,,lord',s ,,lectures ,,beacon ,,lights ,,of ,,history1 ,,volume ,,xiv ,,the ,,new ,,era ,a ,supplementary ,volume1 by ,recent ,writers1 as ,set ,forth in the ,preface and ,table of ,contents4 ,,by ,,john ,,lord1 ,,ll4,d41 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,roman ,,world1 ,,modern ,,europe1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,,publishers' ,,preface4 ,in preparing the new edition of ,dr4 ,lord's great work1 it has been thought desirable to do what the venerable author's death in #ahid did not permit him to accomplish1 and add a volume summarizing certain broad aspects of achievement in the last fifty years4 ,it were manifestly impossible to cover in any single volume--except in the dry1 cyclopaedic style of chronicling multitudinous facts1 so different from the vivid1 personal method of ,dr4 ,lord--all the growths of the wonderful period just closed4 ,the only practicable way has been to follow our author's principle of portraying selected historic forces1--to take1 as representative or typical of the various departments1 certain great characters whose services have signalized them as ,beacon ,lights along the path of progress1 and to secure adequate portrayal of these by men known to be competent for interesting exposition of the several themes4 ,thus the volume opens with a paper on ,richard ,wagner3 ,modern ,music1 by ,henry ,t4 ,finck1 the musical critic of the ,new ,york ,evening ,post1 and author of various works on music1 travel1 etc42 and then follow in order these3 ,john ,ruskin3 ,modern ,art1 by ,g4 ,mercer ,adam1 author of ,a ,prcis of ,english ,history1 recently editor of the ,self-,culture ,magazine and of the ,werner ,supplements to the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica2 ,herbert ,spencer3 ,the ,evolutionary ,philosophy1 and ,charles ,darwin3 ,his ,place in ,modern ,science1 both by ,mayo ,w4 ,hazeltine1 literary editor of the ,new ,york ,sun1 whose book reviews over the signature ,m4,w4,h4 have for years made the ,sun's book-page notable2 ,john ,ericsson3 ,navies of ,war and ,commerce1 by ,prof4 ,w4,f4 ,durand1 of the ,school of ,marine ,engineering and the ,mechanic ,arts in ,cornell ,university2 ,li ,hung ,chang3 ,the ,far ,east1 by ,dr4 ,william ,a4 ,p4 ,martin1 the distinguished missionary1 diplomat1 and author1 recently president of the ,imperial ,university1 ,peking1 ,china2 ,david ,livingstone3 ,african ,exploration1 by ,cyrus ,c4 ,adams1 geographical and historical expert1 and a member of the editorial staff of the ,new ,york ,sun2 ,sir ,austen ,h4 ,layard3 ,modern ,archaeology1 by ,rev4 ,william ,hayes ,ward1 ,d4,d41 editor of ,the ,independent1 ,new ,york1 himself eminent in ,oriental exploration and decipherment2 ,michael ,faraday3 ,electricity and ,magnetism1 by ,prof4 ,edwin ,j4 ,houston of ,philadelphia1 an accepted authority in electrical engineering2 and1 ,rudolf ,virchow3 ,modern ,medicine and ,surgery1 by ,dr4 ,frank ,p4 ,foster1 physician1 author1 and editor of the ,new ,york ,medical ,journal4 ,the selection of themes must be arbitrary1 amid the numberless lines of development during the ,new ,era of the ,nineteenth ,century1 in which every mental1 moral1 and physical science and art has grown and diversified and fructified with a rapidity seen in no other five centuries4 ,it is hoped1 however1 that the choice will be justified by the interest of the separate papers1 and that their result will be such a view of the main features as to leave a distinct impression of the general life and advancement1 especially of the last half of the century4 ,it is proper to say that the preparation and issuance of ,dr4 ,lord's ,beacon ,lights of ,history were under the editorial care of ,mr4 ,john ,e4 ,howard of ,messrs4 ,fords1 ,howard1 and ,hulbert1 the original publishers of the work1 while the proof-sheets also received the critical attention of ,mr4 ,abram ,w4 ,stevens1 one of the accomplished readers of the ,university ,press in ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,mr4 ,howard has also supervised the new edition1 including this final volume1 which issues from the same choice typographical source4 ,,new ,,york1 ,september1 #aijb4 ,,contents4 ,,richard ,,wagner4 ,,modern ,music4 ,,by ,,henry ,t4 ,,finck4 ,youth-time2 early ambitions as a composer4 ,weber1 his fascinator and first inspirer4 ,der ,freischtz and ,euryanthe prototypes of his operas4 ,their supernatural1 mythical1 and romantic elements4 ,what he owed to his predecessors acknowledged in his essay on ,the ,music of the ,future 7#ahfj74 ,marriage and early vicissitudes4 ,rienzi1 ,the ,novice of ,palermo1 and ,the ,flying ,dutchman4 ,writes stories and essays for musical publications4 ,after many disappointments wins success at ,dresden4 ,tannhuser and ,lohengrin4 ,compromises himself in ,revolution of #ahdi and has to seek safety in ,switzerland4 ,here he conceives and partly writes the ,nibelung ,tetralogy4 ,discouragements at ,london and at ,paris4 ,siegfried and ,tristan and ,isolde4 ,finds a patron in ,ludwig ,,ii4 of ,bavaria4 ,nibelung ,festival at ,bayreuth4 ,parsifal appears2 death of ,wagner at ,vienna 7#ahhb74 ,beethoven1 ,schubert1 and ,chopin4 ,other eminent composers and pianists4 ,liszt as a contributor to current of modern music4 ,berlioz1 ,saint-,sans1 ,tchaikovsky1 ,dvork1 ,strauss1 and ,weber4 ,the ,music of the ,future the music of the present4 ,,john ,,ruskin4 ,,modern ,,art4 ,,by ,g4 ,,mercer ,,adam4 ,passionate and luminous exponent of ,nature's beauties4 ,his high if somewhat quixotic ideal of life4 ,stimulating writings in ethics1 education1 and political economy4 ,frederic ,harrison on ,ruskin's stirring thoughts and melodious speech4 ,birth and youth-time2 ,collingwood's ,life and his own ,praeterita4 ,defence of ,turner and what it grew into4 ,architectural writings1 lectures1 and early publications4 ,interest in ,pre-,raphaelitism and its disciples4 ,growing fame2 with admiring friends and correspondents4 ,on the public platform2 personal appearance of the man4 ,economic and socialistic vagaries4 ,f4 ,harrison on ,ruskin as ,prophet and teacher4 ,inspiring lay sermons and minor writings4 ,reformer and would-be regenerator of modern society4 ,attitude towards industrial problems of his time4 ,founds the communal ,guild of ,st4 ,george4 ,philanthropies1 and lecturings in ,working ,men's ,college4 ,death and epoch-making influence1 in modern art4 ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,,the ,,evolutionary ,,philosophy4 ,,by ,,mayo ,w4 ,,hazeltine4 ,constructs a philosophical system in harmony with the theory of evolution4 ,birth1 parentage1 and early career4 ,scheme of his system of ,synthetic ,philosophy4 ,his ,facts and ,comments2 views on party government1 patriotism1 and style4 ,his religious attitude that of an agnostic4 ,the doctrine of the ,unknowable and the knowable4 ,first ,principles2 progress of evolution in life1 mind1 society1 and morality4 ,the relations of matter1 motion1 and force4 ,principles of ,biology2 the data of2 the development hypothesis4 ,the evolutionary hypothesis versus the special creation hypothesis2 arguments4 ,causes and interpretation of the evolution phenomena4 ,development as displayed in the structures and functions of individual organisms4 ,principles of ,psychology2 the evolution of mind and analysis of mental states4 ,principles of ,sociology2 the adaptation of human nature to the social state4 ,evolution of governments1 political and ecclesiastical2 industrial organizations4 ,qualifications2 ,nature's plan an advance1 and again a retrogression4 ,social evolution2 equilibriums between constitution and conditions4 ,assisted by others in the collection1 but not the systemization1 of his illustrative material4 ,principles of ,ethics2 natural basis for2 secularization of morals4 ,general inductions2 his ,social ,statics4 ,relations of ,mr4 ,spencer and ,mr4 ,darwin to the thought of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,,charles ,,darwin4 ,,his ,,place ,,in ,,modern ,,science4 ,,by ,,mayo ,w4 ,,hazeltine4 ,the ,darwinian hypothesis a rational and widely accepted explanation of the genesis of organic life on the earth4 ,darwin2 birth1 parentage1 and education4 ,naturalist on the voyage of the ,beagle4 ,his work on ,coral ,reefs and the ,geology of ,south ,america4 ,observations and experiments on the transmutation of species4 ,contemporaneous work on the same lines by ,alfred ,r4 ,wallace4 ,the ,origin of ,species 7#ahei74 ,his ,variation of ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication 7#ahfh74 ,the ,descent of ,man 7#ahga74 ,on the ,expression of ,emotion in ,man and ,animals 7#ahgb74 ,fertilization of ,orchids 7#ahfb71 ,the ,effects of ,cross and ,self-,fertilization 7#ahgf71 and ,the ,formation of ,vegetable ,mould through the ,action of ,worms 7#ahha74 ,ill-health1 death1 and burial4 ,personality1 tastes1 and mental characteristics4 ,his beliefs and agnostic attitude toward religion4 ,his prime postulate1 that species have been modified during a long course of descent4 ,antagonistic views on the immutability of species4 ,his theory of natural selection3 that all animal and plant life has a common progenitor1 difference in their forms arising primarily from beneficial variations4 ,enunciates in the ,descent of ,man the great principle of ,evolution1 and the common kinship of man and the lower animals4 ,biological evidence to sustain this view4 ,man's moral qualities1 and the social instinct of animals4 ,religious beliefs not innate1 nor instinctive4 ,bearing of this on belief in the immortality of the soul4 ,as a scientist ,darwin concerned only with truth2 general acceptance of his theory of the origin of species4 ,,john ,,ericsson4 ,,navies ,,of ,,war ,,and ,,commerce4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,dukand4 ,ericsson's life-work little foreseen in his youth and early surroundings4 ,his impress on the engineering practice of his time4 ,dependence1 in our modern civilization1 on the utilization of the great natural forces and energies of the world4 ,life-periods in ,sweden1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states4 ,birth1 parentage1 and early engineering career4 ,an officer in the ,swedish army1 and topographical surveyor for his native government4 ,astonishing insight into mechanical and scientific questions4 ,his work1 #ahbg to #ahci1 when he came to the ,united ,states4 ,a spendthrift in invention2 versatility and daring4 ,the screw-propeller vs4 the paddle-wheel for marine propulsion4 ,designs and constructs the steam-frigate ,princeton and the hot-air ship ,ericsson4 ,the ,civil ,war and his services in the art of naval construction4 ,his new model of a floating battery and warship1 ,the ,monitor4 ,the battle between it and the ,merrimac a turning-point in naval aspect of the war4 ,the ,destroyer1 built in connection with ,mr4 ,delamater4 ,improves the character and reduces friction in the use of heavy ordnance4 ,work on the improvement of steam-engines for warships4 ,death1 and international honors paid at his funeral4 ,his work in improving the motive-power of ships4 ,special contributions to the art of naval war4 ,ships of low freeboard equipped with revolving turrets4 ,influence of his work lives in the modern battleship4 ,other features of work which he did for his age4 ,personality and professional traits4 ,essentially a designer rather than a constructing engineer4 ,,li ,,hung ,,chang4 ,,the ,,far ,,east4 ,,by ,w4,a4,p4 ,,martin1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,introductory2 ,earl ,li's foreign fame2 his rising star4 ,intercourse with ,china by land4 ,the ,great ,wall2 ,china first known to the western world through its conquest by the ,mongols4 ,the houses of ,han1 ,tang1 and ,sang4 ,the diplomat ,su ,wu on an embassy to ,turkey4 ,intercourse by sea4 ,expulsion of the ,mongols2 the magnetic needle4 ,art of printing2 birth of alchemy4 ,manchu conquest2 ,macao and ,canton opened to foreign trade4 ,the ,opium ,war4 ,li ,hung ,chang appears on the scene4 ,his contests for academical honors and preferment4 ,the ,taiping rebellion4 ,li a soldier2 ,general ,ward and ,chinese ,gordon4 ,the ,arrow ,war2 the treaties4 ,lord ,elgin's mistake leads to renewal of the war4 ,fall of the ,peiho forts and flight of the ,court4 ,the war with ,france4 ,mr4 ,seward and ,anson ,burlingame4 ,war ended through the agency of ,sir ,robert ,hart4 ,war with ,japan4 ,perry at ,tokio 7,yeddo72 overturn of the ,shogans4 ,formosa ceded to ,japan4 ,china follows ,japan and throws off trammels of antiquated usage4 ,war with the world4 ,the ,boxer rising2 menace to the ,peking legations4 ,prince ,ching and ,viceroy ,li arrange terms of peace4 ,li's death2 patriot1 and patron of educational reform4 ,,david ,,livingstone4 ,,african ,,development4 ,,by ,,cyrus ,c4 ,,adams4 ,difficulties of exploration in the ,dark ,continent ,livingstone's belief that there was good in ,africa1 and that it was worth reclaiming4 ,his early journeyings kindled the great ,african movement4 ,youthful career and studies1 marriage1 etc4 ,contact with the natives2 wins his way by kindness4 ,sublime faith in the future of ,africa4 ,progress in the heart of the continent since his day4 ,interest of his second and third journeyings 7#ahec-ef74 ,visits to ,britain1 reception1 and personal characteristics4 ,later discoveries and journeyings 7#aheh-ahfd1 #ahff-ahgc74 ,death at ,chitambo 7,ilala7 ,lake ,bangweolo1 ,may #a1 #ahgc4 ,general accuracy of his geographical records2 his work1 as a whole1 stands the test of time4 ,downfall of the ,african slave-trade1 the open sore of the world4 ,remarkable achievements of later explorers and surveyors4 ,the work of ,burton1 ,junker1 ,speke1 and ,stanley4 ,father ,schynse's chart4 ,surveys of ,commander ,whitehouse4 ,missionary maps of the ,congo ,free ,state and basin4 ,other areas besides tropical ,africa made known and opened up4 ,pygmy tribes and cannibalism in the ,congo basin4 ,human sacrifices now prohibited and punishable with death4 ,railway and steamboat development1 and partition of the continent4 ,south ,africa3 the gold and diamond mines and natural resources4 ,future philanthropic work4 ,,sir ,,austen ,,henry ,,layard4 ,,modern ,,archaeology4 ,,by ,,william ,,hayes ,,ward1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll_/,d4 ,overthrow of ,nineveh and destruction of the ,assyrian ,empire4 ,kingdoms and empires extant and buried before the era of ,hebrew and ,greek history4 ,bonaparte in ,egypt1 and the impulse he gave to ,french archaeology4 ,champollion and his deciphering ,egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions4 ,paul mile ,botta and his discoveries in ,assyria4 ,his excavations of ,king ,sargon's palace at ,khorsabad4 ,layard begins his excavations and discoveries at ,nineveh4 ,sir ,stratford ,canning's 7,viscount ,stratford de ,redcliffe7 gift to the ,british ,museum of the marbles of ,halicarnassus4 ,layard's published researches1 ,nineveh and its ,remains1 and ,babylon and ,nineveh4 ,his work1 ,the ,monuments of ,nineveh 7#ahdi-ec74 ,obelisk and monoliths of ,shalmaneser ,,ii41 ,king of ,assyria1 discovered by ,layard at ,nimroud4 ,george ,smith and his discovery of the ,babylonian account of the ,deluge4 ,light thrown by these discoveries on the ,pharaoh of the ,bible1 and on ,melchizedek1 who reigned in ,abraham's day4 ,other archaeologists of note1 ,glaser1 ,de ,morgan1 ,de ,sarzec1 and ,botta4 ,relics of ,buddha1 and the ,hittite inscriptions4 ,the ,moabite ,stone1 and work of the ,english ,palestine ,exploration ,fund at ,jerusalem4 ,dr4 ,schliemann's labors among the ruins of ,troy4 ,researches and discoveries at ,crete4 ,the mounds1 pyramids1 and temples of the ,american aborigines4 ,the cliff-dwellers and the ,mayas1 ,incas1 and ,toltecs4 ,the ,calendar ,stone and statue of the gods of war and death found in ,mexico4 ,what treasure yet remains to be recovered of a past civilization4 ,,michael ,,faraday4 ,,electricity ,,and ,,magnetism4 ,,by ,,edwin ,j4 ,,houston1 ,,ph4,d4 ,the ,prince of ,experimental ,philosophers4 ,unprecocious as a child2 environment of his early years4 ,his early study of ,mrs4 ,marcet's ,conversations on ,chemistry1 and the articles on electricity in the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica4 ,appointed laboratory assistant at the ,london ,royal ,institution4 ,inspiration received from his teacher1 ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,investigations in chemistry1 electricity1 and magnetism4 ,his discovery 7#ahca7 of the means for developing electricity direct from magnetism4 ,substitutes magnets for active circuits4 ,simplicity of the apparatus used in his successful experiments4 ,some of the results obtained by him in his experimental researches4 ,what is to-day owing to him for his discovery and investigation of all forms of magneto-electric induction4 ,his discovery of the relations between light and magnetism4 ,action of glass and other solid substances on a beam of polarized light4 ,his paper on ,magnetization of ,light and the ,illumination of the ,lines of ,magnetic ,force4 ,his contribution 7#ahde7 on the ,magnetic ,condition of ,all ,matter4 ,investigation of the phenomena which he calls the ,magne-crystallic force4 ,extent of his work in the electro-chemical field4 ,his invention of the first dynamo4 ,his alternating-current transformer4 ,induction coils and their use in producing the ,rntgen rays4 ,edison's invention of the fluoroscope4 ,faraday's gift to commercial science of the electric motor4 ,his dynamo-electric machine4 ,modern electric transmissions of power4 ,tesla's multiphase alternating-current motor4 ,faraday's electric generator and motor4 ,the telephone1 aid given by ,faraday's discoveries in the invention and use of the transmitter4 ,modern power-generating and transmission plants a magnificent testimonial to the genius of ,faraday4 ,death and honors4 ,,rudolf ,,virchow4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,surgery4 ,,by ,,frank ,p4 ,,foster1 ,m4,d4 ,jenner demonstrates efficacy of vaccination against small-pox4 ,debt to the physicists1 chemists1 and botanists of the