  impotence on the part of the bodily   
processes1 the two curves would not  at 
all coincide4 ,stated another way1      
fatigue is a complex thing1 a  product  
of ideas1 feelings and sensations1 and  
sometimes the ideas  overbalance the    
sensations and we think we are more     
tired then we are  objectively4 ,it is  
this fact that accounts for our too     
rapid giving up  when we are engaged in 
hard work4    ,a psychological analysis 
of the subjective side of fatigue will  
make  its true nature more apparent4    
,probably the first thing we find in the
  mind when fatigued is a large mass of 
sensations4 ,they are referred to       
various parts of the body1 mostly the   
part where muscular activity has  been  
most violent and prolonged4 ,not all of 

the sensations1 however1  are intense   
enough to be localizable1 some being so 
vague that we  merely say we are tired  
all over4 ,these vague sensations are   
often  overlooked2 nevertheless1 as will
 be shown later1 they may be            
exceedingly important4    ,but          
sensations are not the only contents of 
the mind at time of  fatigue4 ,feelings 
are present also1 usually of a very     
unpleasant kind4  ,they are related     
partly to the sensations mentioned      
above1 which are  essentially painful1  
and they are feelings of boredom and    
ennui4 ,we  have yet to examine the     
ideas in mind and their behavior at time
 of  fatigue4 ,they come sluggishly1    
associations being made slowly and      
inaccurately1 and we make many mistakes4
 ,but constriction of ideas is  not the 
sole effect of fatigue4 ,at such a time 
there are usually other  ideas in the   
mind not relevant to the fatiguing task 
of the moment1  and exceedingly         
distracting4 ,often they are so         

insistent in forcing  themselves upon   
our attention that we throw up the work 
without further  effort4 ,it is         
practically certain that much of our    
fatigue is due1 not  to real weariness  
and inability to work1 but to the       
presence of ideas  that appear so       
attractive in contrast with the work in 
hand that we say  we are tired of the   
latter4 ,what we really mean is that we 
would rather  do something else4 ,these 
obtruding ideas are often introduced    
into our  minds by other people who tell
 us that we have worked long enough and 
ought to come and play1 and though we   
may not have felt tired up to  this     
point1 still the suggestion is so strong
 that we immediately begin  to feel     
tired4 ,various social situations can   
arouse the same  suggestion4 ,for       
example1 as the clock nears quitting    
time1 we feel that  we ought to be      
tired1 so we allow ourselves to think we
 are4    ,let us now examine the bodily 
conditions to see what fatigue is       

objectively4 ,physiologically it has    
been demonstrated that fatigue is       
accompanied by three sorts of changes4  
,first1 poisons accumulate in the  blood
 and affect the action of the nervous   
system1 as has been shown by  direct    
analysis4 ,mosso 444 selected two dogs  
as nearly alike as  possible4 ,one he   
kept tied all day2 the other1 he        
exercised until by  night it was        
thoroughly tired4 ,then he transfused   
the blood of the  tired animal into the 
veins of the rested one and produced in 
him all  the signs of fatigue that were 
shown by the other4 ,there can be no    
doubt that the waste products of the    
body accumulate in the blood and        
interfere with the action of the nerve  
cells and muscles4 ,it is  probable that
 these accumulations come as a result of
 mental as well as  of physical work4   
,a second change in fatigue has been    
found in the cell body of the  neurone4 
,hodge showed that the size of the      
nucleus of the cell in the  spinal cord 

of a bee diminished nearly #ge per cent1
 as a result of the  day's activity1 and
 that the nucleus became much less      
solid4 ,a third  change that has been   
demonstrated as a result of muscular    
work is the  accumulation of waste      
products in the muscle tissue4 ,fatigued
 muscles  contain considerable          
percentages of these products4 ,that    
they are  important factors in the      
fatigue process has been shown by       
washing them  from a fatigued muscle4   
,as a result the muscle gains new       
capacity for  work4 ,the experiments are
 performed on the muscles of a frog that
 have  been cut from the body and       
fatigued by electrical stimulation4     
,when  they will no longer respond1     
their sensitivity may be renewed by     
washing them in dilute alcohol or in a  
weak salt solution that will  dissolve  
the products of fatigue4 ,it is probable
 that these products  stimulate the     
sense-organs in the muscles and thus    
give some of the  sensations of fatigue4

 ,of these physical effects of fatigue1 
the  accumulation of waste products in  
the blood and the effects upon the      
nerve cells are probably common both to 
mental and physical fatigue4  ,the      
effect upon the muscles plays a part in 
mental fatigue only so far  as all      
mental work involves some muscular      
activity4    ,by this time you must be  
convinced that the subject of fatigue is
  exceedingly complicated2 that its     
effects are manifested differently in   
mind and body4 ,in relieving fatigue the
 first step to be taken is to  rest     
properly4 ,man cannot work incessantly2 
he must rest sometimes1 and  it is just 
as important to know how to rest        
efficiently as to know how  to work     
efficiently4 ,by this is not meant that 
one should rest as soon  as fatigue     
begins to be felt4 ,quite the reverse4  
,keep on working all  the harder if you 
wish the second-wind to appear4 ,perhaps
 two hours  will exhaust your first     
supply of energy and will leave you     

greatly  fatigued4 ,do not give up at   
this time1 however4 ,push yourself      
farther  in order to uncover the second 
layer of energy4 ,before entering upon  
this1 however1 it will be possible to   
secure some advantage by resting  for   
about fifteen minutes4 ,do not rest     
longer than this1 or you may  lose the  
momentum already secured and your two   
hours will have gone for  naught4 ,if   
one indulges in too long a rest1 the    
energy seems to run  down and more      
effort is required to work it up again  
than was  originally expended4 ,it is   
also important to observe the proper    
mental  conditions during rest4 ,do not 
spend the fifteen minutes in getting    
interested in some other object2 for    
that will leave distracting ideas  in   
the mind which will persist when you    
resume work4 ,make the rest a  time of  
physical and mental relief4 ,move       
cramped muscles1 rest your  eyes and let
 your thoughts idly wander2 then come   
back to work in ten  or fifteen minutes 