new era4 ,appendicitis 7peritonitis71 its present frequency4 ,experimental methods of study in physiology4 ,hahnemann1 founder of homoeopathy1 and physical diagnosis of the sick4 ,the clinical thermometer and other instruments of precision4 ,animal parasites the direct cause of many diseases4 ,bacteria and the germ theory of disease4 ,pasteur1 viruses1 and aseptic surgery4 ,consumption and its germ2 the corpuscles and their resistance to bacterial invasion4 ,antitoxines as a cure in diphtheria4 ,their use in surgery2 asepticism and ,lord ,lister4 ,listerism and midwifery4 ,american aid in the treatment of fractures4 ,use of artificial serum in disease treatment4 ,koch's tuberculin and its use in consumption4 ,chemistry as a handmaid of medicine4 ,brown-,squard and internal secretions4 ,febrile ailment and cold-water applications4 ,surgical anaesthetics2 ,long1 ,morton1 and ,simpson4 ,ovariotomy operations by ,mc,dowell and ,bell4 ,professional nursing4 ,virchow and the literature of medicine1 anatomy1 and physiology2 his death2 his ,archiv1 ,cellular-,pathology1 etc4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,volume ,,xiv4 ,dr4 ,jenner ,vaccinates a ,child ,after the painting by ,george ,gaston ,melingue ,richard ,wagner ,after the painting by ,franz von ,lenbach ,john ,ruskin ,after a photograph from life ,herbert ,spencer ,after a photograph from life ,charles ,robert ,darwin ,after the painting by ,g4 ,f4 ,watts1 ,r4,a4 ,john ,ericsson ,from a contemporaneous engraving ,li ,hung ,chang ,after a photograph from life ,david ,livingstone ,after a photograph from life ,sir ,austen ,henry ,layard ,after the painting by ,h4 ,w4 ,phillips ,michael ,faraday ,after a photograph from life ,rudolf ,virchow ,after a photograph from life ,,beacon ,,lights ,,of ,,history4 ,,richard ,,wagner3 ,,modern ,,music4 ,,by ,,henry ,t4 ,,finck4 ,if the ,dresden schoolboys who attended the ,kreuzschule in the years #ahbc-ahbg could have been told that one of them was destined to be the greatest opera composer of all times1 and to influence the musicians of all countries throughout the second half of the nineteenth century1 they would1 no doubt1 have been very much surprised4 ,nor is it likely that they could have guessed which of them was the chosen one4 ,for ,richard ,wagner--or ,richard ,geyer1 as he was then called1 after his stepfather--was by no means a youthful prodigy1 like ,mozart or ,liszt4 ,it is related that ,beethoven shed tears of displeasure over his first music lessons2 nevertheless1 it was obvious from the beginning that he had a special gift for music4 ,richard ,wagner1 on the other hand1 apparently had none4 ,when he was eight years old his stepfather1 shortly before his death1 heard him play on the piano two pieces from one of ,weber's operas1 which made him wonder if ,richard might perhaps have talent for music4 ,his piano teacher did not believe even in that perhaps1 but told him bluntly he would never amount to anything as a musician4 ,for poetry1 however1 young ,richard had a decided inclination in his school years2 and this was significant1 inasmuch as it afterwards became his cardinal maxim that in an opera the play's the thing1 and the music merely a means of intensifying the emotional expression4 ,before his time the music1 or rather the singing of florid tunes1 had been the thing1 and the libretto merely a peg to hang these tunes on4 ,in this respect1 therefore1 the child was father to the man4 ,at the age of eleven he received a prize for the best poem on the death of a schoolmate4 ,at thirteen he translated the first twelve books of ,homer's ,odyssey4 ,he studied ,english for the sole purpose of being able to read ,shakspeare4 ,then he projected a stupendous tragedy1 in the course of which he killed off forty-two persons1 many of whom had to be brought back as ghosts to enable him to finish the play4 ,this extravagance also characterized his first efforts as a composer1 when he at last turned to music1 at the age of sixteen4 ,one of his first tasks1 when he had barely mastered the rudiments of composition1 was to write an overture which he intended to be more complicated than ,beethoven's ,ninth ,symphony4 ,heinrich ,dorn1 who recognized his talent amid all the bombast1 conducted this piece at a concert4 ,at the rehearsal the musicians were convulsed with laughter1 and at the performance the audience was at first surprised and then disgusted at the persistence of the drum-player1 who made himself heard loudly every fourth bar4 ,finally there was a general outburst of hilarity which taught the young man a needed lesson4 ,undoubtedly the germs of his musical genius had been in ,wagner's brain in his childhood1--for genius is not a thing that can be acquired4 ,they had simply lain dormant1 and it required a special influence to develop them4 ,this influence was supplied by ,weber and his operas4 ,in #ahae1 two years after ,wagner's birth1 the ,king of ,saxony founded a ,german opera in ,dresden1 where theretofore ,italian opera had ruled alone4 ,weber was chosen as conductor1 and thus it happened that ,wagner's earliest and deepest impressions came from the composer of the ,freischtz4 ,in his autobiographic sketch ,wagner writes3 ,nothing gave me so much pleasure as the ',freischtz4' ,i often saw ,weber pass by our house when he came from rehearsals4 ,i always looked upon him with a holy awe4 ,it was lucky for young ,richard that his stepfather1 ,geyer1 besides being a portrait-painter1 an actor1 and a playwright1 was also one of ,weber's tenors at the opera4 ,this enabled the boy1 in spite of the family's poverty1 to hear many of the performances4 ,in fact1 ,wagner1 like ,weber1 owes a considerable part of his success as a writer for the stage to the fact that he belonged to a theatrical family1 and thus gradually learned how the wheels go round4 ,such practical experience is worth more than years of academic study4 ,while ,wagner cordially acknowledged the fascination which ,weber's music exerted on him in his boyhood1 he was hardly fair to ,weber in his later writings4 ,in these he tries to prove that his own music-dramas are an outgrowth of ,beethoven's ,ninth ,symphony4 ,when ,beethoven wrote that work1 ,wagner argues1 he had come to the conclusion that purely instrumental music had reached a point beyond which it could not go alone1 wherefore he called in the aid of poetry 7sung by soloists and chorus71 and thus intimated that the art-work of the future was the musical drama1--a combination of poetry and music4 ,this is a purely fantastic notion on ,wagner's part4 ,there is no evidence that ,beethoven had any such purpose2 he merely called in the aid of the human voice to secure variety of sound and expression4 ,poetry and music had been combined centuries before ,beethoven in the opera and in lyric song4 ,no1 the roots of ,wagner's music-dramas are not to be found in ,beethoven1 but in ,weber4 ,his ,freischtz and ,euryanthe are the prototypes of ,wagner's operas4 ,the ,freischtz is the first masterwork1 as ,wagner's operas are the last1 up to date1 of the romantic school2 and it embodies admirably two of the principal characteristics of that school3 one1 a delight in the demoniac1 the supernatural--what the ,germans call gruseln2 the other1 the use of certain instruments1 alone or in combination1 for the sake of securing peculiar emotional effects4 ,in both these respects ,wagner followed in ,weber's footsteps4 ,with the exception of ,rienzi and ,die ,meistersinger1 all of his operas1 from the ,flying ,dutchman to ,parsifal1 embody supernatural1 mythical1 romantic elements2 and in the use of novel tone colors for special emotional effects he opened a new wonder-world of sound1 to which ,weber1 however1 had given him the key4 ,lohengrin1 the last one of what are usually called ,wagner's operas1 as distinguished from his music-dramas 7comprising the last seven of his works71 betrays very strongly the influence of ,weber's other masterwork1 ,euryanthe4 ,this opera1 indeed1 may also be called the direct precursor of ,wagner's music-dramas4 ,it contains eight leading motives1 which recur thirty times in course of the opera2 and the dramatic recitatives are sometimes quite in the ,wagnerian manner4 ,but the most remarkable thing is that ,weber uses language which practically sums up ,wagner's idea of the music-drama4 ',euryanthe1' he says1 is a purely dramatic work1 which depends for its success solely on the co-operation of the united sister-arts1 and is certain to lose its effect if deprived of their assistance4 ,when ,wagner wrote his essay on ,the ,music of the ,future for the ,parisians 7#ahfj7 he remembered his obligations to the ,dresden idol of his boyhood by calling attention to the still very noticeable connection of his early work1 ,tannhuser1 with the operas of my predecessors1 among whom ,i name especially ,weber1 ,he might have mentioned others1--,gluck1 for instance1 who curbed the vanity of the singers1 and taught them that they were not the whole show2 ,marschner1 whose grewsome ,hans ,heiling ,wagner had in mind when he wrote his ,flying ,dutchman2 ,auber1 whose ,masaniello1 with its dumb heroine1 taught ,wagner the importance and expressiveness of pantomimic music1 of which there are such eloquent examples in all his operas4 ,during his three and a half years' sojourn in ,paris1 just at the opening of his career as an opera composer 7#ahci-ahdb71 he learned many things regarding operatic scenery1 machinery1 processions1 and details1 which he subsequently turned to good account4 ,even ,meyerbeer1 the ruler of the musical world in ,paris at that time1 was not without influence on him1 though he had cause to disapprove of him because of his submission to the demands of the fashionable taste of the day1 which contrasted so strongly with ,wagner's own courageous defiance of everything inconsistent with his ideals of art4 ,the result to-day--,meyerbeer's fall and ,wagner's triumph--shows that courage1 like honesty1 is1 in the long run1 the best policy1 and1 like virtue1 its own reward4 ,it is important to bear in mind all these lessons that ,wagner learned from his predecessors1 as it helps to explain the enormous influence he exerted on his contemporaries4 ,wonderful as was the power and originality of his genius1 even he could not have achieved such results had he not had truth on his side1--truth1 as hinted at1 in moments of inspiration1 by many of his predecessors4 ,wagner was most shamefully misrepresented by his enemies during his lifetime4 ,a thousand times they wrote unblushingly that he despised and abused the great masters1 whereas in truth no one ever spoke of them more enthusiastically than he1 or was more eager to learn of them1 though1 to be sure1 he was honest and courageous enough also to call attention to their shortcomings4 ,in all his autobiographic writings there is not a more luminous passage than the following1 in which he relates his experiences as conductor at the ,riga ,opera in #ahch1 when he was at work on ,rienzi3-- ,the peculiar gnawing melancholy which habitually overpowered me when ,i conducted one of our ordinary operas was interrupted by an inexpressible1 enthusiastic delight1 when1 here and there1 during the performance of nobler works1 ,i became conscious of the incomparable effects that can be produced by musico-dramatic combinations on the stage1--effects of a depth1 sincerity1 and direct realistic vivacity1 such as no other art can produce4 ,i felt quite elated and ennobled during the time that ,i was rehearsing ,mhul's enchanting ',joseph' with my little opera company4 ,such impressions1 he continues1 like flashes of lightning revealed to him unsuspected possibilities4 ,it was by utilizing these possibilities and hints1 and at the same time avoiding the errors and blemishes of his predecessors1 that his superlative genius was enabled to create such unapproachable masterworks as ,siegfried and ,tristan and ,isolde4 ,the way up to those peaks was1 however1 slow and toilsome4 ,for years he groped in darkness1 and light came but gradually4 ,it has already been intimated that his genius was slow in developing4 ,a brief review of his romantic career will bring out this and other interesting points4 ,at the time when ,richard ,wagner was born 7,may #bb1 #ahac71 ,leipzig was in such a state of commotion on account of the war to liberate ,germany from the ,napoleonic yoke that the child's baptism was deferred several months4 ,to his schooldays reference has been made already1 and we may therefore pass on to the time when he tried to make his living as an operatic conductor4 ,although he was then only twenty-one years old1 he showed remarkable aptitude for this kind of work from the beginning1 and it was through no fault of his that misfortune overtook every opera company with which he had anything to do4 ,the bankruptcy1 in #ahcf1 of the manager of the ,magdeburg ,opera1 affected him most disastrously1 for it came at the moment when he had arranged for the first performance of an opera he had written1 entitled1 ,das ,liebesverbot1 or ,the ,novice of ,palermo1 and which therefore was given only once4 ,many years later an attempt was made to revive this juvenile work at ,munich1 but the project was abandoned because1 as the famous ,wagnerian tenor1 ,heinrich ,vogl1 informed the writer of this article1 ,its arias and other numbers were such ludicrous and undisguised imitations of ,donizetti and other popular composers of that time that we all burst out laughing1 and kept up the merriment throughout the rehearsal4 ,this is of interest because it shows that ,wagner1 like that other great reformer1 ,gluck1 began his career by writing fashionable operas in the ,italian style4 ,a still earlier opera of his1 ,the ,fairies1--the first one he completed1--was not produced till #ahhh1 fifty-five years after it had been written1 and five years after ,wagner's death4 ,this has been performed a number of times in ,munich1 but it is so weak and uninteresting in itself that it required a splendid stage setting1 and the historic curiosity of ,wagner's admirers to make it palatable4 ,it is significant that already in these early works1 ,wagner wrote his own librettos1--a policy which he pursued to the end4 ,knigsberg was the next city where the opera company with which he was connected1 failed4 ,this was the more embarrassing to him1 as he had in the meantime been so unwise as to marry a pretty actress1 ,minna ,planer1 who was destined1 for a quarter of a century1 to faithfully share his experiences1--chiefly disappointments4 ,the pittance he got as conductor of these small ,german opera companies did not pay his expenses1 all the less as he was fond of luxurious living1 and1 like most artists1 the world over1 foolishly squandered his money when he happened to have any4 ,at ,riga1 where ,wagner next attempted to establish himself1 the opera company again got into trouble1 and his financial straits became such that1 relying on his future ability to meet his obligations1 he resolved to leave that part of the world altogether and seek his fortune in ,paris4 ,he knew that the ,prussian ,meyerbeer had won fame and fortune there1--why should not he have the same good luck8 ,he had unbounded confidence in his own ability1 and what increased his hopes of a ,parisian success1 was that he had already completed two acts of a grand historic opera1 ,rienzi1 based on ,bulwer's novel1 and written in the sensational and spectacular style of ,meyerbeer4 ,he supposed that all he had to do was to go to ,paris1 finish this opera1 get it accepted through the influence of his countryman and colleague1 ,meyerbeer1 and--wake up some morning famous and wealthy4 ,he was not the first man who built castles in ,spain4 ,to-day a trip from ,riga to ,paris is a very simple affair4 ,you get into a train1 and in about twenty-four hours are at your goal4 ,in #ahci there were no such conveniences4 ,wagner had to go to the ,prussian seaport of ,pillau1 and there board a sailing vessel which took him to ,london in three weeks and a half4 ,his journey1 however1 was a much more romantic affair than a railway trip would have been4 ,in the first place1 it was a real flight--from his creditors whom he had to evade4 ,next he had to dodge the ,russian sentries1 whose boxes were placed on the boundary line only a thousand yards apart4 ,a friend discovered a way of accomplishing this feat1 and ,wagner presently found himself on the ship1 with his wife and his enormous ,newfoundland dog4 ,in his trunk he had what he hoped would help him to begin a brilliant career in ,paris3 one opera completed1--,the ,novice of ,palermo2 two acts of another1--,rienzi2 and in his head he had the plot and some of the musical themes for a third1--,the ,flying ,dutchman4 ,the sea voyage came just in time to give him local color for this weird nautical opera4 ,three times the vessel was tossed by violent storms1 and once the captain was obliged to seek safety in a ,norwegian harbor4 ,the sailors told ,wagner their version of the ,flying ,dutchman legend1 and altogether these adventures were the very thing he wanted at the time1 and aided him in making his opera realistic1 both in its text and its music1 which imitates the howling of the storm winds and smells of the salt breezes4 ,so for once our young musician had a streak of luck4 ,but it did not last long4 ,he found ,paris a very large city1 and with very little use for him4 ,he made the most diverse efforts to support himself1 nearly always without success4 ,once it seemed as if his hopes were to be fulfilled4 ,the ,thtre de la ,renaissance accepted his ,novice of ,palermo2 but at the last moment there was the usual bankruptcy of the management1--the fourth that affected him6 ,then he wrote a ,parisian ,vaudeville1 but it had to be given up because the actors declared it could not be executed4 ,the ,grand ,opera1 on which he had fixed his eye1 was absolutely out of the question4 ,he was brought to such straits that he offered to sing in the chorus of a small ,boulevard theatre1 but was rejected4 ,his wife pawned her jewels2 on several occasions it is said that she even went into the street to beg a few