and you will be amazed at the refreshed 
feeling with  which you do your work and
 at the accession of new energy that    
will  come to you4 ,keep on at this new 
plane and your work will take on all    
the attributes of the second-wind level 
of efficiency4    ,besides planning     
intelligent rests1 you may also adjust  
yourself to  fatigue by arranging your  
daily program so as to do your hardest  
work  when you are fresh1 and your      
easiest when your efficiency is low4 ,in
  other words1 you are a human dynamo1  
and should adjust yourself to the       
different loads you carry4 ,when        
carrying a heavy load1 employ your best 
energies1 but when carrying only a light
 load1 exert a proportionate  amount of 
energy4 ,every student has tasks of a   
routine nature which do  not require a  
high degree of energy1 such as copying  
material4 ,plan to  perform such work   
when your stock of energy is lowest4    
,one of the best ways to insure the     
attainment of a higher plane of  mental 

efficiency is to assume an attitude of  
interestedness4 ,this is  an emotional  
state and we have seen that emotion     
calls forth great  energy4    ,a final  
aid in promoting increase of energy is  
that gained through  stimulating ideas4 
,other things being equal1 the student  
who is  animated by a stimulating idea  
works more diligently and effectively   
than one without4 ,the idea may be a    
lofty professional ideal2 it may be  a  
desire to please one's family1 a sense  
of duty1 or a wish to excel4  ,whatever 
it is1 an idea may stimulate to         
extraordinary achievements4  ,adopt some
 compelling aim if you have none4 ,a    
vocational aim often  serves as a       
powerful incentive throughout one's     
student life4 ,an idea  may operate for 
even more transient purposes2 it may    
make one oblivious  to present          
discomfort to a remarkable degree4 ,this
 is accomplished  through the aid of    
suggestion4 ,when feelings of fatigue   
approach1 you  may ward them off by     

resolutely suggesting to yourself that  
you are  feeling fresh4    ,above all1  
the will is effective in lifting one to 
higher levels of  efficiency4 ,it is    
notorious that a single effort of the   
will1 such as  saying 'no' to some      
habitual temptation or performing some  
courageous  act1 will launch a man on a 
higher level of energy for days and     
weeks1  will give him a new range of    
power4 ',in the act of uncorking the    
whiskey bottle which ,i had brought home
 to get drunk upon1' said a man  to me1 
',i suddenly found myself running out   
into the garden1 where ,i  smashed it on
 the ground4 ,i felt so happy and       
uplifted after this act1  that for two  
months ,i wasn't tempted to touch a     
drop4' ,but the results  of exertions of
 the will are not usually so immediate1 
and you may  accept it as a fact that in
 raising yourself to a higher level of  
energy you cannot do it by a single     
effort4 ,continuous effort is  required 
until the higher levels of energy have  

formed the habit of  responding when    
work is to be done4 ,in laying the      
burden upon ,nature's  mechanism of     
habit1 you see you are again face to    
face with the  proposition laid down at 
the beginning of the book--that         
education  consists in the process of   
forming habits of mind4 ,the particular 
habit  most important to cultivate in   
connection with the production of       
second-wind is the habit of resisting   
fatigue4 ,form the habit of  persisting 
in spite of apparent obstacles and      
limitations4 ,though they  seem almost  
unsurmountable1 they are really only    
superficial4 ,buried  deep within you   
are stores of energy that you yourself  
are unaware of4  ,they will assist you  
in accomplishing feats far greater than 
you think  yourself capable of4 ,draw   
upon these resources and you will find  
yourself gradually living and working   
upon a higher plane of  efficiency1     
improving the quality of your work1     
increasing the quantity  of your work   

and enhancing your enjoyment in work4   
,,readings ,,and ,,exercise             
,readings3 ,james 7#i7 ,seashore 7#ad7  
,chapter ,,iii4 ,swift 7#bj7 ,chapter   
,v4    ,exercise ,i4 ,describe          
conditions you have observed at time of 
second-wind in connection with prolonged
 7a7 physical exertion1 7b7             
intellectual exertion4                  
,,chapter ,,xiv    ,,examinations       
,one of the most vexatious periods of   
student life is examination time4  ,this
 is almost universally a time of great  
distress1 giving rise in  extreme cases 
to conditions of nervous collapse4 ,the 
reason for this is  not far to seek1 for
 upon the results of examinations       
frequently depend  momentous            
consequences1 such as valuable          
appointments1 diplomas1  degrees and    
other important events in the life of a 
student4 ,in view of  the importance of 
examinations1 then1 it is natural that  
they be  regarded with considerable fear
 and trepidation1 and it is important   

that we devise what rules we can for    
meeting their exactious demands  with   
greatest ease and effectiveness4        
,examinations serve several purposes1   
the foremost of which is to inform  the 
examiner regarding the amount of        
knowledge possessed by the  student4 ,in
 discovering this1 two methods may be   
employed2 first1 to  test whether or not
 the student knows certain things1      
plainly a  reproductive exercise2       
second1 to see how well the student can 
apply  his knowledge4 ,but this is not  
the only function of an examination4 ,it
  also shows the student how much he    
knows or does not know4 ,again the      
examination often serves as an incentive
 to harder work on the part of  the     
student1 for if one knows there will be 
an examination in a  subject1 one       
usually studies with greater zeal than  
when an examination  is not expected4   
,lastly1 an examination may help the    
student to link up  facts in new ways1  
and to see them in new relationships4   