pennies for their supper4 ,it was doubtless during these years of starvation that ,wagner acquired those gastric troubles which in later years often prevented him from working more than an hour or two a day4 ,a few ,german friends occasionally gave a little pecuniary aid1 but the only regular source of income was musical hackwork for the publisher ,schlesinger1 who gladly availed himself of ,wagner's skill in having him make vocal scores of operas1 or arrange popular melodies for the piano and other instruments4 ,wagner also wrote stories and essays for musical periodicals1 for which he received fair remuneration2 but his attempt to compose romances and become a parlor favorite failed4 ,nobody wanted his songs1 and he finally offered them to the editor of a periodical in ,germany for two dollars and a half to four dollars apiece4 ,this may seem ludicrously pathetic2 but then had not poor ,schubert1 a little more than a decade before this1 sold much better songs for twenty cents each6 ,meyerbeer no doubt aided ,wagner1 but considering his very great influence in ,paris1 he achieved surprisingly little for him4 ,the score of ,rienzi had been completed in #ahdj1 and in the spring of the next year1 ,wagner went to ,meudon1 near ,paris1 and there composed the music of ,the ,flying ,dutchman1 in seven weeks1 but neither of these operas seemed to have the least chance to appear on the boards of the ,grand ,opera4 ,the best their author could do was to sell the libretto of ,the ,flying ,dutchman for one hundred dollars1 reserving the right to set it to music himself4 ,the outcome of all these disappointments was that he finally lost hope so far as ,paris was concerned1 and sent his ,rienzi to ,dresden and his ,flying ,dutchman to ,berlin4 ,the ,novice of ,palermo he had given up entirely after the bankruptcy of the ,renaissance ,thtre1 because1 as he wrote1 ,i felt that ,i could no longer respect myself as its composer4 ,meyerbeer had1 at his request1 kindly sent a note to the intendant of the ,dresden ,opera1 in which he said1 among other things1 that he had found the selections from ,rienzi1 which ,wagner had played for him1 highly imaginative and of great dramatic effect4 ,tichatschek1 the famous ,dresden tenor1 examined the score1 and liked the title role2 the chorus director1 ,fischer1 also pleaded for the acceptance of the opera2 and so at last ,wagner got word in ,paris that it would be produced in ,dresden4 ,as ,berlin1 too1 retained the manuscript of his other opera1 there was reason enough for him to end his ,parisian sojourn and return to his native country4 ,he went overland this time1 and1 to cite his own words1 ,for the first time ,i saw the ,rhine2 with tears in my eyes ,i1 the poor artist1 swore eternal allegiance to my ,german fatherland4 ,it was fortunate in every way that he went to ,dresden4 ,his opera required many alterations and improvements1 which he alone could make4 ,he was permitted to superintend the rehearsals1 which was1 of course1 a great advantage to the opera4 ,the singers grew more and more enthusiastic over the music1 and when the first public performance was given1 on ,october #bj1 #ahdb1 the audience also was delighted and remained to the very end1 although the performance lasted six hours4 ,the composer immediately applied the pruning-knife and reduced the duration to four hours and a half 7from #f to #aj4cj1--opera hours were early in those days72 but the tenor1 ,tichatschek1 declared with tears in his eyes1 ,i shall not permit any cuts in my part6 ,it is too heavenly4 ,those were proud and happy days for ,wagner4 ,i1 who had hitherto been lonely1 deserted1 homeless1 he wrote1 suddenly found myself loved1 admired1 by many even regarded with wonderment4 ,rienzi was repeated a number of times to overcrowded houses1 though the prices had been put up4 ,it was regarded as a fabulous success1 and the management was eager to follow it up with another4 ,so the score of ,the ,flying ,dutchman was demanded of ,berlin 7where they seemed in no hurry to use it71 and at once put into rehearsal4 ,it was produced in ,dresden on ,january #b1 #ahdc1 only about ten weeks after ,rienzi1--an almost unprecedented event in the life of an opera composer4 ,wagner conducted the second opera himself 7also ,rienzi1 after the first few performances71 and gave so much satisfaction that he was shortly afterwards appointed to the position of royal conductor 7which he held about six years74 ,so far1 all seemed well4 ,but disappointments soon began to overshadow his seeming good luck4 ,the first production of the ,flying ,dutchman can hardly be called a success4 ,wagner himself characterized the performance as being1 in its main features1 a complete failure1 and the stage setting incredibly awkward and wooden 7very different from what it is in ,dresden to-day74 ,mme4 ,schroeder-,devrient was an admirable ,senta1 and received enthusiastic applause2 but the opera itself puzzled the audience rather than pleased it4 ,the music-lovers of ,dresden had expected another opera la ,meyerbeer1 like ,rienzi1 with its arias and duos1 its din and its dances1 its pomps and processions1 its scenic and musical splendors4 ,instead of that1 they heard a work utterly unlike any opera ever before written2 an opera without arias1 duets1 and dances1 without any of the glitter that had theretofore entertained the public2 an opera that simply related a legend in one breath1 as it were1--like a dramatic ballad2 an opera that indulged in weird chromatic scales1 and harsh but expressive harmonies1 with an unprecedented license4 ,here was the real ,wagner1 but even in this early and comparatively crude and simple phase1 ,wagner was too novel and revolutionary to be appreciated by his contemporaries2 hence it is not to be wondered at that the ,flying ,dutchman1 after four performances in ,dresden1 and a few in ,cassel and ,berlin1 disappeared from the stage for ten years4 ,although ,wagner was now royal conductor1 he did not succeed in securing a revival of this opera at ,dresden4 ,his next work1 ,tannhuser1 was nevertheless promptly accepted4 ,the score was completed on ,april #ac1 #ahde1 and six1 months later 7,october #ai71 the first performance was given4 ,wagner had thrown himself with all his soul into the composition of this score4 ,to a friend in ,berlin he wrote3 ,this opera must be good1 or else ,i never shall be able to do anything worth while4 ,the public at first seemed to agree with him4 ,seven performances were given before the end of the season1 and it was resumed the following year2 yet ,wagner came to the conclusion that he had written the opera for a few intimate friends1 but not for the public1 to cite his own words4 ,what the public had expected and desired was shown by its enthusiastic reception of ,rienzi1 and its colder treatment of the ,dutchman4 ,but ,tannhuser was like the second opera2 in fact1 even more so4 ,wagner had outlived the time when he was willing to make concessions to current taste and fashion2 thenceforth he went his own way1 eager1 indeed1 for approval1 but stubbornly refusing to win it by sacrificing his high art ideals4 ,here was true heroism1 genuine manliness6 ,had he been willing to write more operas like ,rienzi1 he might have revelled in wealth 7he loved wealth67 and basked in the sunshine of popularity1 like ,meyerbeer4 ,but not one inch of concession did he make for the sake of the much-coveted riches and popular favor4 ,yet was not his next work1 ,lohengrin1 of a popular character8 ,popular to-day1 yes2 but in the days of his ,dresden conductorship he could not even get it accepted for performance at his own opera-house6 ,it was completed in ,august1 #ahdg 7the last act having been written first and the second last71 but although he remained in ,dresden two years longer1 all his efforts to get it staged failed1 for various reasons4 ,and when1 at last1 ,liszt gave it for the first time1 on ,august #bh1 #ahej1 at ,weimar1 whence it gradually made its way to other opera-houses1 its reception everywhere showed that it was very far from being considered a popular work4 ,the critics1 especially1 vied with one another in abusing this same ,lohengrin1 which at present is sung more frequently than any other opera2 and they continued to abuse it until about twenty years ago4 ,an abyss of ennui1 void of all melody1 an insult to the very essence of music1 a caricature of music1 algebraic harmonies1 no tangible ideas1 not a dozen bars of melody1 an opera without music1 an incoherent mass of rubbish1--are a few of the critical opinions passed on this opera1 which is now regarded in all countries as a very wonderland of beautiful melodies and expressive harmonies4 ,the non-acceptance in ,dresden of this glorious opera1 concerning which ,wagner wrote1 ,it is the best thing ,i have done so far1 was only one of many trials and disappointments which daily harassed him4 ,he was over head and ears in debt1 because1 in his confidence in the immediate success of his operas1 he had had them printed at once1 at his own expense4 ,the opera-houses were very slow in accepting them1 and this left him in a sad predicament4 ,there were1 moreover1 enemies everywhere1--ignorant1 old-fashioned professionals1 who objected to his way of interpreting the masters 7though it was afterwards admitted that he was epoch-making as an interpreter of their deepest thoughts74 ,all this galled him2 and1 furthermore1 no attention whatever was paid to his pet plans for reforming the ,dresden ,opera1 and theatrical matters in general4 ,in the state of mind brought about by this condition of affairs1 it needed but a firebrand to start an explosion4 ,this firebrand was supplied by the revolutionary uprising of #ahdi4 ,now1 although ,wagner had never really cared much for politics 7to his friend ,fischer he once wrote3 ,i do not consider true art possible until politics cease to exist71 he was foolish enough to believe that a general overturning of affairs would benefit art-matters1 too1 and facilitate his operatic reforms2 so he became1 as he himself admits1 a revolutionist in behalf of the theatre4 ,he actively assisted the insurgents1 and the consequence was that1 when the rebellion failed1 he had to leave ,dresden and seek safety in flight4 ,three of the leaders of the insurrection--,roeckel1 ,bakunin1 and ,heubner2 personal friends of ,wagner--were captured and imprisoned2 he himself was so lucky as to escape to ,weimar1 where ,franz ,liszt took care of him4 ,it so happened that ,liszt1 who had given up his career as concert pianist 7though all the world was clamoring to hear him71 and was conducting the ,weimar ,opera1 had been preparing a performance of ,tannhuser1 to which ,wagner would1 under normal conditions1 have been invited as a matter of course4 ,he was now there1 but as a political fugitive1 wherefore it was not deemed advisable to have him attend the public performance2 but he did secretly witness a rehearsal1 and was delighted to find that ,liszt's genius had enabled him to penetrate into the innermost recesses of this music4 ,it was impossible1 however1 for him to stay any longer4 ,the ,dresden police had issued a warrant for the arrest of the royal ,kapellmeister ,richard ,wagner1 who was to be placed on trial for active participation in the riots which have taken place here4 ,no time was1 therefore1 to be lost4 ,late in the evening of ,may #ah1 ,liszt's noble patroness1 the ,princess ,wittgenstein1 received this note from him3 ,can you give the bearer sixty thalers8 ,wagner is obliged to fly1 and ,i cannot help him at this moment4 ,early the next morning ,wagner1 provided with a false pass1 left ,weimar and headed for ,switzerland1 which was to be his home for the greater part of the following twelve years of his exile from ,germany4 ,had he been caught1 like his friends1 and1 like them1 imprisoned during these years1 it is not likely that the world would now possess those seven monuments of his ripest genius1 ,rheingold1 ,die ,walkre1 ,siegfried1 ,gtterdmmerung1 ,tristan and ,isolde1 ,die ,meistersinger1 and ,parsifal4 ,even as it was1 the world has undoubtedly lost an immortal opera or two through his unfortunate participation in the rebellion4 ,for during the first four years of his exile1 he did not compose any music4 ,he reasoned that he had written four good operas and nobody seemed to want them2 why1 therefore1 should he compose any more8 ,at the same time1 he realized that there were natural reasons why his operas were not understood4 ,they were written in such a novel style1 both vocal and instrumental1 that the singers1 players1 and conductors found it difficult to perform them correctly1 the consequence being that they did not specially impress the audiences1 which1 moreover1 were bewildered by finding themselves listening to works so radically different from what they had been accustomed to in the opera-houses4 ,in the hope of remedying this state of affairs ,wagner devoted several years to writing essays1 in which he explained his aims and ideals for the benefit both of performers and listeners4 ,little attention was1 however1 paid to these essays1 and although they are valuable aesthetic treatises1 most lovers of ,wagner would gladly give them for the operas he might have written in the same time1--operas uniting the characteristics of ,lohengrin and ,the ,valkyrie4 ,wagner's letters to ,liszt and other friends show that he suffered tortures1 and was often brought to the verge of suicide by the thought that1 as a political refugee1 he was unable to go to ,germany to superintend the production of his works4 ,his one consolation was that1 as he put it1 through the friendship of ,liszt his art had found a home at ,weimar at the moment when he himself became homeless4 ,weimar became1 as it were1 a sort of preliminary ,bayreuth1 to which pilgrimages were made to hear ,wagner's operas4 ,liszt not only produced the ,flying ,dutchman1 ,tannhuser1 and ,lohengrin1 but wrote eloquent essays on them1 and in every possible way advanced the good cause4 ,it has been justly said that by his efforts he accelerated the vogue of ,wagner's operas fully ten years4 ,he also helped him pecuniarily1 and induced others to do the same4 ,never in the world's history has one artist done so much for another as ,liszt did for ,wagner during all the years of his exile in ,switzerland4 ,few persons would consider residence in ,switzerland 7the usual home in those days of political refugees7 a special hardship2 nor would ,wagner have considered it in that light except for the solicitude he felt for the children of his brain4 ,otherwise he greatly enjoyed life in that glorious country1 and the ,alpine ozone nourished and stimulated his brain4 ,moreover1 from the creative point of view1 it was an actual advantage for him to be away from the opera-houses of the great capitals4 ,in ,switzerland1 except for a short time when he was connected with the ,zurich opera1 he heard no operatic music except such as his own brain created4 ,undoubtedly this helps to account for the astounding originality of the music-dramas he wrote in ,switzerland4 ,these music-dramas go as far beyond ,lohengrin in certain directions as ,lohengrin goes beyond the operas of ,wagner's predecessors4 ,it was a reckless thing to do1 to make another such giant stride before the world had caught up with his first1 and he had to suffer the consequences2 but genius disregards prudence1 and looks to the future alone4 ,what he was now writing was what his enemies tauntingly called the music of the future1 because1 as they said1 nobody liked it at present2 but what he himself called the art work of the future1 in which all the fine arts are inseparably united4 ,the biggest of his works1 the ,nibelung ,tetralogy1 was conceived and for the most part written in ,switzerland4 ,before leaving ,dresden he had already written the poem of an opera which he called ,siegfried's ,death4 ,returning to this in his exile he came to the conclusion1 gradually1 that the legend on which it is based1 and which he had sketched out in prose at the beginning1 contained the material for two1 three1 nay1 four operas4 ,accordingly1 he wrote the poems of these3 first1 ,gtterdmmerung1 then ,siegfried1 ,die ,walkre1 and ,rheingold4 ,the music to these four dramas was1 however1 composed in the reverse order1 in which they were to be performed4 ,wagner indulged in no illusions regarding these music-dramas4 ,he knew that they were beyond the capacity of even the best royal opera-houses of that time1 and that they could be performed only under exceptional conditions1 such as he finally succeeded1 after herculean efforts and many disappointments1 in securing at ,bayreuth in #ahgf4 ,it is of great interest to note that the germs of a sort of ,bayreuth festival plan can be found in his letters as early as #ahej1--the year when ,lohengrin had its first hearing4 ,thus a full quarter of a century elapsed between the conception of this festival plan and its execution4 ,but ,wagner had the patience of ,job1 as well as his capacity for suffering4 ,amid privations of all sorts1 he wrote the sublime music of these dramas1 beginning with ,rheingold1 on ,nov4 #a1 #ahec1--the first time he had put new operatic melodies on paper since the completion of ,lohengrin1 in ,august1 #ahdg4 ,in his head1 to be sure1 he had been carrying much of the ,nibelung music for some time1 for he habitually created his leading melodies at the same time as the verse2 and the four ,nibelung poems were in print in #ahec4 ,on ,may #bh1 #ahed1 the score of ,rheingold was completed1 and four weeks later he began the sketches of ,the ,valkyrie1 the completed score of which was in his desk by the end of ,march1 #ahef4 ,in the meantime his poverty had compelled him1 much against his wishes1 to accept an offer from the ,london ,philharmonic ,society to conduct their concerts for a season 7,march to ,june1 #ahee74 ,he had reason to bitterly regret this action4 ,with the limited number of rehearsals at his command it was impossible for him to make the orchestra follow his intentions and reveal his greatness as a conductor4 ,he was not allowed to make the programmes1 and the directors1 ignorant of the fact that they had engaged the greatest musical genius of the century1 gave no ,wagner concert1 and put only a few short selections from his early operas on the programs4 ,thus his hopes of creating a desire for the hearing of his complete operas1 which had been one of his motives in going to ,london1 were frustrated4 ,he was1 moreover1 constantly abused for doing things differently from ,mendelssohn1 and the leading critics referred to his best music as senseless discord1 inflated display of extravagance and noise1 and so on4 ,almost the only pleasant episode was the sympathy and interest of ,queen ,victoria1 who had a long talk with him1 and informed him that his music had enraptured her4 ,for all this trouble and loss of time 7he found himself unable in ,london to do any satisfactory work on the uncompleted ,valkyrie score71 he received the munificent sum of #a1jjj1--;considerably less than many ,wagner singers to-day get for one evening's work4 ,shortly before leaving ,london he wrote to a friend that he would bring home about #bjj francs1--#dj6 ,for this he had wasted four months of precious time and endured endless contrarieties and vulgar animosities1 to use his own words4 ,equally unsuccessful were his efforts1 a few years later1 to better himself financially by a series of concerts in ,paris 7#ahfj74 ,they resulted in a large deficit4 ,nor was he benefited by the performances of his ,tannhuser1 which were given at the grand opera in ,march1 #ahfa1 by order of ,napoleon1 at the request of the influential ,princess ,metternich4 ,he had refused to interpolate a vulgar ballet in the second act for the benefit of the members of the aristocratic ,jockey ,club1 who dined late and insisted on having a ballet on entering the opera-house4 ,they took their revenge by creating such a disturbance every evening that after the third performance ,wagner refused to allow any further repetitions1 although the house on the third night had been completely sold out4 ,he was to receive #ej for each performance4 ,the result was #aej1 or less than #ej cents a day1 for a year's hard work and no end of worry in connection with the rehearsals4 ,how many men are there in the annals of art who would have refused1 after all these disappointments and bitter lessons1 to make some concessions8 ,wagner was writing a gigantic work1 the ,nibelung ,tetralogy1 which1 he was convinced1 would never yield a penny's profit during his lifetime4 ,sometimes despair seized him4 ,in one of his letters he exclaims3 ,why should ,i1 poor devil1 burden and torture myself with such terrible tasks1 if the present generation refuses to let me have even a workshop8 ,yet the only deviation he made from his plan was that when he had reached the second act of the third of the ,nibelung dramas1 the poetic ,siegfried1 in ,june1 #aheg1 he made up his mind to abandon the ,tetralogy for the time being1 and compose an opera which might be performed separately and once more bring him into contact with the stage4 ,this opera was ,tristan and ,isolde2 but instead of being a concession1 it turned out to be the most difficult and ,wagnerian of all his works1--an opera with much emotion but little action1 no processions or choruses such as ,lohengrin still had1 and1 of course1 no arias or tunes whatever4 ,tristan and ,isolde was completed in #ahei1 and ,wagner would have much preferred to have its performance in ,paris commanded by ,napoleon in place of ,tannhuser4 ,what the ,jockey ,club would have done in that case is inconceivable1 for1 compared with ,tristan1 ,tannhuser is almost ,meyerbeerian1 if not ,donizettian4 ,no singers1 moreover1 could have been found in ,paris able to interpret this work1 with its new vocal style1--speech-song1 as the ,germans call it4 ,even ,germany could do nothing1 at first1 with this opera4 ,in ,vienna1 after fifty-four rehearsals1 it was abandoned1 in #ahfc1 as impossible1 and that city did not produce it till after ,wagner's death4 ,instead of bringing him into immediate contact with the stage1 it was not heard anywhere till seven years after its completion4 ,there was one more card for him to play4 ,all his operas1 so far1 had been tragedies4 ,what if he were to write a comic opera8 ,would not that be likely to get him access to the stage again1 and help him financially8 ,he had the plan for a comic opera2 indeed1 he had sketched it as early as #ahde1 at the same time as the plot of ,lohengrin4 ,sixteen years it lay dormant in his brain4 ,at last he wrote out the poem in ,paris1 immediately after the ,tannhuser disaster there4 ,perhaps it would be more accurate to call ,die ,meistersinger a humorous opera2 for while the story of the mediaeval knight who wins the goldsmith's daughter has comic features1 its chief characteristic is humor1 with that undercurrent of seriousness that belongs to all masterpieces of humor4 ,to a certain extent1 it is a musical and poetic autobiography1 the victorious young ,knight ,walter1 who sings as he pleases1 without regard to pedantic rules1 representing ,wagner himself and the music of the future1 while the vain and malicious ,beckmesser stands for the critics1 and ,hans ,sachs for enlightened public opinion4 ,it was during the time that he wrote the gloriously melodious and spontaneous music to this poem that the most important event of his life happened4 ,work on the score was repeatedly interrupted by the necessity of making some money4 ,most of his concerts in ,german cities1 undertaken for this purpose1 did not yield him any profits4 ,in ,russia1 however1 he was very successful1 and as he had the promise of a repetition of his success1 he rented a fine villa at ,penzing1 near ,vienna1 and proceeded to enjoy life for a change4 ,who can blame him for this8 ,as he said to a friend not long after this1 ,i am differently organized from others1 have sensitive nerves1 must have beauty1 splendor1 and light4 ,is it really such an outrageous thing if ,i lay claim to the little bit of luxury which ,i like1--,i1 who am preparing enjoyment for the world and for thousands8 ,unfortunately the second ,russian project failed1 through no fault of his own1 and as he had borrowed money at usurious rates on his expected profits1 he found himself compelled to fly once more from his creditors4 ,after spending a short time in ,switzerland1 he went to ,stuttgart1 where he persuaded his friend ,weissheimer to go with him into the ,suabian ,alps1 where he intended to hide for half a year1 until he could finish his ,meistersinger1 and with the score raise money for his creditors4 ,the wagon had already been ordered for the next morning1 ,may #c1 #ahfd1 and ,wagner was packing his trunk1 when a card was brought up to him with the inscription3 von ,pfistenmeister1 ,secrtaire aulique de ,s4,m4 le roi de ,bavire1 and the message that the ,baron came by order of the ,king of ,bavaria1 and was very anxious to see him4 ,king ,ludwig ,,ii4 of ,bavaria had declared1 while he was still crown prince1 that as soon as he became king he would show the world how highly he held the genius of ,wagner in honor4 ,he kept his word4 ,one of his first acts was to despatch ,baron von ,pfistenmeister to search for ,wagner1 and not to return without him4 ,he was to tell him that the king was his most ardent admirer2 that he wanted him to come at once to ,munich1 to live there in comfort1 at the king's expense1 to complete his ,nibelung operas1 and produce them forthwith4 ,was it a wonder that when the ,baron had left1 ,wagner1 who was thus suddenly raised from the depth of despair 7he had even meditated suicide7 to the height of happiness1 fell on ,weissheimer's neck1 and wept for joy4 ,surely the brain of a ,dumas could not have conceived a more romantic event than this sudden transformation of one who was a fugitive from debtor's prison into the favorite of a young and enthusiastic king4 ,at last ,wagner had an opportunity to bring forward his music-dramas4 ,tristan and ,isolde was sung at the ,munich ,opera on ,june #aj1 #ahfe1 with an excellent cast1 and ,hans von ,blow as conductor4 ,die ,meistersinger followed on ,june #ba1ahfh4 ,both these works were received with enthusiasm by the ever-growing band of ,wagner-lovers4 ,his plan of building a special theatre in ,munich for the performance of his ,nibelung operas could not be carried out1 however1 even with the king's aid2 for his great influence with the king 7he was rumored to be even his political and religious adviser1 though this was not true71 aroused so much hostile feeling that ,wagner finally decided to have his ,nibelung festival at the old secluded town of ,bayreuth4 ,at the suggestion of the eminent pianist1 ,carl ,taussig1 ,wagner societies were formed in the cities of ,europe and ,america to raise funds for this festival and give ,wagner a chance to establish a tradition by showing the world how his operas should be performed4 ,with the aid of these and liberal contributions by his ever-devoted king1 ,wagner was able1 after many trials1 tribulations1 and postponements1 to bring out1 at last1 his great ,tetralogy1 on ,august #ac1 #ad1af1 and #ag1 of the year #ahgf4 ,it was beyond comparison the most interesting and important event in the whole history of music4 ,wagner had personally visited the opera-houses throughout the land and selected the best singers4 ,the audience included the ,emperors of ,germany and ,brazil1 ,king ,ludwig1 the ,grand ,dukes of ,weimar and ,baden1 eminent composers like ,liszt1 ,grieg1 ,saint-,sans1 and many other notable persons4 ,the impression made by the great work was the deeper because of the unusual circumstances3 the theatre specially constructed after ,wagner's novel plan2 the amphitheatric seats2 the concealed orchestra2 the stereoscopic clearness and nearness of the stage scenes1 etc4 ,the necessity of charging very high rates 7#bbe for the four dramas7 naturally prevented the audiences from being large1 and the result was that ,wagner had a deficit of #cg1jjj on his hands as the reward for his genius and years of business worries4 ,when1 however1 his last work1 the sublime1 semi-religious ,parsifal1 was produced in #ahhb1 there was a balance in his favor4 ,he was then in his sixty-ninth year1 and the exertion of producing this final masterpiece was too great for him4 ,to recuperate1 he went to ,venice1 where he died on ,feb4 #ac1 #ahhb4 ,king ,ludwig sent a special train to convey his body to ,bayreuth1 where it was buried in the garden behind his villa ,wahnfried4 ,since ,wagner's death the ,bayreuth festivals have been kept up with ever-increasing success1 under the guidance of his widow ,cosima1 the daughter of ,liszt 7whom he married in #ahgj1 four years after the death of his first wife71 and their son1 ,siegfried1 who has in recent years also won some success as an opera composer4 ,the performances at ,bayreuth are no longer what they were during ,wagner's lifetime1--models for all the world2 but they are still of unique interest4 ,in truth1 headquarters like ,bayreuth are no longer needed1 for all the ,german cities now vie with one another in their efforts to interpret the ,wagner operas according to the composer's intentions2 and his influence on other musicians1 which began with the performance of ,lohengrin under ,liszt1 in #ahej1 is to-day greater than ever1--more powerful1 perhaps1 than that ever exerted by any other master4 ,but while an eminent ,german critic wrote not long ago that the music-drama of ,wagner constitutes modern opera1 it would be a huge mistake to make ,wagnerism synonymous with modern music in general4 ,apart from the opera1 there are several other very powerful currents1 and while most of them can be traced to the first half of the nineteenth century1 they are none the less modern4 ,their principal sources are ,beethoven1 ,schubert1 and ,chopin1 to whom we must add1 in the second half of the century1 ,liszt4 ,the symphonies of ,haydn and ,mozart are like toy-houses compared with the massive architecture of ,beethoven's4 ,he not only elaborated the forms1 but varied the rhythms1 broadened the melody1 and deepened the expression of orchestral music4 ,in his works1 too1 are to be found the germs of romanticism1 which others1 notably ,mendelssohn and ,schumann1 developed so fascinatingly in their best works4 ,most of ,mendelssohn's compositions have had their day2 but ,schumann is still a force in modern music and will long remain so4 ,brahms1 the musical ,browning1 is1 musically speaking1 a son of ,schumann and a grandson of ,beethoven4 ,while even ,brahms did not escape the influence of ,wagner1 nor that of the romanticists ,schubert and ,chopin1 still1 in his essence1 he represents reaction against modern romanticism and an atavistic return to the spirit of ,beethoven4 ,he has been1 for decades1 the idol of ,wagner's enemies2 yet1 in truth1 there was no occasion for opposing these two men1 since they worked in entirely different fields4 ,brahms wrote no operas1 while ,wagner wrote little but operas4 ,the real antagonist of ,brahms is ,liszt1 who also worked only for the concert hall and who represents poetic or pictorial music 7programme music71 while ,brahms stands for absolute music1 or music per se1 without any poetic affiliations4 ,while ,schubert in his youth also came under the influence of his great contemporary1 ,beethoven1 he soon emancipated himself completely from him1 even in the symphony1 in which1 as ,schumann pointed out1 he opened up an entirely new world of melody1 color1 and emotion4 ,his orchestration is more varied1 euphonious1 and enchanting than ,beethoven's1 and in this direction he did for the symphony what ,weber did for the opera4 ,by using the brass instruments pianissimo1 for color instead of for loudness1 he opened a path in which later masters1 including ,wagner1 eagerly followed him4 ,schubert was also the first composer who revealed the exquisite beauty and the great emotional power of the freest modulation from key to key4 ,his poetic impromptus for piano became the model for ,mendelssohn's ,songs without ,words1 and the multitudinous forms of modern short pieces1 while his melodious1 dainty1 graceful valses were the forerunners of the exquisite dance-music which subsequently made ,vienna famous1 and which reached its climax in ,johann ,strauss the younger1 universally known as the waltz king4 ,in all these respects1 ,schubert was epoch-making2 and if the beautiful details he suggested to his successors up to the present day could be taken out of their works there would be some surprising blanks4 ,especially also is this true in the realm of lyric song1 for1 as everybody knows1 he practically created the art song as we know and love it4 ,the greatest of his immediate successors1 ,schumann and ,franz1 cheerfully admitted that they could never have written such songs as they gave the world but for ,schubert1 and the same confession might be made by the latest of the great songwriters1 ,grieg1 ,richard ,strauss1 and our ,american ,mac,dowell4 ,schubert's best songs have never been equalled4 ,they belong in the realm of modern music quite as much as ,wagner's music-dramas and ,liszt's symphonic poems4 ,chopin is another composer who1 although he died in #ahdi 7,schubert died in #ahbh71 is as modern as the masters just named4 ,he was as boldly original as ,schubert1 and as great a magician in the art of arousing deep emotion by means of novel1 unexpected modulations4 ,as an originator of new harmonic progressions he has had only three equals1--,bach1 ,schubert1 and ,wagner4 ,harmonies as ultra-modern as those of ,wagner's ,parsifal may be found in some of the mazurkas of ,chopin4 ,he was1 as ,rubinstein called him1 the soul of the pianoforte4 ,no one before or after him knew how to make that instrument speak so eloquently4 ,by ingeniously scattering the notes of a chord over the keyboard while holding down the pedal1 he practically gave the player three or four hands1 and greatly enlarged the harmonic and coloristic possibilities of the pianoforte4 ,liszt1 ,rubinstein1 ,paderewski1 and others have gone farther still in the same direction1 but he showed the way1 and most of his pieces are as delightful and as modern now as they were on the day when they were written4 ,he wrote a few sonatas1 but the majority of his works are short pieces such as are characteristic of the modern romantic school4 ,before ,chopin modernized pianoforte music the world's greatest composers had been ,italians1 ,germans1 and ,frenchmen4 ,chopin's father was a ,frenchman1 but his mother was a native of ,poland1 and he was born in that country4 ,while his music has the ,french qualities of elegance and clearness 7which every one admires in the works of ,gounod1 ,bizet1 ,massenet1 and other ,parisian masters71 in its essence it is ,polish--a fact of special significance1 for from this time on other nations than the three mentioned--especially the ,slavic and ,scandinavian--begin to play a prominent role in music4 ,in this brief sketch only the greatest names can be considered1--such names as ,rubinstein1 ,tschaikowsky1 ,dvork1 ,grieg4 ,rubinstein was not only one of the greatest pianists1 but one of the most spontaneous and fertile melodists of all times4 ,his frequently careless workmanship and his foolish1 savage hostility to the dominant ,wagner movement prevented him from enjoying the fruits of his rare genius4 ,he felt that1 had it not been for the all-absorbing ,wagner1 he himself might have been as popular as ,mendelssohn4 ,although a ,russian1 there is little local color in his music1 for the enchanting exotic melodic intervals in his ,persian songs are ,oriental in general1 rather than ,russian in particular4 ,similar exotic intervals may be found in the ,ada of ,verdi1 a pure ,italian4 ,rubinstein1 like ,mendelssohn and ,meyerbeer1 was a ,hebrew4 ,his day will yet come1 for his ,dramatic and ,ocean symphonies are among the grandest orchestral works in existence4 ,his countryman1 ,tschaikowsky1 also was neglected during his lifetime2 but since his death he has become1 especially in ,london1 almost as popular as ,wagner2 and deservedly so1 for he was a genius of the highest type1 less in his songs