,in this  aspect1 you readily see that  
examinations constitute a valuable      
device  in learning4    ,but students   
are not very patient in philosophizing  
about the purpose  of examinations1     
declaring that if examinations are a    
necessary part of  the educational      
process1 they wish some advice that will
 enable them to  pass examinations      
easily and with credit to themselves4   
,so we shall  turn our attention to the 
practical problems of passing           
examinations4    ,our first duty in     
giving advice is to call attention to   
the necessity  for faithful work        
throughout the course of study4 ,some   
students seem to  think that they can   
slight their work throughout a course1  
and by  vigorous cramming at the end    
make up for slighted work and pass the  
examination4 ,this is an extremely      
dangerous attitude to take4 ,it might   
work with certain kinds of              
subject-matter1 a certain type of       
student-mind and a certain kind of      

examiner1 but as a general practice  it 
is a most treacherous method of passing 
a course4 ,the greatest  objection from 
a psychological standpoint is that we   
have reason to  believe that learning   
thus concentrated is not so permanently 
effective  as that extended over a long 
period of time4 ,for instance1 a ,german
  course extending over a year has much 
to commend it over a course with  the   
same number of recitation-hours crowded 
into two months4 ,we already  discussed 
the reasons for this in ,chapter ,,vi1  
when we showed the  beneficial results  
coming from the distribution of         
impressions over a  period of time4     
,against cramming it may further be     
urged that the hasty impression of a    
mass of new material is not likely to be
 lasting2 particularly is this  true    
when the cramming is made specifically  
for a certain examination4  ,as we saw  
in the chapter on memory1 the intention 
to remember affects  the firmness of    
retention1 and if the cramming is done  

merely with  reference to the           
examination1 the facts learned may be   
forgotten and  never be available for   
future use4 ,so we may lay it down as a 
rule that  feverish exertions at the end
 of a course cannot replace             
conscientious  work throughout the      
course4 ,in spite of these objections1  
however1 we  must admit that cramming   
has some value1 if it does not take the 
form  of new acquisition of facts1 but  
consists more of a manipulation of      
facts already learned4 ,as a method of  
review1 it has an eminently  proper     
place and may well be regarded as       
indispensable4 ,some students1  it is   
true1 assert that they derive little    
benefit from a  pre-examination review1 
but one is inclined to question their   
methods4  ,we have already found that   
learning is characteristically aided by 
reviews1 and that recall is facilitated 
by recency of impression4  ,reviewing   
just before examination serves the      
memory by providing  repetition and     

recency1 which1 as we learned in the    
chapter on memory1  are conditions for  
favorable impression4    ,a further     
value of cramming is that by means of   
such a summarizing  review one is able  
to see facts in a greater number of     
relations than  before4 ,it too often   
happens that when facts are taken up in 
a course  they come in a more or less   
detached form1 but at the conclusion of 
the  course a review will show the facts
 in perspective and will disclose  many 
new relations between them4    ,another 
advantage of cramming is that at such a 
time1 one usually works  at a high plane
 of efficiency2 the task of reviewing in
 a few hours the  work of an entire     
course is so huge that the attention is 
closely  concentrated1 impressions are  
made vividly1 and the entire mentality  
is  tuned up so that facts are well     
impressed1 coordinated and retained4    
,these advantages are not all present in
 the more leisurely learning of  a      
course1 so we see that cramming may be  

regarded as a useful device in          
learning4    ,we must not forget that   
many of the advantages secured by       
cramming are  dependent upon the methods
 pursued4 ,there are good methods and   
poor  methods of cramming4 ,one of the  
most reprehensible of the latter is to  
get into a flurry and scramble madly    
through a mass of facts without  regard 
to their relation to each other4 ,this  
method is characterized by  breathless  
haste and an anxious fear lest something
 be missed or  forgotten4 ,perhaps its  
most serious evil is its formlessness   
and lack  of plan4 ,in other words the  
facts should not be seized upon singly  
but  should be regarded in the light of 
their different relations with each     
other4 ,suppose1 for example1 you are   
reviewing for an examination in         
mediaeval history4 ,the important events
 may be studied according to  countries1
 studying one country at a time1 but    
that is not sufficient2  the events     
occurring during one period in one      

country should be  correlated with those
 occurring in another country at the    
same time4  ,likewise the movements in  
the field of science and discovery      
should be  correlated with movements in 
the fields of literature1 religion and  
political control4 ,tabulate the events 
in chronological order and  compare the 
different series of events with each    
other4 ,in this way the  facts will be  
seen in new relations and will be more  
firmly impressed  so that you can use   
them in answering a great variety of    
questions4    ,having made preparation  
of the subject-matter of the            
examination1 the  next step is to       
prepare yourself physically for the     
trying ordeal1 for  it is well known    
that the mind acts more ably under      
physically  healthful conditions4 ,go to
 the examination-room with your body    
rested  after a good night's sleep4 ,eat
 sparingly before the examination1 for  
mental processes are likely to be       
clogged if too heavy food is taken4     

,having reached the examination-room1   
there are a number of  considerations   
that are requisite for success4 ,some of
 the advice here  given may seem to be  
superfluous but if you had ever         
corrected  examination papers you would 
see the need of it all4 ,let your first 
step consist of a preliminary survey of 
the examination questions2 read  them   
all over slowly and thoughtfully in     
order to discover the extent  of the    
task set before you4 ,a striking thing  
is accomplished by this  preliminary    
reading of the questions4 ,it seems as  
though during the  examination period   
the knowledge relating to the different 
questions  assembles itself1 and while  
you are focusing your attention upon the
  answer to one question1 the answers to
 the other questions are  formulating   
themselves in your mind4 ,it is a       
semi-conscious operation1  akin to the  
unconscious learning discussed in the   
chapter on memory4  ,in order to take   
advantage of it1 it is necessary to have

 the questions  in mind as soon as      
possible2 then it will be found that    
relevant  associations will form and    
will come to the surface when you reach 
the  particular questions4    ,during   
the examination when some of these      
associations come into  consciousness   
ahead of time1 it is often wise to      
digress from the  question in hand long 
enough to jot them down4 ,by all means  
preserve  them1 for if you do not write 
them down they may leave you and be     
lost4  ,sometimes very brilliant ideas  
come in flashes1 and inasmuch as they   
are so fleeting1 it is wise to grasp    
them and fix them while they are  fresh4
    ,in writing the examination1 be sure
 you read every question carefully4     
,each question has a definite point2    
look for it1 and do not start  answering
 until you are sure you have found it4  
,discover the  implications of each     
question2 canvass its possible          
interpretations1  and if it is at all   
ambiguous seek light from the instructor

 if he is  willing to make any further  
comment4    ,it is well to have scratch 
paper handy and make outlines for your  
answers to long questions4 ,it is a good
 plan1 also1 when dealing with  long    
questions1 to watch the time carefully1 
for there is danger that  you will spend
 too much time upon some question to the
 detriment of  others equally important1
 though shorter4    ,one error which    
students often commit in taking         
examinations is to  waste time in       
dreaming4 ,as they come upon a difficult
 question they sit  back and wait for   
the answer to come to them4 ,this is the
 wrong plan4  ,the secret of freedom of 
ideas lies in activity4 ,therefore1 at  
such  times1 keep active1 so that the   
associative processes will operate      
freely4 ,stimulate brain activity by the
 method suggested in ,chapter ,x1       
namely1 by means of muscular activity4  
,instead of idly waiting for  flashes of
 inspiration1 begin to write4 ,you may  
not be able to write  directly upon the 

point at issue1 but you can write       
something about it1  and as you begin to
 explore and to express your meagre fund
 of  knowledge1 one idea will call up   
another and soon the correct answer     
will appear4    ,after you have prepared
 yourself to the extent of your ability1
 you  should maintain toward the        
examination an attitude of confidence4  
,believe firmly that you will pass the  
examination4 ,make strong  suggestions  
to yourself1 affirming positively that  
you have the  requisite amount of       
information and the ability to express  
it  coherently and forcefully4          
,fortified by the consciousness of      
faithful  application throughout the    
work of a course1 reinforced by a       
thorough1  well-planned review1 and with
 a firm conviction in the strength of   
your  own powers1 you may approach your 
examinations with comparative ease  and 
with good chances of passing them       
creditably4    ,,readings ,,and         
,,exercise    ,readings3    ,adams 7#a7 

,chapter ,x4    ,dearborn 7#b7 ,chapter 
,,ii4    ,exercise ,i4 ,make a schedule 
of your examinations for the next       
examination week4 ,show exactly what    
preparatory steps you will take 7a7     
before coming to the examination room1  
7#f7 after entering it4                 
,,chapter ,,xv    ,,bodily ,,conditions 
,,for ,,effective ,,study      ,it is a 
truism to say that mental ability is    
affected by bodily  conditions4 ,a      
common complaint of students is that    
they cannot study  because of a         
headache1 or they fail in class because 
of loss of sleep4  ,so patent is the    
interrelation between bodily condition  
and study that  we cannot consider our  
discussion of study problems complete   
without  recognition of the topic4 ,we  
shall group our discussions about three 
of  the most important physical         
activities1 eating1 sleeping and        
exercising4 ,these make up the greater  
part of our daily activities and  if    
they are properly regulated our study is

 likely to be effective4    ,,food4--,it
 is generally agreed that the main      
function of food is to  repair the      
tissues of the body4 ,other effects are 
present1 such as  pleasure and          
sociability1 but its chief benefit is   
reparative1 so we  may well regard the  
subject from a strictly utilitarian     
standpoint and  inquire how we may      
produce the highest efficiency from our 
eating4 ,some  of the important         
questions about eating are1 how much to 
eat1 what kind  of food to eat1 when to 
eat1 what are the most favorable        
conditions for  eating8    ,the quantity
 of food to be taken varies with the    
demands of the  individual appetite and 
the individual powers of absorption4 ,in
  general1 one who is engaged in        
physical labor needs more1 because of   
increased appetite and increased waste  
of tissues4 ,so a farm-hand needs  more 
food than a college student1 whose work 
is mostly indoors and  sedentary4 ,much 
has been said recently about the ills of

 overeating4  ,one of the most          
enthusiastic defenders of a decreased   
diet is ,mr4  ,horace ,fletcher1 who1 by
 the practice of protracted mastication1
  contrives to satisfy the appetite     
while taking an exceptionally small     
amount of food4 ,salivary digestion is  
favored and the mechanical  subdivision 
of the food is carried to an extreme    
point4 ,remarkably  complete digestion  
and absorption follow4 ,by faithfully   
pursuing this  system ,mr4 ,fletcher has
 vastly bettered his general health1 and
 is a  rare example of muscular and     
mental power for a man above sixty years
  of age4 ,he is a vigorous pedestrian  
and mountain-climber and holds          
surprising records for endurance tests  
in the gymnasium4    ,the chief gain    
observed in his case1 as in others which
 are more or  less parallel1 is the     
acquiring of immunity to fatigue1 both  
muscular  and central4 ,it is not       
claimed that the sparing diet confers   
great  strength for momentary           

efforts--'explosive strength1' as the   
term  goes--but that moderate muscular  
contractions may be repeated many  times
 with far less discomfort than before4  
,the inference appears to be  that the  
subject who eats more than is best has  
in his circulation and  his tissues     
by-products which act like the muscular 
waste which is  normally responsible for
 fatigue4 ,according to this conception 
he is  never really fresh for his task1 
but is obliged to start with a          
handicap4 ,when he reduces his diet the 
cells and fluids of his body  free      
themselves of these by-products and he  
realizes a capacity quite  unguessed in 
the past4    ,the same assumption       
explains the fact mentioned by ,mr4     
,fletcher1 that  the hours of sleep can 
be reduced decidedly when the diet is   
cut down4  ,it would seem as though a   
part of our sleep might often be due to 
avoidable auto-intoxication4 ,if one can
 shorten his nightly sleep  without     
feeling the worse for it this is an     