and pianoforte works than in his symphonies and symphonic poems1 which include some of the most inspired pages in modern music4 ,in some of his compositions there is a barbaric splendor which proclaims the ,russian and delights those who like exotic novelty in music4 ,like all the ,russians1 ,tschaikowsky was strongly influenced by ,liszt2 indeed1 it may be said that in ,russia ,liszt was more potent in shaping the course of modern music than even ,wagner4 ,another ,slavic composer1 the ,bohemian ,dvork1 is of special interest to ,americans not only because he is one of the greatest of modern orchestral writers 7a colorist of rare charm71 but because he presided for several years over ,mrs4 ,thurber's ,national ,conservatory of ,music in ,new ,york1 and there wrote that truly melodious and deeply emotional work1 ,from the ,new ,world1 which has become almost as popular as ,tschaikowsky's ,pathtique4 ,his ,bohemian rhythms have a unique charm4 ,among the ,scandinavian composers the greatest1 by far1 is ,grieg1 one of the most original melodists and harmonists of all times4 ,his songs1 in particular1 are destined to immortality2 they are among the very best written since ,schubert4 ,of his pianoforte and chamber music1 too1 it can be said that everything is new1 free from commonplace1 and ultra-modern4 ,he has written mostly short pieces1 and for that reason has had to wait 7like ,chopin in his day7 a long time for full recognition of his genius1 the critics not having yet got over the foolish habit of measuring art-works with a yardstick4 ,like ,chopin1 moreover1 ,grieg has had the ill-fortune of having his most original and individual traits accredited to his nation and described as national peculiarities4 ,his music does contain such peculiarities2 but it is necessary to distinguish between what is ,norwegian and what is ,griegian4 ,grieg's little pieces and songs are big with genius4 ,the ,hungarian ,liszt is another immortal master who1 beside the fruits of his individual genius1 contributed to the current of modern music some of those exotic national traits which distinguish it from that of earlier epochs when it was almost exclusively ,italian1 ,french1 and ,german4 ,his fifteen ,hungarian rhapsodies constitute1 however1 only a small part of the invaluable legacy he has left the world4 ,he was the most many-sided of all musicians1--the greatest of all pianists1 and one of the best composers of oratorios1 songs1 orchestral1 and pianoforte works1--everything1 in short1 except operas and chamber music4 ,he was also the greatest of teachers and 7with the exception of ,wagner7 the greatest of conductors2 as such1 he carried out both his own and ,wagner's new and revolutionary principles of interpretation1 which have gradually made the orchestral conductor a personage of even greater importance1 in concert hall and opera-house1 than the prima donna1 travelling1 like her1 from city to city1 to delight lovers of music4 ,one might have expected that the prince of pianists1 being at the same time a composer1 would do for the pianoforte what ,bach had done for choral and organ music1 ,beethoven for the symphony1 ,schubert for the art song1 and ,wagner for the opera4 ,but he could not1 for ,chopin had anticipated him4 ,in only one direction was it possible to go beyond ,chopin1--in that of making the piano capable of reproducing orchestral effects4 ,this1 ,liszt achieved in his own works and his transcriptions4 ,but1 after all1 the grandest pianoforte1 while delightful as such1 is but a poor substitute for an orchestra4 ,hence it was natural that ,liszt should give up the pianoforte as his specialty and devote himself particularly to the orchestra4 ,in this domain he was destined to achieve reforms similar to those of ,wagner in the opera4 ,the classical symphony1 like the old-fashioned opera1 consists of detached numbers1 or movements1 that have no organic connection with one another4 ,for the detached numbers of the opera ,wagner substituted his continuous melody2 and he provided an organic connection of all the parts by means of the leading motives or characteristic melodies and chords which recur whenever the situation calls for them4 ,in the same spirit ,liszt transformed the symphony into the symphonic poem1 which is continuous and has a leading motive uniting all its parts4 ,there is another aspect to the symphonic poem1 in which ,liszt deviated from ,wagner4 ,in ,wagner's operas there is plenty of descriptive or pictorial music1 but no program music1 properly speaking2 for even in such things as the ,ride of the ,valkyries1 or the ,magic ,fire ,scene1 the music does not depend on a programme1 but is explained by the scenery4 ,in programme music1 on the other hand1 the scene or the poetic idea is simply explained in the programme1 or else merely hinted at in the title of the piece4 ,crude attempts in this direction were made centuries ago1 but programme music as an important branch of music is a modern phenomenon4 ,beethoven encouraged it by his ,pastoral ,symphony1 and the ,french ,berlioz did some very remarkable things in this line in his dramatic symphonies2 but it remained for ,liszt to hit the nail on the head in his symphonic poems4 ,the ,french ,saint-,sans followed him1 rather than his countryman ,berlioz2 so did ,tschaikowsky1 ,dvork1 and most modern composers1 up to ,richard ,strauss1 whose symphonic poems are the most widely discussed1 praised1 and abused compositions of our time4 ,to the great names contained in the preceding paragraphs another must be added1--that of an ,italian4 ,by an odd coincidence1 ,verdi was born in the same year as ,wagner1 #ahac4 ,but what is far more remarkable is that at the close of their careers1 so different otherwise1 these two great composers met again--in their music1 ,verdi as a ,wagnerian convert4 ,up to his fifty-eighth year ,verdi had written two dozen operas1 all made up of strings of arias in the old-fashioned way1--superb arias1 many of them1 especially in ,il ,trovatore and ,ada1 but still arias4 ,then he rested from his labors sixteen years2 and when he appeared on the stage again1 with his ,otello and ,falstaff1 he had adopted ,wagner's maxims that arias are out of place in a music-drama2 that the play's the thing1 and that the music should follow the text word for word4 ,surely1 this was the most remarkable of ,wagner's triumphs and conquests4 ,he who had been denounced for decades as being unable to write properly for the voice was actually taken up as a model by the greatest composer of ,italy1 the land of song4 ,moreover1 all the young composers of ,italy have turned their backs on the traditions of ,italian opera4 ,the chief ambition of ,mascagni1 ,leoncavallo1 ,puccini1 and all the others has been to be called the ,italian ,wagner2 and their operas are much more like ,wagner's than like ,rossini's and ,donizetti's1 being free from arias and the vocal embroideries that formerly were the essence of ,italian opera4 ,the same is true of the operas written in recent decades in ,france1 ,germany1 and other countries4 ,massenet1 ,saint-,sans1 ,humperdinck1 ,goldmark1 ,richard ,strauss1 ,paderewski1 and all the others have followed in ,wagner's footsteps4 ,such1 briefly told1 is the story of ,richard ,wagner and ,modern ,music4 ,the music of the future has become the music of the present4 ,what the future will bring no one can tell4 ,croakers say1 as they have always said1 that the race of giants has died out4 ,but who knew1 fifty years ago1 that ,wagner and ,liszt1 or even their predecessors1 ,chopin and ,schumann1 and the song specialist1 ,robert ,franz1 were giants8 ,we know it now1 and future generations will know whether we have giants among us4 ,things of beauty that will be a joy forever have been created by men of genius now living in ,europe2 such men as the ,norwegian ,grieg1 the ,bohemian ,dvork1 the ,french ,saint-,sans and ,massenet1 the ,hungarian ,goldmark1 the ,german ,humperdinck and ,richard ,strauss1 the ,polish ,paderewski4 ,england has more good composers and listeners than it ever had before2 and the same is true of ,america4 ,we have no school of opera yet1 but the best operettas of ,victor ,herbert and ,de ,koven deserve mention by the side of those of the ,french4 ,offenbach1 ,lecocq1 and ,audran1 the ,viennese ,strauss1 ,supp1 and ,milloecker1 the ,english ,sullivan4 ,the orchestral compositions of our ,john ,k4 ,paine are masterworks1 and the songs and pianoforte pieces of ,mac,dowell are equal to anything produced in ,europe since ,chopin and ,franz4 ,we have several other men of great promise1 and altogether the outlook for ,america1 as well as for ,europe1 is bright4 ,,authorities4 ,the books1 pamphlets1 and newspaper articles on ,wagner would fill a library4 ,he has been more written about than any writers except ,shakspere1 ,goethe1 and ,dante4 ,he was also fond of writing about himself4 ,his autobiography 7extending only to #ahfe7 has not yet been given to the public2 but there are many autobiographic pages in the ten volumes of his literary works1 which have been ,englished by ,ellis4 ,of great value are ,wagner's letters to ,liszt and to other friends4 ,these were utilized for the first time in ,wagner and ,his ,works1 the most elaborate biography in the ,english language1 by the author of the foregoing article4 ,shorter ,american and ,english books on ,wagner have been written by ,kobb1 ,krehbiel1 ,henderson1 ,hueffer1 ,newman1 c4 ,of ,french writers ,lavignac1 ,jullien1 ,mends1 ,servires1 ,schur1 may be mentioned4 ,of great value are ,kufferath's monographs on the ,wagner operas and ,liszt's analyses4 ,in ,germany the standard work of reference is the third edition of ,glasenopp1 in six volumes1 four of which are now 7#aijb7 in print4 ,other ,german writers are ,porges1 ,wolzogen1 ,pohl1 ,nohl1 ,tappert1 ,chamberlain1 c4 ,the best histories of ,modern ,music in general are ,langhaus's larger work and ,riemann's ,geschichte der ,musik seit ,beethoven4 ,the best general work for reference is ,great ,composers and ,their ,works1 edited by ,professor ,paine of ,harvard4 ,references to about #aj1jjj articles on ,wagner may be found in ,oesterlein's ,katalog ,einer ,richard ,wagner ,bibliothek1 #c vols4 ,,john ,,ruskin4 #ahai-aijj4 ,,modern ,,art4 ,,by ,g4 ,,mercer ,,adam4 ,what ,john ,ruskin has done in a prosaic1 commercial1 and ,philistine age1 in teaching the world to love and study the ,beautiful1 in opening to it the hidden mysteries and delights of art1 and in inciting the passion for taking pleasure in and even possessing embodiments of it1 that age owes to the great prose-poet and enthusiastic author of ,modern ,painters4 ,neither before nor since his day has literature known such a passionate and luminous exponent of ,nature's beauties1 such an inculcator in men's minds of the art of observing her ways and methods1 or one who has given the world such deep insight into what constitutes the true and the beautiful in art4 ,for these things1 and for opening new worlds of instruction and delight to his age in the realm of art1 heightened by the charm of his marvellous prose1 we can readily pardon ,ruskin for his weaknesses and perverseness1--for his dogmatisms1 his fervors1 and ecstasies1 his exaggerations of praise and blame1 and even for the missionary propagation of his often unsound economic gospel1 valuable though it may be in illustrating and enforcing morality in its aesthetic aspect4 ,despite his enemies1 and all that the critics have said contradicting his theories1 ,ruskin was a surprise and a revelation to his time4 ,in not a little of all that he said and did1 it is true1 we cannot concur2 nor can we fail to see the errors he fell into through his want of reserve and his headlong haste to say and do the things he said and did2 nevertheless1 he was a great and inspiring teacher in things that appeal to our sense of the beautiful1 and earnest in his zeal to raise men's intellectual and moral standard of life4 ,like most enthusiasts and geniuses1 he had1 now and then1 his hours of reaction1 waywardness1 and gloom2 but there was much that was noble and ennobling in the man1 as well as rich and fructifying in his thought4 ,even in his social and moral exhortations1 tinctured as they are with medievalism1 and however much we may here again disagree with him1 he had much that was uplifting and inspiring to say to his time1--a time that had great need of his apostolic counsellings and his fervent inculcations of morality1 industry1 religion1 and humanity4 ,throughout ,mr4 ,ruskin's works--and they are amazingly manifold--a strong and intense purpose runs1 given to the highest and noblest ends2 and though their author at times wearies his reader by his diffuseness and his digressions1 and to some is almost fanatical in his reverence for art1 he is ever imaginative and eloquent1 and has created for us a new1 instructive1 and uniquely fresh and thoughtful body of art-literature4 ,the truth of infinite value he teaches is realism1--the doctrine that all truth and beauty are to be attained by a reverent and faithful study of nature1 and not1 as a reviewer expresses it1 by substituting vague forms1 bred by imagination on the mists of feeling1 in place of definite1 substantial reality4 ,the thorough acceptance of this doctrine would remould our life2 and he who teaches its application1 even to any single department of human activity1 and with such power as ,mr4 ,ruskin's1 is a prophet for his generation4 ,in all his various labors and aims1 ,mr4 ,ruskin set before himself a high1 if somewhat quixotic1 ideal of life1 and with great earnestness did much1 not only for the elevation of his fellow-men1 but for the development of sound artistic taste and the enriching and spiritualizing of life by seeking to surround it at all times with the true and the beautiful1 and with the old-time virtues of purity1 manliness1 and courage4 ,among the ,beacon ,lights of the age there can be no question that ,ruskin is worthy of an exalted place1 since few men of our modern time1 rich as it is in eminent thinkers and writers1 has done more than he to illumine the many subjects with which he has so fascinatingly dealt1--and that not only in art and its cult of the ,beautiful1 but in ethics1 education1 and political economy4 ,the energies1 activities1 and impulses he constantly put forth1 as well as the high principles that ever guided him in his earnest endeavor to improve the intellectual and moral condition of his kind1 mark his era as a great artistic epoch in the onward and upward progress of the race4 ,by stimulus1 suggestion1 and inspiration he has powerfully influenced his time1 though manifestly not a little of the seed he abundantly and hopefully scattered has fallen upon barren ground4 ,nevertheless1 where the seed has fallen and germinated1 the yield has been large3 his spirit has passed far wider than he ever knew or conceived2 and his words1 flung to the winds1 have borne fruit a hundredfold in lands that he never thought of or designed to reach4 ,with what pride and gratitude should not the age regard him and his memory1--one who has quickened the sensibilities of men in looking upon nature2 opened our dull eyes to its manifold beauties2 made plain to the average intelligence what ,art is and stands for2 implanted in our souls worship of the beautiful2 shown working-men how to use their tools in the highest interests of their craft1 and taught maidens what and how to read as well as how and in what spirit to sew and cook4 ,the world too often acknowledges its true teachers and prophets only when it begins to build them some belated tomb4 ,this1 at any rate1 gratefully exclaims ,frederic ,harrison1#a we will not suffer to be done to ,john ,ruskin4 ,footnote #a3 ,written by ,mr4 ,f4,h4 on ,professor ,ruskin's eightieth birthday 7,february #h1 #ahii74 ,we may all of us recall to-day with love and gratitude the enormous mass of stirring thoughts and melodious speech about a thousand things1 divine and human1 beautiful and good1 which for a whole half-century the author of ',modern ,painters' has given to the world4 ,they cover every phase of nature1 every type of art1 of history1 society1 economics1 religion2 the past and the future2 all rules of human duty1 whether personal or social1 domestic or national4444 ,he spake to us of trees1 from the cedar of ,lebanon unto the hyssop on the wall2 he spake also of beasts1 and of fowl1 and of creeping things1 and of fishes4 ,he has put new beauty for us into the sky and the clouds and the rainbow1 into the seas at rest or in storm1 into the mountains and into the lakes1 into the flowers and the grass1 into crystals and gems1 into the mightiest ruins of past ages1 and into the humblest rose upon a cottage wall4 ,he has done for the ,alps and the cathedrals of ,italy and ,france1 for ,venice and ,florence1 what ,byron did for ,greece4 ,we look upon them all now with new and more searching eyes4 ,whole schools of art1 entire ages of old workmanship1 the very soul of the ,middle ,age1 have been revealed with a new inspiration and transfigured in a more mysterious light4 ,poetry1 ,greek sculpture1 mediaeval worship1 commercial morality1 the training of the young1 the nobility of industry1 the purity of the home1--a thousand things that make up the joy and soundness of human life have been irradiated by the flashing searchlight of one ardent soul3 irradiated1 let us say1 as this dazzling ray shot round the horizon1 glancing from heaven to earth1 and touching the gloom with fire4 ,we need not1 even to-day1 be tempted from truth1 or pretend that the light is permanent or complete4 ,it has long ceased to flash round the welkin1 and its very scintillations have disturbed our true vision4 ,but we remember still its dazzling power and its revelation of things that our eyes had not seen4 ,what we especially love to dwell on to-day is this3 that in all this unrivalled volume of printed thoughts1 in this encyclopaedic range of topic by this most voluminous and most versatile of modern writers may we not say of all ,english writers8 there is not one line that is base1 or coarse1 or frivolous2 not a sentence that was framed in