important gain4    ,but the amount of   
food is probably not so important as the
 kind4 ,foods  containing much starch1  
as potatoes and rice1 may ordinarily be 
taken  in greater quantities than foods 
containing much protein1 such as meats  
and nuts4 ,so our problem is not so much
 concerned with quantity as with  the   
choice of kinds of food4 ,probably the  
most favorable distribution  of foods   
for students is a predominance of       
fruits1 coarse cereals1  starch and     
sugar and less prominence to meats4 ,do 
not begin the day's  study on a         
breakfast of cakes4 ,they are a heavy   
tax upon the digestive  powers and their
 nutritive value is low4 ,the mid-day   
meal is also a  crucial factor in       
determining the efficiency of afternoon 
study1 and  many students almost        
completely incapacitate themselves for  
afternoon  work by a too-heavy noon     
meal4 ,frequently an afternoon course is
  rendered quite valueless because the  
student drowses through the  lecture    

soddened by a heavy lunch4 ,one way of  
overcoming this  difficulty is by       
dispensing with the mid-day meal2       
another way is to  drink a small amount 
of coffee1 which frequently keeps people
 awake2  but these devices are not to be
 universally recommended4    ,the heavy 
meal of a student may well come at      
evening4 ,it should consist  of a varied
 assortment of foods with some liquids1 
preferably clear  soup1 milk and water4 
,meat also forms a substantial part of  
this meal1  though ordinarily it should 
not be taken more than once a day4 ,much
 is  heard nowadays about the dangers of
 excessive meat-eating and the          
objections are well-founded in the case 
of brain-workers4 ,the  undesirable     
effects are an unprofitable spurring of 
the metabolism--  more particularly     
objectionable in warm weather--and the  
menace of  auto-intoxication4 ,too much 
protein1 found in meat1 lays a burden   
upon  the liver and kidneys and when the
 burden is too great1 wastes1 which     

cannot be taken care of1 gather and     
poison the blood1 giving rise to  that  
feeling of being tired all over which is
 so inimical to mental  and physical    
exertion4 ,when meat is eaten1 care     
should be taken to  choose right kinds4 
,some kinds of meat are well known to   
occasion  indigestion4 ,pork and veal   
are particularly feared4 ,while we may  
not  know the reason why these foods so 
often disagree with people1 it seems    
probable that texture is an important   
consideration4 ,in both these  meats the
 fibre is fine1 and fat is intimately   
mingled with the lean4 ,a  close        
blending of fat with nitrogenous matter 
appears to give a fabric  which is hard 
to digest4 ,the same principle is       
illustrated by  fat-soaked fried foods4 
,under the cover of the fat1            
thorough-going  bacterial decomposition 
of the proteins may be accomplished with
 the  final release of highly poisonous 
products4 ,attacks of acute  indigestion
 resulting from this cause are much like

 the so-called  ptomaine poisoning4     
,much of the benefit of meat may be     
secured from other foods4 ,fat1 for     
example1 may be obtained from milk and  
butter freed from the  objectionable    
qualities of the meat-fibre4 ,in this   
connection it is  important to call     
attention to the use of fried fat4      
,avoid fat that is  mixed with starch   
particles in such foods as fried        
potatoes and  pie-crust4    ,the        
conditions during meals should always be
 as pleasant as possible4  ,this refers 
both to physical surroundings and mental
 condition4 ,the  processes occurring in
 the alimentary canal are greatly       
subject to  influences radiating from   
the brain4 ,it is especially striking   
that  both the movements of the stomach 
and the secretion of the gastric  juice 
may be inhibited as a result of         
disturbing circumstances4  ,intestinal  
movements may be modified in similar    
fashion4    ,cannon has collected       
various instances of the suspension of  

digestion  in consequence of            
disagreeable experiences1 and it would  
be easy for  almost anyone to add to his
 list4 ,he tells us1 for example1 of the
 case  of a woman whose stomach was     
emptied under the direction of a        
specialist in order to ascertain the    
degree of digestion undergone by a      
prescribed breakfast4 ,the dinner of the
 night before was recovered and  was    
found almost unaltered4 ,inquiry led to 
the fact that the woman had  passed a   
night of intense agitation as the result
 of misconduct on the  part of her      
husband4 ,people who are seasick some   
hours after a meal  vomit undigested    
food4 ,apprehension of being sick has   
probably  inhibited the gastric         
activities4    ,just as a single        
occasion of painful emotion may lead to 
a passing  digestive disturbance1 so    
continued mental depression1 worry1 or  
grief  may permanently impair the       
working of the 7alimentary7 tract and   
undermine the vigor and capacity of the 

sufferer4 ,homesickness is not  to be   
regarded lightly as a cause of          
malnutrition4 ,companionship is a       
powerful promoter of assimilation4 ,the 
attractive serving of food1 a  pleasant 
room1 and good ventilation are of high  
importance4 ,the lack of  these1 so     
commonly faced by the lonely student or 
the young man making  a start in a      
strange city1 may be to some extent     
counteracted by the  cultivation of     
optimism and the mental discipline which
 makes it  possible to detach one's self
 from sordid surroundings4    ,almost as
 important as eating is drinking1 for   
liquids constitute the  largest item in 
the income of the body4 ,free drinking  
is recommended  by physiologists1 the   
beneficial results being1 the avoidance 
of  constipation1 and the promotion of  
the elimination of dissolved waste  by  
the kidneys and possibly the liver4 ,in 
regard to the use of water  with meals1 
a point upon which emphatic cautions    
were formerly offered1  recent          

experiments have failed to show any bad 
effects from this1 and  the advice is   
now given to drink all the water that   
one chooses with  meals4 ,caution should
 be observed1 however1 about introducing
 hot and  cold liquids into the stomach 
in quick succession4    ,other liquids  
have been much discussed by dietitians1 
especially tea  and coffee4 ,these      
beverages owe what limited food value   
they have to  the cream and sugar       
usually mixed with them4 ,they give     
pleasure by  their aroma1 but they are  
given a peculiar position among articles
 of  diet by the presence in them of the
 compound caffein1 which is  distinctly 
a drug4 ,it is a stimulant to the heart1
 the kidneys1 and the  central nervous  
system4    ,individual susceptibility to
 the action of caffein varies greatly4  
,where one person notices little or no  
reaction after a cup of coffee1  another
 is exhilarated to a marked degree and  
hours later may find  himself lying     
sleepless with tense or trembling       

muscles1 a dry1 burning  skin1 and a    
mind feverishly active4 ,often it is    
found that a more  protracted           
disturbance follows the taking of coffee
 with cream than is  caused by black    
coffee4    ,it is too much to claim that
 the use of tea and coffee is altogether
  to be condemned4 ,many people1        
nevertheless1 are better without them4  
,for all who find themselves strongly   
stimulated it is the part of  wisdom to 
limit the enjoyment of these decoctions 
to real emergencies  when uncommon      
demands are made upon the endurance and 
when for a time  hygienic considerations
 have to be ignored4 ,if young people   
will  postpone the formation of the     
habit they will have one more resource  
when the pressure of mature life becomes
 severe4    ,before concluding this     
discussion a word might be added        
concerning the  relation between fasting
 and mental activity4 ,prolonged        
abstinence from  food frequently results
 in highly sharpened intellectual       

powers4  ,numerous examples of this are 
found in the literature of history and  
biography2 many actors1 speakers and    
singers habitually fast before  public  
performances4 ,there are some           
disadvantages to fasting1  especially   
loss of weight and weakness1 but when   
done under the  direction of a          
physician1 fasting has been known to    
produce very  beneficial effects4 ,it is
 mentioned here because it has such     
marked  effects in speeding up the      
mental processes and clearing the mind2 
and  the well-nourished student may find
 the practice a source of mental        
strength during times of stress such as 
examinations4    ,,sleep4--,about       
one-third of an average human life is   
passed in the  familiar and yet         
mysterious state which we call sleep4   
,from one point  of view this seems a   
large inroad upon the period in which   
our  consciousness has its exercise2 a  
subtraction of twenty-five years from   
the life of one who lives to be         

seventy-five4 ,yet we know that the     
efficiency and comfort of the individual
 demand the surrender of all  this      
precious time4 ,it has often been said  
that sleep is a more  imperative        
necessity than food1 and the claim seems
 to be well  founded4 ,it is quite      
likely that some students indulge in too
 much  sleep4 ,this may sometimes be due
 to laziness1 but frequently it is due  
to actual intoxication1 from an excess  
of food which results in the  presence  
of poisonous narcotizing substances     
absorbed from the  burdened intestine4  
,this theory is rendered tenable by the 
fact that  when the diet is reduced the 
hours of sleep may be reduced4 ,if one  
is  in good health1 it seems right to   
expect that one should be able to  arise
 gladly and briskly upon awaking4 ,by   
all means do not indulge  yourself in   
long periods of lying in bed after a    
good night's rest4 ,if  we examine the  
physical and physiological conditions of
 sleep we shall  better understand its  

hygiene4 ,sleep is a state in which the 
tissues of  the body which have been    
used up may be restored4 ,of course some
  restoration of broken-down tissue     
takes place as soon as it begins to     
wear out1 but so long as the body keeps 
working1 the one process can  never     
quite compensate for the other1 so there
 must be a periodic  cessation of       
activity so that the energies of the    
body may be devoted  to restoration4    
,viewing sleep as a time when           
broken-down bodily cells  are restored1 
we see that we tax the energies of the  
body less if we go  to sleep each day   
before the cells are entirely depleted4 
,that is the  significance of the old   
teaching that sleep before midnight is  
more  efficacious than sleep after      
midnight4 ,it is not that there is any  
mystic virtue in the hours before       
twelve1 but that in the early part of   
the evening the cells are not so nearly 
exhausted as they are later in  the     
evening1 and it is much easier to repair

 them in the partially  exhausted stage 
than it is in the completely exhausted  
stage4 ,for this  reason1 a mid-day nap 
is often effective1 or a short nap after
 the  evening dinner4 ,by thus catching 
the cells at an early stage of their    
exhaustion1 they can be restored with   
comparative ease1 and more energy  will 
be available for use during the         
remainder of the working hours4    ,a   
problem that may occasionally trouble a 
student is sleeplessness and  we may    
properly consider here some of the ways 
of avoiding it4 ,one  prime cause of    
sleeplessness is external disturbance4  
,the disturbance  may be visual4        
,although it is ordinarily thought that 
if the eyes are  closed1 no visual      
disturbances can be sensed1             
nevertheless1 as a matter  of fact the  
eye-lids are not wholly opaque4 ,sight  
may be obtained  through them1 as you   
may prove by closing your eyes and      
moving your  fingers before them4 ,the  
lids transmit light to the retina and it

 is  quite likely that you are          
frequently awakened by a beam of light  
falling upon your closed eye-lids4 ,for 
this reason1 one who is inclined  to be 
wakeful should shut out from the        
bed-room all avenues whereby  light may 
enter as a distraction4    ,the         
temperature sense is also a source of   
distraction in sleep1 and it  is a      
common experience to be awakened by     
extreme cold4 ,the ears1 too1  may be   
the source of disturbance in sleep2 for 
even though we are  asleep1 the tympanic
 membrane is always exposed to          
vibrations of air4  ,in fact1 stimuli   
are continually playing upon the        
sense-organs and are  arousing nervous  
currents which try to break over the    
boundaries of  sleep and impress        
themselves upon the brain4    ,for this 
reason1 one who wishes to have          
untroubled sleep should remove  all     
possible distractions4    ,but apart    
from external distractions1 wakefulness 
may still be caused  by distractions    