envy1 malice1 wantonness1 or cruelty2 not one piece that was written to win money1 or popularity1 or promotion2 not a line composed for any selfish end or in any trivial mood4 ,think what we may of this enormous library of print1 we know that every word of it was put forth of set purpose without any hidden aim1 utterly without fear1 and wholly without guile2 to make the world a little better1 to guide1 inspire1 and teach men1 come what might1 scoff as they would1 turn from him as they chose1 though they left him alone1 a broken old man crying in the wilderness1 with none to hear or to care4 ,they might think it all utterly vain2 we may think much of it was in vain3 but it was always the very heart's blood of a rare genius and a noble soul4 ,before entering1 somewhat in detail1 into ,ruskin's vast and varied labors1 let us briefly outline the scope and character of the work which gave the art critic and prophet of his time his chief fame4 ,the personal incidents in his life need not detain us at the outset1 as they are not specially eventful1 and may be more fully gathered from the excellent ,life of ,ruskin1 by his friend and some-time secretary1 ,w4,g4 ,collingwood1 or from the delightfully interesting reminiscences by the master himself in his autobiographic ,praeterita1 published near the close of his long1 arduous1 and fruitful career4 ,john ,ruskin was born in ,london on the #hth of ,february1 #ahai4 ,he was of ,scotch ancestry1 his father being a prosperous wine merchant in ,london1 who acquired considerable wealth in trade1 which the son in time inherited1 and nobly used in his many private benevolences and philanthropic enterprises4 ,the comfortable circumstances in which he was born1 coupled with his father's own love of pictures and books1 were helpful in giving encouragement and direction to the young student's studies and tastes4 ,his mother1 a deeply religious woman1 was1 moreover1 influential in implanting the serious element in ,ruskin's character and life1 and in familiarizing him with the ,bible1 whose noble ,english1 in ,king ,james' version1 manifestly entered early into the youth's ardent1 prophetic soul1 and1 as a writer1 had much to do in forming his magnificent prose style4 ,ruskin was in early years--indeed1 far on in his manhood--in delicate health1 and consequently he was educated privately till he passed to ,christ ,church ,college1 ,oxford1 where1 at the age of twenty1 he won the ,newdigate prize for verse1 and graduated in #ahdb4 ,his taste for art was manifested at an early age1 and after passing from the university he studied painting under ,j4,d4 ,harding and ,copley ,fielding2 but his masters1 as he tells us in ,praeterita1 were ,rubens and ,rembrandt4 ,at the outset of his career ,ruskin1 as is well known1 was led to take up a defence of ,j4,m4,w4 ,turner 7#agge-ahea7 and the contemporary school of ,english landscape-painting against the foreign trammels1 which had fastened themselves upon modern art1 and especially to prove the superiority of modern landscape-painters over the old masters4 ,this revolutionary opinion1 though at first it was hotly contested1 established the new critic's position as a writer on art1 and the defence1 or exposition rather1 grew into the famous work called ,modern ,painters 7#e vols41 #ahdc-fj74 ,this elaborate work deals with general aesthetic principles1 and1 notwithstanding its occasional extravagances1 alike of praise and censure1 its charm is irresistible1 presenting us with its brilliant and original author's ideas of beauty1 to which he freshly and powerfully awakened the world1 while enshrining throughout the work the most enchanting word-poems on mountain1 leaf1 cloud1 and sea1 which1 it is not too much to say1 will live forever in ,english literature4 ,in the second volume ,mr4 ,ruskin takes up the ,italian painters1 and discusses at length the merits of their respective schools2 in the others1 as well as in the work as a whole1 we have a body of principles which should govern high art-work1 as well as new ideas as to what should constitute the equipment of the painter1 and that not only as regards the technique of his art1 but in the effect to be produced on the onlooker in viewing the skilled work of one who1 above all accomplishments1 should be lovingly and intimately in contact with nature4 ,from the study of painting ,mr4 ,ruskin passed for a time to that of architecture4 ,in this department we have from his pen ,the ,seven ,lamps of ,architecture 7#ahdi7 and ,the ,stones of ,venice 7#ahea-ec74 ,in these two complementary works their author sets forth as in an impressive sermon the new and admonitory lesson that architecture is the exponent of the national characteristics of a people1--the higher and nobler sort exemplifying the religious life and moral virtue in a nation1 the debased variety1 on the other hand1 expressing the ignoble qualities of national vice and shame4 ,the text of ,the ,stones is ,venice1 and the design of the volumes1 in the author's words1 is to show that the ,gothic architecture of ,venice had arisen out of1 and indicated1 a state of pure domestic faith and national virtue2 while its renaissance architecture had arisen out of and indicated a state of concealed national infidelity and domestic corruption4 ,the earlier work1 ,the ,seven ,lamps1--the ,lamp of ,sacrifice1 of ,truth1 ,power1 ,beauty1 ,life1 ,memory1 ,obedience1--looks upon architecture as the revealing medium or lamp through which flame a people's passions1--the embodiment of their polity1 life1 history1 and religious faith in temple and palace1 mart and home4 ,akin to these two eloquent works1 in which their author thoughtfully sets forth the civic virtues and moral tone1 as well as the debased characteristics1 by which architecture is produced at certain eras in a people's life1 is the earlier volume on ,the ,poetry of ,architecture 7#ahcg71 which discusses the relation between architecture and its setting of landscape or other environment1 illustrated by examples drawn from regions he had visited1--the ,english ,lakeland1 ,france1 ,switzerland1 ,spain1 and northern ,italy4 ,after these works followed lectures on drawing1 perspective1 decoration1 and manufacture1 with later theories 7crotchets1 some have impiously called them7 on political economy1 ,pre-,raphaelitism1 et cetera1 with a flood of opinions on social1 ethical1 and art subjects1 enriched by rare intellectual gifts and much religious fervor4 ,ruskin's whole writings form a body of literature unique of its kind1 pervaded with great charm of literary style1 and inspired by a high moral purpose4 ,ruskin's excursions into non-aesthetic fields1 and the strange jumble of ,christian communism to which1 late in life1 he gave vehement expression1 it must be honestly admitted1 have detracted much from his early fame4 ,in everything he wrote the ,ruskinian spirit comes strongly out1 colored with an amiable egotism and enforced by great assurance of conviction4 ,the moral purpose he had in view1 and the charm and elevated tone of his writings1 lead us to forget the wholly ideal state of society he sought to introduce1 while we are won to the man by the passion of his noble enthusiasms4 ,like ,carlyle and ,emerson1 ,ruskin was by his parents intended for the ministry2 but for the ministry he had himself no inclination4 ,the broadening out early of his mind and the freeing of his thought on doctrinal subjects1 which took him far from the narrow evangelicalism of his youth1 made the ministry of the church repugnant to him1 though he was always a deeply religious man and a force ever making for righteousness4 ,at the same time1 he numbered many divines among his most cherished friends1 and he frequently1 and with admitted edification1 was to be found in chapel and church4 ,meanwhile he continued busily to educate himself for whatever profession he might choose or drift into1 supplemented by such fitful periods of schooling as his delicate health permitted1 as well as by many jaunts with his parents to the ,english lakes and other parts of the kingdom1 and by frequent tours on the ,continent1 especially in ,italy and ,switzerland4 ,before he arrived at his teens1 young ,ruskin had composed much1 both in prose and verse1 and he early manifested an aptitude for drawing1 as well as a decided taste for art1 which1 it is said1 was in some measure incited by the gift1 from a partner of his father1 of a copy of the poet ,rogers' ,italy1 with engravings by ,turner4 ,nor1 early in manhood1 did he escape a youth's fond dream of love1 for as a worshipper of beauty1 and an enthusiast of the ,wizard of the ,north1 we find him drawn tenderly to a daughter of ,lockhart1 editor of the ,quarterly ,review1 a grandchild of his famous countryman1 ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,the affair1 however1 though encouraged by his parents1 who longed to see their son settled in life1 came to nought1 chiefly owing to the young lover's weak physical frame and uncertain health4 ,later on1 unhappily1 he was caught in the toils of another ,scottish lass1 for whom1 it is related1 he had written ,the ,king of the ,golden ,river 7#ahda71 and whose rare beauty had readily attracted him4 ,with her1 in #ahdh1 he made an ill-assorted marriage1 only to find1 some years afterwards1 his heart riven and a bitter ingredient dropped into his life's chalice by a fatal defection on the wife's part1 she having become enamoured of the then rising young painter1 ,millais1 whom ,ruskin had trustingly invited to his house to paint her portrait4 ,the sequel of the affair is a pitiful one1 which ,ruskin ever afterward hid deep in his heart1 though at the time1 finding that the woman was unable to live at the intellectual and spiritual altitude of her loyal husband1 the latter1 with a magnanimity beyond parallel1 pardoned both ,millais and the erring one1 consented to a divorce1 and actually stood by her at the altar as the faithless one took upon herself new vows unto a new husband4 ,the estrangement and loss of a wife gave ,ruskin afresh to ,art1--his true and fondly cherished bride4 ,at this period1 as we know1 ,english painting was at a low ebb1 mediocre and conventional1 though with a show of artificial brilliance4 ,ruskin1 with his scorn of the artificial and scholastic1 threw himself into the work of overturning the established1 complacent school of the time1 and with splendid enthusiasm and an unfailing belief in himself and his ideas he undertook to reform what had been1 and to raise current conceptions of art to a more exalted and lofty plane4 ,we have seen what he had already achieved in his first dashing period of literary activity1 in the production of the early volumes of ,modern ,painters1 and in his ,seven ,lamps and ,stones of ,venice4 ,while he was at work on the concluding volumes of the first and last of these great books there arose in ,england the somewhat fantastic movement in art1 launched by the ,pre-,raphaelite ,brotherhood1 which included such ,ruskinites and other devotees of early ,christian and mediaeval painting as ,rossetti1 ,millais1 ,morris1 ,burne-,jones1 and ,holman ,hunt4 ,towards this new school of symbolists and affectationists ,ruskin was not at first drawn1 since it seemed to him unduly idealistic1 if not mystic1 and smacked not a little1 as he thought1 of popery4 ,later1 however1 he saw good in it1 as a breaking away from academic trammels2 while he recognized the earnest enthusiasm of the little band of artists and artist-poets1 as well as their technical dexterity and brilliance4 ,with ready decision as well as with his accustomed zeal for art1 ,ruskin ended by defending and applauding the new innovators1 particularly as their chief motive was the one the master had always strenuously pled for1--adherence to the simplicity of nature4 ,their scrupulous attention to detail1 characteristic of the ,pre-,raphaelites1 later on bore good results1 even after the ,brotherhood fell apart1 especially in ,william ,morris's application of their art-principles to household decoration and furnishings4 ,but for the time the movement was loudly mocked and decried1 and perhaps all the more because of ,ruskin's espousal of the fervid band1 his letters of defence in the ,london ,times1 and his discussion in his booklet on ,pre-,raphaelitism4 ,heedless of the outcry1 ,ruskin pursued his own self-confident course1 and by the year #ahfj he had completed his ,modern ,painters1 and1 in spite of objurgation and detraction1 had won a great name for himself as a critic and expounder1 while expanding himself over almost the whole world of art4 ,we have said that ,pre-,raphaelitism1 as a movement in art1 was contemporaneously jeered at2 while to-day1 among superficial or inappreciative students of the period1 seriously to mention it or any of its cultured brotherhood is to provoke a smile4 ,nevertheless1 there was not a little high merit in the movement1 which ,ruskin was keen-eyed and friendly enough to recognize1 while much that is worthy afterwards came out of it in the later work of the more notable of its members as well as in that of their unenrolled associates and the admirers of the ,pre-,raphaelite method4 ,what the movement owed to ,ruskin is now frankly conceded1 in the lesson the brotherhood took to heart from his counsellings1--to divest art of conventionality1 and to work with scrupulous fidelity and sincerity of purpose4 ,nor was contemporary art alone the gainer by the movement2 it also had its influence on poetry1 though this has been obscured--so far as any beneficial influence can be traced at all--by the tendency manifested in some of the more amorous poetic swains of the period1 who professed to derive their inspiration from the ,brotherhood1 to identify themselves with what has been styled the ,fleshly ,school of verse4 ,of the latter number1 ,swinburne1 in his early ,poems and ,ballads1 was perhaps the greatest sinner1 though atoned for in part by the lyrical art and ardor of his verse1 and much more by the higher qualities and scholarly characteristics of his later dramatic ,work4 ,nor is ,dante ,rossetti himself1 in some of his poems1 free from the same taint1 despite the fact of his interesting individuality as the chief inspirer and laborer among the ,brotherhood4 ,yet the movement owed much to both his brush and his pen of other and nobler1 because reverential1 work1 as those will admit who know ,the ,blessed ,damozel1 ,sister ,helen1 and his fine collection of sonnets1 ,the ,house of ,life1 as well as his famous paintings1 ,the ,girlhood of ,mary ,virgin1 and his ,annunciation picture1 ,ecce ,ancilla ,domini4 ,of the product of other ,pre-,raphaelites of note1--such as ,ford ,madox ,brown1 ,millais1 ,morris1 ,woolner the sculptor1 ,coventry ,patmore1 and ,holman ,hunt1--much that is commendable as well as finely imaginative came from their hands1 and justified ,ruskin in his gallant advocacy of the movement1 its founders1 and their work4 ,by this time1 of which we have been writing1 ,ruskin had reached the early meridian of his powers1 and1 as we have hinted1 had wrested from the unwilling many a juster recognition of his amazing industry and genius4 ,to his fond and indulgent parents this was a great source of pride and satisfaction1 and the practical evidence of it was the throng of visitors to the family seats of ,herne ,hill and ,denmark ,hill1 in the then ,london suburbs1 where ,ruskin long had his home1 and by the attentions and honor paid to their son by universities1 academies1 and public bodies1 as well as by many eminent personages and the intellectual lite of the nation4 ,among those with whom the young celebrity was then ultimate and reckoned among his admiring correspondents were1 besides ,turner 7who died in #ahea7 and the chief artists of the time1 the ,carlyles and the ,brownings1 ,mary ,russell ,mitford1 ,charlotte ,bront1 ,harriet ,beecher ,stowe1 ,monckton ,milnes 7,lord ,houghton71 ,charles ,eliot ,norton1 ,lady ,trevelyan 7,macaulay's sister71 ,whewell1 ,maurice1 ,kingsley1 ,dr4 ,john ,brown 7author of ,rab and his ,friends71 ,tennyson1 and ,dean ,milman4 ,to these might be added many notable foreigners whom he either met with in his continental travels or who were attracted to him by a lively interest in his writings4 ,in his home1 thanks to a wealthy and indulgent father1 he was surrounded with every comfort1 short of luxury1 if we except under the latter the large sums expended on the purchase of ,turners and many famous foreign pictures1 and a vast and increasing collection of favorite books and other treasures and curios4 ,of the author's home-life we get many delightful reminiscences in ,praeterita1 with entertaining talks of his childhood days1 his youthful companions1 his toys and animate pets1 his early playful adventures in authorship1 and other garrulities with which1 late in life when the work1 as it remains1 was incompletely put together1 he beguiled the weariness and feebleness of old age4 ,but we are anticipating1 for we are writing of ,ruskin when his hand was yet on the plough1 and the plough was still in the furrow1 and half a long life's arduous work was yet before him4 ,at this era1 no brain could well have been more active or fuller of philanthropies than his1 for we approach the second period of his life's grand activities1--the era of a new departure in the interests that occupied him and the herculean tasks he set himself to do4 ,before recording some of the achievements of this time and glancing at the inciting causes of the transition which marks the era we have now reached1 let us note the demands made upon ,mr4 ,ruskin's thought and labor by universities and public institutions1 whose audiences desired to have him appear before them in person and address them upon topics in which he and they were interested4 ,these appearances on the lecture platform were now numerous1 since many throughout the kingdom were eager to see and know the man whose art criticisms1 principles that govern the beautiful1 and stimulating thought on all subjects1 had made so deep an impression on the reflecting minds of the age4 ,his earliest appearance on the rostrum was at ,edinburgh1 