from within4 ,troublesome ideas may be  
present and  persist in keeping one     
awake4 ,this means that brain activity  
has been  started and needs suppression4
 ,various devices have been suggested4  
,one  is to eat something very light1   
just enough to draw the surplus blood1  
which excites the brain1 away from the  
brain to the digestive tract4  ,this    
advice should be taken with caution1    
however1 for eating just  before        
retiring may use up in digestion much of
 the energy needed in  repairing the    
body1 and may leave one greatly fatigued
 in the morning4    ,one way to relieve 
the mind of mental distractions is to   
fill it with  non-worrisome1 restful    
thoughts4 ,read something light1 a      
restful essay  or a non-exciting story1 
or poetry4 ,another device is to bathe  
the head  in cold water so as to relieve
 congestion of blood in the brain4 ,a   
tepid or warm bath is said to have a    
similar effect4    ,dreams constitute   
one source of annoyance to many1 and    

while they are  not necessarily to be   
avoided1 still they may disturb the     
night's rest4  ,we may avoid them in    
some measure by creating conditions free
 from  sensory distractions1 for many of
 our dreams are direct reflections of   
sensations we are experiencing at the   
moment4 ,a dream with an arctic  setting
 may be the result of becoming uncovered
 on a cold night4 ,to use  an           
illustration from ,ellis3 ,a man dreams 
that he enlists in the army1  goes to   
the front1 and is shot4 ,he is awakened 
by the slamming of a  door4 ,it seems   
probable that the enlistment and the    
march to the field  are theories to     
account for the report which really     
caused the whole  train of thought1     
though it seemed to be its latest item4 
,such dreams  may be partially          
eliminated by care in arranging         
conditions so that  there will be few   
distractions4 ,especially should they be
 guarded  against in the later hours of 
the sleep1 for we do not sleep so       

soundly  after the first two hours as we
 do before1 and stimuli can more easily 
impress themselves and affect the brain4
    ,before leaving the subject of      
sleep1 we should note the benefit to be 
derived from regularity in sleep4 ,all  
,nature seems to move rhythmically  and 
sleep is no exception4 ,insomnia may be 
treated by means of  habituating one's  
self to get sleepy at a certain time1   
and there is no  question that the      
rising process may be made easier if one
 forms the  habit of arising at the same
 time every morning4 ,to rhythmize this 
important function is a long step       
towards the efficient life4             
,,exercise4--,brain workers do not      
ordinarily get all the exercise they    
should4 ,particularly is this true of   
some conscientious students who  feel   
they must not take any time from their  
study4 ,but this denotes a  false       
conception of mental action4 ,the human 
organism needs exercise4  ,man is not a 
disembodied spirit2 he must pay         

attention to the claims of  the body4   
,indeed it will be found that time spent
 in exercise will  result in a higher   
grade of mental work4 ,this is          
recognized by colleges  and universities
 by the requirement of gymnasium work1  
and the  opportunity should be welcomed 
by the student4 ,inasmuch as            
institutions  generally give instruction
 in this subject1 we need not go        
specifically  into the matter of        
exercises4 ,perhaps the only caution    
that need be  urged is that against the 
excessive participation in such         
exhausting  games as foot-ball4 ,it is  
seriously to be questioned whether the  
strenuous grilling that a foot-ball     
player must undergo does not  actually  
impair his ability to concentrate upon  
his studies4    ,if you undertake a     
course of exercise1 by all means have it
 regular4  ,little is gained by sporadic
 exercising4 ,adopt the principle of    
regularity and rhythmize this important 
phase of bodily activity as  well as all

 other phases4    ,in concluding our    
discussion of physical hygiene for the  
student1 we  cannot stress too much the 
value of relaxation4 ,the life of a     
student  is a trying one4 ,it exercises 
chiefly the higher brain centres and    
keeps the organism keyed up to a high   
pitch4 ,these centres become  fatigued  
easily and ought to be rested           
occasionally4 ,therefore1 the  student  
should relax at intervals1 and engage in
 something remote from  study4 ,to      
forget books for an entire week-end is  
often wisdom2 to have  a hobby or an    
avocation is also wise4 ,a student must 
not forget that he  is something more   
than an intellectual being4 ,he is a    
physical organism  and a social being1  
and the well-rounded life demands that  
all phases  receive expression4 ,we     
grant that it is wrong to exalt the     
physical and  stunt the mental1 but it  
is also wrong to develop the            
intellectual and  neglect the physical4 
,we must recognize with ,browning that1 

all good things  ,are ours1 nor soul    
helps flesh more1 now1    than flesh    
helps soul4    ,,readings ,,and         
,,exercise    ,readings3    ,patrick    
7#ad7 ,chapters ,i1 ,,ii and ,,vii4     
,stiles 7#ah7 and 7#ai74    ,swift 7#bj7
 ,chapter ,x4    ,exercise #a4 ,with the
 help of a book on dietetics prepare an 
ideal day's  bill of fare for a student4
    ,,suggestions ,,for ,,further       
,,reading    ,besides the standard texts
 in general and educational psychology1 
the  following books bear with especial 
intimacy upon the topics treated in     
this book3    #a4 ,adams1 ,john1 ,making
 the ,most of ,one's ,mind1 ,new ,york3 
,george ,h4  ,doran ,co41 #aiae4    #b4 
,dearborn1 ,george ,v41 ,how to ,learn  
,easily1 ,boston3 ,little1 ,brown       
,co41 #aiah4    #c4 ,dewey1 ,john1 ,how 
we ,think1 ,boston3 ,d4,c4 ,heath  ,co41
 #aiaj4    #d4 ,dewey1 ,john1 ,interest 
and ,effort in ,education1 ,boston3     
,houghton1  ,mifflin ,co41 #aiac4    #e4
 ,fulton1 ,maurice 7ed471 ,college      