where he delivered four lectures before the ,philosophical ,institution1 chiefly on landscape-painters and on ,christian art1 with a plea for the use of ,gothic in domestic architecture4 ,subsequent appearances were at ,manchester1 where he spoke on the ,political ,economy of ,art and the relation of art to manufactures2 at the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,london1 which had just been opened2 and later at ,oxford1 where further on in his career he became ,slade ,professor of ,art in his own ,university4 ,from the accounts of these public lectures we get opinions as to the personal appearance of ,ruskin at the period which add to our knowledge of him from paintings1 drawings1 and photographs1 though not a few of these accounts vary from those given us in books1 chiefly sketched by his lady friends and correspondents4 ,the more trusty of the contemporary pictures speak of him as having light1 sand-colored hair2 his face more red than pale2 the mouth well cut1 with a good deal of decision in its curve1 though somewhat wanting in sustained dignity and strength2 an aquiline nose2 his forehead by no means broad or massive1 but the brows full and well bound together2 the eye says the observer from whom we are quoting we could not see1 in consequence of the shadows that fell upon his ,ruskin's countenance from the lights overhead1 but we are sure that the poetry and passion we looked for almost in vain in other features must be concentrated here4 ,miss ,mitford speaks of him at this time as eloquent and distinguished-looking1 fair and slender1 with a gentle playfulness1 and a sort of pretty waywardness that was quite charming4 ,another1 a visitor at his ,london home1 characterizes him as emotional and nervous1 with a soft1 genial eye1 a mouth thin and severe1 and a voice that1 though rich and sweet1 yet had a tendency to sink into a plaintive and hopeless tone4 ,later on in years we have this verbal portrait from a disciple of the great art-teacher1 occurring in an inaugural address delivered before the ,ruskin ,society of ,glasgow3 ,that spare1 stooping figure1 the rough-hewn1 kindly face1 with its mobile1 sensitive mouth1 and clear deep eyes1 so sweet and honest in repose1 so keen and earnest and eloquent in debate6 ,when the fifth and last volume of ,modern ,painters was finally off his hands1 ,mr4 ,ruskin not only engaged1 as we have seen1 in occasional lecturing1 but began 7#ahfa7 to add a prolific series of brochures--many of them with quaint but significant titles--to his already stupendous mass of writing4 ,their subjects were not alone aesthetics1 but now treated of ethical1 social1 and political questions1 the prophetic declarations and earnest appeals of a man of wide and varied culture1 deep thought1 and large experience4 ,the attempted alliance of political economy with art was a novel undertaking in that sixth lustrum of the past century1 even by a man of ,mr4 ,ruskin's eminence and fame in the world of letters4 ,but ,mr4 ,ruskin was a bold and earnest man1 as well as a genius2 and he had too much to tell his heedless1 laissez-faire age to keep silent on themes1 remote as they were from those he had hitherto taught1 and of which he desired to deliver his soul1 whatever ridicule it might provoke and however adverse the criticism levelled against him4 ,his humanity and moral sense were outraged by the manner in which the mass of his countrymen lived1 and trenchant was his castigation of this and eager as well as righteous his desire to amend their condition and elevate and inspire their minds4 ,as an economist1 it is true1 there was not a little that was false as well as eccentric in what he preached2 moreover1 much of his counsel was directly socialistic in its trend1 repugnant in large degree to his ,english readers and hearers2 but all this was atoned for by the honesty and philanthropy of his motives1 by his phenomenal fervor and eloquence1 and by the literary beauty and charm of every page he wrote4 ,nevertheless1 as in ,carlyle--for in these depreciations the style of the seer of ,chelsea was deeply upon him--the note of calamity and the wail of despair are too much in evidence in ,ruskin's writings at this period1 while1 like ,carlyle also1 he was equally precipitate and impulsive in his attacks on things as they were4 ,yet in the economic condition just then of ,england1 and in the circumstances environing the labor world1 there was1 possibly1 justification for the rebukes and objurgations of onlookers of the type of both of these men1 and very humanitarian as well as practically helpful were ,ruskin's counsel and aid to labor and to all who sought to raise and expand their outlook and better their condition in life4 ,towards politics ,ruskin was never drawn1 but had he been more prosaic and less given to anathematizing1 most valuable would have been his aid in legislation at this era of political and moral reform4 ,but if political science1 or science in any other of its branches or departments1 did not come within his purview1 great was the revolution he wrought in the working-man's surroundings1 and immense the illumination he shed upon industry and on the spirit in which the laborer should think and work4 ,referring to ,ruskin at this period of his career1 and to his influence as a social and moral exhorter1 ,frederic ,harrison1 from whom we have already quoted1 has an admirable passage on ,ruskin as ,prophet1 #b which1 as it is presumably too little known1 we take pleasure in embodying in these pages4 ,footnote #b3 ,tennyson1 ,ruskin1 ,mill1 and other ,literary ,estimates1 by ,frederic ,harrison2 ,london and ,new ,york3 ,macmillan ,co4 #aijj4 ,the influence of ,ruskin1 says ,mr4 ,harrison1 has been part of the great romantic1 historical1 catholic1 and poetic revival of which ,scott1 ,carlyle1 ,coleridge1 ,freeman1 ,newman1 and ,tennyson in our own country have been leading spirits within the last two generations in ,england4 ,there is no need to compare him with any one of these as a source of original intellectual force4 ,he owns ,scott and ,carlyle as his masters1 and he might vehemently repudiate certain of the others altogether4 ,his work has been to put this romantic1 historical1 and genuine sympathy inspired by ,scott1 ,wordsworth1 and ,carlyle into a new understanding of the arts of form4 ,the philosophic impulse assuredly was not his own4 ,it is a compound of ,scott1 ,carlyle1 ,dante1 and the ,bible4 ,the compound is strange1 for it makes him talk sometimes like a ,puritan father1 and sometimes like a ,cistercian monk4 ,at times he talks as ,flora ,mac,ivor talked to young ,waverley2 at other times like ,thomas ,carlyle inditing a ,latter-day ,pamphlet4 ,but to transfuse into this modern generation of ,englishmen this romantic1 catholic1 historical1 and social sympathy as applied to the arts of form1 needed gifts that neither ,scott1 nor ,carlyle1 nor ,newman1 nor ,tennyson possessed--the eye1 if not the hand1 of a consummate landscape painter1 a torrent of ready eloquence on every imaginable topic1 a fierce and desperate courage that feared neither man nor devil1 neither failure nor ridicule1 and above all things an exquisite tenderness that is akin to ,st4 ,francis or ,st4 ,vincent de ,paul4444 ,here is a man who1 laboring for fifty years1 has scattered broadcast a thousand fine ideas to all who practise the arts1 and all who care for art4 ,he has roused in the cultured world an interest in things of art such as a legion of painters and ten royal academies could never have done4 ,he has poured out a torrent of words1 some right1 some wrong1 but such as have raised the level of art into a new world1 which have adorned ,english literature for centuries1 and have inspired the ,english race for generations2 he has cast his bread upon the waste and muddy waters with a lavish hand1 and has not waited to find it again1 though it has been the seed of abundant harvest to others4 ,again1 speaking of what ,ruskin sought to accomplish in the regeneration of modern society1 and the reformation of our social ideals1 and of that heroic piece of ,quixotism he founded1 the ,guild of ,st4 ,george1 ,mr4 ,harrison remarks3-- ,the first life of ,john ,ruskin was the life of a consummate teacher of art and master of style2 the second life was the life of priest and evangelist4444 ,here is the greatest living master the passage was written while ,mr4 ,ruskin was yet alive of the ,english tongue1 one of the most splendid lights of our noble literature1 one to whom a dozen paths of ambition and power lay open1 who had everything that could be offered by genius1 fame1 wealth1 social popularity1 and intense sensitiveness to all lovely things--and this man1 after thirty years of untiring labor1 devotes himself to train1 teach1 delight1 and inspire a band of young men1 girls1 workmen1 children1--all who choose to come around him4 ,he lavishes the whole of his fortune on them2 he brings to their door his treasures of art1 science1 literature1 and poetry2 he founds and endows museums2 he offers these costly and precious collections to the people2 he wears out his life in teaching them the elements of art1 the elements of manufacture1 the elements of science2 he shows workmen how to work1 girls how to draw1 to sing1 to play2 he gives up to them his wealth1 his genius1 his peace1 his whole life4 ,he is not content with writing books in his study1 with enjoying art at home or abroad2 he must carry his message into the streets4 ,he gives himself up--not to write beautiful thoughts3 he seeks to build up a beautiful world4444 ,when ,i see this author of ',modern ,painters' and the ',stones of ,venice1' the man who has exhausted almost all that ,europe contains of the beautiful1 who has thought and spoken of almost every phase of human life1 and has entered so deeply into the highest mysteries of the greatest poets--when ,i see him surrounding himself in his old age with lads and lasses1 schoolgirls and workmen1 teaching them the elements of science and art1 reading to them poems and tales1 arranging for them games and holidays1 ornaments and dresses1 lavishing on these young people his genius and his wealth1 his fame and his future--,i confess my memory goes back instinctively to a fresco ,i saw in ,italy years ago--was it ,luini's8--wherein the ,master sat in a crowd of children and forbade them to be removed1 saying that 'of such is the kingdom of heaven4' ,with this generous tribute to and appreciation of ,ruskin1 despite the economic vagaries into which the great critic and teacher of his time fell1 we may more confidently approach the busy era of his later and self-sacrificing labors1 and with less apology take space to deal--as compactly and intelligently as we can--with some of the more notable of the many books and brochures of the period4 ,difficult as would be the task1 fortunately there is little need to epitomize these works1 as many of them are better known1 and perhaps more attentively read1 than his earlier1 bulkier1 and more ambitious writings4 ,a few of them lie outside the economic gospel of their apostolic author1 and these we will first and briefly deal with4 ,a number of them are instructive and inspiring lay sermons on the mystical union between nature and art1 beauty and utility1 and their reflex in the reverential homage for the beautiful and the worthy in the mind and character of the ,english-speaking race4 ,the whole form a great body of fine and thoughtful work1 which is as enchaining as its meaning is often profound4 ,the best-known of these lay sermons is3 ,the ,queen of the ,air 7#ahfi71 a splendid blending of his fancy with the ,greek nature-myths of cloud and storm1 represented by ,athena1 goddess of the heavens1 of the earth1 and of the heart4 ,the parable drawn is that the air is given us for our life1 the rain for our thirst and baptism1 the fire for our warmth1 the sun for our light1 and the earth for our meat and rest4 ,related to the work is ,ethics of the ,dust 7#ahfe71 lectures to little housewives on mineralogy and crystallography1 nature's work in crystallization being the text for a diatribe against sordid living4 ,sesame and ,lilies1 which belongs also to this period of the writer's work1 consists of three addresses1 delivered at ,manchester and at ,dublin1 designed specially for young girls1 and treating in the main of good and improving literature4 ,the first of them1 ,of ,kings' ,treasuries1 deals with the treasures hidden in books1 the writings of the world's great men2 its sequel1 ,of ,queens' ,gardens1 deals with the function and sphere of woman1 and1 by way of application1 with the how and the what to read2 the third lecture1 on ,the ,mystery of ,life and its ,arts1 is a discursive but inspiring consideration of what life is and how most successfully to battle with it in the way of our work and of our appointed duty4 ,all three lectures1 observes a commentator1 tell men and women of the ideals they should set before them2 how to read and to build character under the inspiration of the nobility of the past1 fitting one's self for such great society2 how to develop noble womanhood2 how to bear one's self toward the wonder of life1 toward one's work in the world1 and toward one's duty to others4 ,other lectures and brochures of or about this period are ,hortus ,inclusus 7,the ,enclosed ,garden71 being ,messages from the ,wood to the ,garden sent in happy days to two sister ladies1 residing at ,coniston1 and collected in #ahhg2 ,arrows of the ,chace1 letters on various subjects to newspapers1 gathered and edited in #ahhj2 ,the ,two ,paths1 lectures on art and its application to ,decoration and ,manufacture 7#ahei72 ,ariadne ,florentina 7#ahgc71 a monograph on ,italian wood and metal engraving2 ,aratra ,pentelici 7#ahgb71 on the elements and principles of sculpture2 and ,the ,eagle's ,nest 7#ahgb71 on the relation of natural science to art4 ,still pursuing his delightful methods of interpreting nature and teaching the world instructive lessons1 even from the common things of mother earth1 we have a series of three eloquent discourses1 entitled 7#a7 ,proserpina1 studies of ,alpine and other wayside flowers1 dwelling on the mystery of growth in plants and the tender beauty of their form2 7#b7 ,deucalion1 a sort of glorified geological text-book1 treating of stones and their life-history1 and showing the wearing effect upon them of waves and the action of water2 and 7#c7 ,love's ,meinie 7#ahgc71 a rapture about birds and their feathered plumage1 delivered at ,eton and at ,oxford4 ,this trilogy1 dealing with botany1 geology1 and ornithology1 was presented to his audiences with illustrative drawings1 representing the flora met with in his travels or found in the neighborhood of his new home in the ,lancashire lakes1 with sketches of regions1 including the characteristics of the soil1 in which he had been reared1 and talks of the note and habit of all birds that were wont to warble over him their morning song4 ,the ,pleasures of ,england1 the ,harbours of ,england1 and the ,art of ,england further treat of his loved native land1 the first of these being talks on the pleasures of learning1 of faith1 and of deed1 illustrated by examples drawn from early ,english history1 and the last treating of representative modern ,english artists1 chiefly of the ,pre-,raphaelite school4 ,the ,laws of ,fsole 7#ahgh7 deals with the principles of ,florentine draughtsmanship2 ,st4 ,mark's ,rest1 with the art and architecture of ,venice2 and ,val d',arno1 with early ,tuscan art1 interspersed with the author's accustomed ethical reflections4 ,mornings in ,florence1 intended for the use of visitors to the art galleries of the beautiful city on the ,arno1 deals in the true artist-spirit with its famous examples of ,christian art1 giving prominence here also to the ethical side of the city's history4 ,in ,montibus ,sanctis1 and ,coeli ,enarrant1 the one comprising studies of mountain form1 and the other of cloud form and their visible causes1 though separately published1 are only reprints of the author's larger and nobler embodiment of his views on art1 in ,modern ,painters4 ,the ,king of the ,golden ,river1 of which we have previously spoken1 is a fairy tale of much beauty1 which he wrote for the ,fair ,maid of ,perth whom he married1 and who separated herself from him on the plea of incompatibility4 ,playful as is the style of the story1 it is not without a moral1 on what constitutes true wealth and happiness4 ,the ,crown of ,wild ,olive 7#ahff7 consists of lectures on work1 traffic1 and war2 the latter lecture1 delivered at the ,royal ,artillery ,institution at ,woolwich1 was also separately published under the title of ,the ,future of ,england4 ,the two former1 being addressed to working-men1 laborers1 and traders1 discuss economic problems1 and set forth tentatively their author's antagonized political ethics1 with which1 in drawing this essay to a close1 we now venture to deal4 ,after the magnificent work done by ,ruskin in art up to his fortieth year1 that he should turn1 for practically the remainder of his life1 to the seemingly vain and profitless task of a social reformer and regenerator of modern society1 has to most men been a riddle too elusive and enigmatic to solve4 ,and yet1 in his earlier career1 had he not himself prepared us for just such a departure as he took in the sixties1 for in art was he not equally revolutionary and iconoclastic1 as well as personally self-willed1 passionate1 and impulsive8 ,moreover1 had not ,mother ,nature endowed him with the gifts of a seer and made him chivalrous as well as intensely sympathetic1 while his early training inclined him to be serious1 and even ascetic8 ,nor were the rebuffs he met with throughout his career calculated at this stage to make him court the applause of his fellow-men or be mindful of the world's censure or approval4 ,nor can one well quarrel with what he had now to say on many a subject1 visionary and enthusiast as he always was1 and given over to mediaeval views and preachments1 and to abounding moral and ethical exhortation4 ,like ,carlyle's1 his voice was that of one crying in the wilderness1 and yet in the industrial and