,life1 ,its ,conditions and ,problems1  
,the ,macmillan ,co41 #aiae4    #f4     
,hall-,quest1 ,alfred ,l41 ,supervised  
,study1 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan     
,co41 #aiaf4    #g4 ,herrick1 ,c4       
,judson1 ,an ,introduction to           
,neurology1 ,philadelphia3 ,w4,b4       
,saunders ,co41 #aiae4    #h4 ,james1   
,william1 ,talks to ,teachers on        
,psychology1 and to ,students on  ,some 
of ,life's ,ideals1 ,new ,york4 #ahii4  
#i4 ,james1 ,william1 ,the ,energies of 
,men1 ,new ,york3 ,moffatt1 ,yard  ,co41
  #aiag4    #aj4 ,kerfoot1 ,john ,b41   
,how to ,read1 ,boston3 ,houghton1      
,mifflin  ,co41  #aiaf4    #aa4         
,lockwood1 ,francis 7comp471 ,the       
,freshman and ,his ,college1 ,boston3   
,d4,c4 ,heath  ,co41 #aiac4    #ab4     
,lowe1 ,john ,adams1 ,books and         
,libraries1 ,boston3 ,the ,boston ,book 
,co41  #aiag4    #ac4 ,mc,murry1 ,frank 
,m41 ,how to ,study1 ,boston3 ,houghton1
 ,mifflin  ,co41  #aiji4    #ad4        
,patrick1 ,george ,t4 ,w41 ,the         

,psychology of ,relaxation1 ,boston3    
,houghton1 ,mifflin  ,co41 #aiaf4       
#ae4 ,sandwick1 ,richard ,l41 ,how to   
,study and ,what to ,study1 ,boston3    
,d4,c4  ,heath  ,co41 #aiae4    #af4    
,seashore1 ,carl ,e41 ,psychology in    
,daily ,life1 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton 
,co41 #aiah4    #ag4 ,seward1 ,s41      
,note-taking1 ,boston3 ,allyn  ,bacon1  
#aiaj4    #ah4 ,stiles1 ,percy ,g41     
,nutritional ,physiology ,philadelphia3 
,w4 ,b4  ,saunders ,co41 #aiab4    #ai4 
,stiles1 ,percy ,g41 ,the ,nervous      
,system and ,its ,conservation1         
,philadelphia3 ,w4,b4 ,saunders ,co41   
#aiad4    #bj4 ,swift1 ,edgar ,j41      
,psychology and the ,day's ,work1 ,new  
,york3 ,c4  ,scribner's ,sons1 #aiai4   
#ba4 ,watt1 ,henry ,j41 ,the ,economy   
and ,training of ,memory1 ,new ,york3   
,longmans1 ,green  ,co41 #aiji4    #bb4 
,whipple1 ,guy ,m41 ,how to ,study      
,effectively1 ,bloomington1 ,ill43      
,public ,school ,publishing ,co41 #aiaf4
          ,,index      ,acquisition1 vs4

 construction  ,activity1 mental        
,association1 laws of2    in memory2    
in reasoning2    in examination         
,attention2    fluctuation of2          
resistance of distractions2    lapses of
    ,bibliographies  ,bodily activities1
 in recognition2    distractions in     
attention  ,brain1 description of2      
elementary cells2    tissue1 properties 
of2    tracts2    areas    ,charlemagne 
,clarification of ideas1 through        
definition and classification2          
through expression  ,classification of  
ideas  ,class room  ,college1           
difficulties2    demands of             
,constructive study  ,cramming    ,day  
dreaming  ,decision1 in reasoning       
,definition  ,distractions1 in          
attention2    in sleep  ,dreams         
,drinking    ,ennui  ,ethical1          
consequences1 of habit2    of expression
  ,examinations1 importance2    purposes
 of2    preparation for  ,exercise      
,expression2    neural basis    ,fasting
  ,fatigue  ,feelings1 pleasurable2     

unpleasant  ,fletcher1 ,horace  ,food   
,geometry    ,golf    ,graphic methods2 
in measuring learning    ,habit1        
defined2    maxims for forming2         
advantages of2    disadvantages of2     
in reasoning2    of resisting fatigue   
,ideas    in reasoning    how to clarify
    in fatigue    stimulus of           
,idea-motor action    law of    ,image  
defined    kinds of    ,imagination     
made of images    works of    sources   
how to develop    visual1 auditory1 etc4
    ,impression    guard avenues of     
clearness essential    through various  
senses    vs4 expression    ,indenture  
,intention    in memorizing    ,insomnia
    see ,sleeplessness    ,inspiration  
,interest    defined    sources         
development of    laws of    ,judgment  
,kinaesthetic impressions    ,lecture   
method    notes    ,logical associations
    in memorizing    in reasoning       
,mediaeval history    ,memory           
importance in study    stages of        
unconscious    whole vs4 part    works  

according to law    rote vs4 logical    
intention    ,mental second wind    see 
second wind    ,nervous    current      
energy    system in expression          
,neurone    ,note-taking    lecture     
laboratory    reading    full vs4 scanty
    form of notebook    a habit         
,obscurity    in meaning    ,outlines   
,overlearning    ,parker1 ,francis ,w4  
,philology    ,plateau    remedies for  
,pleasure    in interest    ,practice   
of recall    curve of    ,problem       
solving    ,psalm of life    ,public    
speaking    overcoming embarrassment    
,rathausmarkt    ,read    how to        
,reason    contrasted with rote learning
    as problem solving    stages        
purposive thinking    requirements for  
and habit    ,recall    ,recognition    
,repetition1    distribution of         
,retention    ,review1 from notes       
,romeo and ,juliet    ,schedule1 daily  
,second wind1 physical    mental        
sources of    ,sensation1    as         
impression    bodily    external    in  

fatigue    ,sleep    ,sleeplessness     
,stream of thought    ,suggestion       
,synapse    ,theme writing              
,unconscious learning    see memory     
,will    ,writing    a form of          
expression