social condition of ,britain at the era there was need of just such appeals for regeneration and reform as ,ruskin strenuously uttered1 accompanied by indignant rebukes of grossness1 vulgarity1 and meanness1 as manifested in masses of the people4 ,if in his strivings after amelioration he was too denunciatory as well as too radical1 we must remember the temper and manner of the man1 and recognize how difficult it was in him1 or in any iconoclast who scorned modern science as ,ruskin scorned it1 to reconcile the age of steam and industrial machinery1 which he spurned and would have none of1 with the views he held of ,christianity1 morals1 and faith4 ,his views on political economy1 which he treated neither as an art nor a science1 might be perverse and wrong-headed1 and his method of adapting prophetic and apostolic principles to the practice of every-day life utterly impracticable2 but the virtues he counselled the nation to manifest1 and the graces he enjoined of truthfulness1 justice1 temperance1 bravery1 and obedience1 were qualities needed to be cultivated in his time1 with a fuller recognition of and firmer trust in ,god and ,his right of sway in the world ,he had created4 ,what ,ruskin's economic views were1 and what his relations to the industrial and social problems of his time1 most readers of our author know1 are mainly to be found in ,fors ,clavigera1 a series of letters to working-men1 covering the years #ahga-hd1 and in his early essays on political economy1 ,unto this ,last 7#ahfj71 and ,munera ,pulveris 7#ahfc74 ,unto this ,last appeared in its original form in the pages of the ,cornhill ,magazine1 then edited by ,thackeray1 and our author speaks confidently of it as embodying his maturest and worthiest thoughts on social science4 ,the work1 which will be found the key to ,ruskin's economic gospel1 embraces four essays1 treating successively of the responsibilities and duties of those called to fill all offices of national trust and service2 of the true sources of a nation's riches2 of the right distribution of such riches2 and of what is meant by the economic terms1--value1 wealth1 price1 and produce4 ,under these several heads1 ,ruskin expresses his conviction that co-operation and government are in all things the law of life1 while the deadly things are competition and anarchy4 ,whatever errors the book#c contains--and the author's unconscious arrogance and dogmatism made him blind to them--his views were set forth with his accustomed vigor and eloquence1 and in the honest belief that he was more than fundamentally right4 ,it was for such helpful work as this1 and what he accomplished in the kindred volume1 ,munera ,pulveris1 which first appeared in ,fraser's ,magazine1 that ,ruskin for the time dropped his revelations in art to let a new world of thought into the dismal science of political economy1 confound its old-time instructors1 and gird at the evils of the age1--the greed1 selfishness1 and petty bargaining spirit of industrial and commercial life4 ,nor in conducting such a crusade as this was ,ruskin abandoning his old and less controverted gospel of art4 ,he was but carrying into new and barren fields the high ideals he had hitherto counselled his age to emulate and heed1 and in his sympathy with labor seeking to bring into its world the comeliness of beauty and the cheer of prosperity1 comfort1 and happiness4 ,in ,time and ,tide 7#ahfg71 and more at length in ,fors ,clavigera1 ,ruskin reiterates his message to labor1 to get rid of ever-environing misery by realizing what are the true sources of happiness1--pleasure in sincere and honest work1 inspired by intelligence1 culture1 religion1 and right living4 ,what he desires for the working-man he desires also for his family1 and consequently he urges parents to train their sons and daughters to see and love the beautiful1 to cultivate their higher instincts1 and call forth and feed their souls4 ,in all this there is much helpful1 tonic thought1 which the church or the nation1 roused to zeal and earnest activity1 might fittingly teach1 and so advance the material weal of the people1 extend the area of public enlightenment and morality1 and herald the dawn of a new and higher civilization4 ,footnote #c3 ,alluding to the quaint title under which these ,cornhill essays afterwards appeared1--a title that hints at the gist of the work1--,mr4 ,ruskin's biographer tells us that the motto was taken from ,christ's parable of the husbandman and the laborers3 ,friend1 ,i do thee no wrong4 ,didst thou not agree with me for a penny8 ,take that thine is1 and go thy way4 ,i will give ,,unto ,,this ,,last even as unto thee4--,matt4 xx4 #ad4 ,other aspects of ,mr4 ,ruskin's economic gospel are1 unfortunately1 not so sane and beneficent4 ,his altruism knows no bounds1 as his philanthropy and zeal have but few restraints4 ,after the fashion of his mentor1 ,carlyle1 he is carried away by his humanitarianism and his unreserved acceptance of the doctrine of the equality and brotherhood of man4 ,hence come his economic heresies in regard to rent and interest1 and capital and usury1 his denunciations of the division of labor1 his ,tolstoian impoverishment of himself for the benefit of his fellow-man1 and his dictum that the wealth of the nation should be its own1 and not accrue to the individual4 ,hence1 also1 the wholly ideal state of society he attempted to realize in his communal ,guild of ,st4 ,george1 with its rigid government and restraints upon the personal liberty of its members4 ,ideally beautiful1 admittedly1 was the plan and scheme of the little state1 with its disciplinings1 exactions1 and devout selective creed4 ,but the age is a practical1 unimaginative one1 and whatever compacts men make1 even for their highest welfare1 there are1 it is to be feared1 few so loyal1 tractable1 and docile as to place themselves for long under such tutoring and one-patterned1 fashioning forms of co-operative living4 ,into whatever millennial state ,ruskin sought to usher his little band of ,english followers and disciples1 one must speak appreciatively of his motives in projecting the scheme1 and of the money and labor he personally lavished upon the ,utopian project4 ,reverently also must one speak of the catholic creed to which its members were asked to subscribe3 namely1 to trust in ,god1 recognize the nobleness of human nature1 labor faithfully with one's might1 be loyal to one's common country1 its laws1 and its monarch's or ruler's orders1 so far as they are consistent with the higher law of ,god2 while exacting obedience1 and a pledge that one will not deceive1 either for gain or other motive2 will not rob2 will not hurt any living creature nor destroy any beautiful thing2 and will honor one's own body by proper care for it1 for the joy and peace of life4 ,all this is very exemplary and beautiful1 and not over-hard to live up to1 though the working-men of ,sheffield in time wearied of the organization1 and the ,guild and its noble ideals is now1 we believe1 but a memory1 if we except the art museum and library of the ,order taken over and still maintained by the town4 ,more practical1 may we not say1 than this imitation of the ,florentine arti of the ,middle ,ages was the ,working ,men's ,college1 founded in ,london in the fifties by that other earnest ,christian ,socialist1 ,f4,d4 ,maurice1 in which ,ruskin lectured gratuitously1 took charge of the drawing classes1 and hied off to the country with its members to sketch from nature and otherwise instruct and entertain them4 ,yet good in many respects came of the ,guild of ,st4 ,george1 in the impulse it gave to the revival of the then dormant industries1 such as the hand-spinning of linen1 hand-weaving of carpets and woollen fabrics1 lace-making1 wood-carving1 and metal-working1 besides the stimulus it gave1 with the infusion of higher ideals of workmanship1 to the decorative arts1 and the improvement in the sightliness of factories1 and in the homes and surroundings of labor4 ,here ,ruskin's philanthropy and reform zeal showed themselves most worthily in the financial aid he gave in the pulling down1 in crowded districts of the ,british metropolis1 of poor tenements1 and the building up in their place of clean1 attractive1 and wholesome habitations4 ,in such benevolences and well-doings1 and in this life of renunciation and self-sacrifice1 ,ruskin spent himself1 and made serious inroads into his bodily health and strength1 as well as scattered the fortune--about a million dollars--left him by his now deceased father4 ,but this was the manner and character of ,ruskin1 and this the mode of expressing his love for his fellow-man1 which in myriad ways showed itself throughout a long and strenuous career of devotion to high ideals1 and of practical1 tender help in all good works4 ,in all his philanthropies he was true to his own preachings and counsellings1 spending and being spent in the spirit of his ,divine ,master1 his whole soul aglow with reverence and adoration and tender with a profound moral emotion4 ,besides his rare endowments as a lover of the beautiful1 he had that other precious gift1 of golden speech1 which threw a mantle of loveliness over every book he wrote and perpetual lustre over the domain of letters4 ,ruskin's declining years1 while hallowed by suffering1 were cheered by many tender attentions and unexpected kindnesses1 and by the recognition1 by many notable public bodies and eminent contemporaries1 of his long life of great service and devotion to his kind4 ,in our modern age1 from which1 in his loved ,coniston home1 he passed from life ,jan4 #bj1 #aijj1 no one more reverently than he has looked deeper into the mystery of life1 thought more concernedly of its problems1 shed more passionately and eloquently about him love for the beautiful1 or practically and helpfully done more--layman only though he was--for religion and humanity4 ,at his death the nation paid honor to his memory by offering his remains a resting-place in the great fane of ,england's illustrious dead1 ,westminster ,abbey2 but ,ruskin had himself otherwise ordered the disposal of his body4 ,bury me1 he said1 at ,coniston4 ,and there1 on the fifth day after his falling softly asleep1 amid a concourse of loving friends1 the earthly tenement of the great art critic and lover of righteousness was laid to rest1 his grave strewn with myriad wreaths1 garlands1 and crosses of beautiful1 bright flowers4 ,here1 after his long1 strenuous1 militant career1 do we leave this inspiring teacher and consecrated priest of the ,ideal1 his gentle soul finding rest and peace after the myriad troubles and tumults of life4 ,still now is the once active1 fertile1 stimulating mind of the man who so effectively roused his generation from its complacent smugness and indifference in its appreciation of the beautiful1 and with ardent boldness challenged established beliefs in art and defied the conventionality and authority of his time4 ,his has been a powerful force in innumerable departments of human thought1 and epoch-making the influence he has exerted in giving to the world new ideals of the beautiful and in shaping modern opinion and taste in art4 ,how great is the work he has done1 and what a library of stimulating1 inspiring books he has left us1 comparatively few realize1 as they little realize what the age owes to him for his noble activities in well-doing and his many and impressive lessons and influence4 ,in a commonplace1 commercial time1 how stimulating as well as ardent have been his appeals for sensitiveness of perception in regard to art1 and of the tone and spirit in which it ought to be viewed and valued6 ,and with what tender1 reverent feeling has he not opened our hearts to compassion and to consideration for the welfare of our fellow-man1 and how potent have been his counsellings pointing to the true and abiding sources of pleasure in life6 ,long must his formative opinions and influence extend1 and in the minds of all who think and reflect abiding must be the charm as well as the power of his imaginative1 glowing thought4 ,that he met with opposition and hostility in his day was but the price to be paid for the disturbing1 correcting1 disciplining1 yet inspiring part he played in the work he so impulsively set himself to do4 ,one smiles now at the epithets of scorn and contumely once hurled at him1 at the man who1 little understood as he has been1 has done so much to uplift and purify the thought of his time and do battle with the forces opposed to reform and arrayed against those of light and truth4 ,and how great were the weapons with which he was armed1 and how varied as well as marvellous the talents he brought into play in the onslaught upon shallowness1 convention1 and ignorance6 ,truly1 he has done much for his time1 and great has been the gain ,modern ,art has won from his inspiring lessons and thought4 ,the coming of such a man1 and at the time that was his1 one cannot help reflecting1 was one of the providences of an overruling ,power1 and adequately to estimate his influence and work1 and the tone and temper in which he wrought1 we have but to consider what the age would have been1 in countless departments of thought and activity1 had the century now passed possessed no ,john ,ruskin4 ,,authorities4 ,collingwood1 ,w4 ,g4 ,life of ,ruskin4 ,harrison1 ,frederic4 ,tennyson1 ,ruskin1 ,mill1 and other ,estimates4 ,mather1 ,marshall4 ,john ,ruskin1 his ,life and ,teaching4 ,bayne1 ,peter4 ,lessons from my ,masters--,carlyle1 ,tennyson1 and ,ruskin4 ,japp1 ,alex4 ,h4 ,carlyle1 ,tennyson1 and ,ruskin4 ,spielmann1 ,m4,h4 ,john ,ruskin4 ,waldstein1 ,charles4 ,work of ,john ,ruskin4 ,ward1 ,may ,alden4 ,prophets of the ,nineteenth ,century3 ,carlyle1 ,ruskin1 and ,tolstoi4 ,bates1 ,herbert4 ,annotated edition1 with ,introduction1 of ,ruskin's ,sesame and ,lilies and ,the ,king of the ,golden ,river4 ,ruskin's ,praeterita3 ,an ,autobiography4 ,,herbert ,,spencer4 #ahbj- ,,the ,,evolutionary ,,philosophy4 ,,by ,,mayo ,w4 ,,hazeltine4 ,herbert ,spencer occupies a unique place in the history of human thought1 because he has been the first to attempt the construction of a philosophical system in harmony with the theory of ,evolution and with the results of modern science4 ,to his contemporaries he is known almost exclusively as the author of the colossal work which he has chosen to call the ,synthetic ,philosophy4 ,concerning his personality very little information has been published1 and it is doubtful whether he will deem it worth while to leave behind him the materials for a detailed biography4 ,about his private life we know even less than we know about that of ,kant4 ,the very few facts obtainable may be summed up in a score of sentences4 ,i4 ,herbert ,spencer was born on ,april #bg1 #ahbj1 at ,derby1 in ,england1 and was an only surviving child4 ,his father was a schoolmaster in the town named1 and secretary of a philosophical society4 ,from him the son seems to have imbibed the love of natural science and the faculty of observation conspicuous in his work4 ,the father was particularly interested in entomology1 and ,spencer himself used to collect1 describe1 and draw insects when a boy4 ,at the age of thirteen he was sent to study with an uncle1 ,rev4 ,thomas ,spencer1 a liberal clergyman and a scholar1 with whom he remained three years1 carrying on the study of natural history1 which he had begun in childhood4 ,he now devoted himself to mathematics1 evincing a singular capacity for working out original problems4 ,at this time1 too1 he became familiar with physical and chemical investigations1 and already exhibited a strong tendency to experimental inquiry and original research4 ,his aversion to linguistic studies put a university career out of the question4 ,at the age of seventeen he entered the office of ,sir ,charles ,fox and began work as a civil engineer1 but about eight years afterward he gave up this profession1 and devoted the whole of his time to scientific experiments and studies1 and to contributions on philosophical questions to various periodicals4 ,as early as #ahdb1 in a series of letters to the ,nonconformist newspaper on ,the ,proper ,sphere of ,government1 he propounded a belief in human progress based on the modifiability of human nature through adaptation to its social surroundings1 and he asserted the tendency of these social arrangements to assume of themselves a condition of stable equilibrium4 ,from #ahdh to #ahec he was sub-editor of the ,economist newspaper1 and in his first important work1 ,social ,statics1 published in #ahej1 he developed the ethical and sociological ideas which had been set forth in his published letters4 ,the truth that all organic development is a change from a state of homogeneity to a state of heterogeneity is regarded by ,spencer as the organizing principle of his subsequent beliefs4 ,it was gradually expounded and applied by him in a series of articles contributed to the ,north ,british1 the ,british ,quarterly1 the ,westminster1 and other reviews4 ,in these essays1 and especially in the volume of ,principles of ,psychology1 published in #ahee1 the doctrine of ,evolution began to take definite form1 and to be applied to various departments of inquiry4 ,it was not until four years later--a fact to be carefully borne in mind by those who would estimate correctly the relation of ,spencer to ,darwin--that the publication of the latter's ,origin of ,species afforded a wide basis of scientific truth for what had hitherto been matter of speculation1 and demonstrated the important part played by natural selection in the development of organisms4 ,as early as ,march1 #ahfj1 ,spencer issued a prospectus1 in which he set forth the general aim and scope of a series of works which were to be issued in periodical parts1 and would1 collectively1 constitute a system of philosophy4 ,in #ahfb appeared the ,first ,principles1 and in #ahfg the ,principles of ,biology4 ,in #ahgb the ,principles of ,psychology was published2 the first part of the ,principles of ,ethics in #ahgi2 and his ,principles of ,sociology in three volumes1 begun in #ahgf1 was completed in #ahif4 ,in the preface to the third volume of the last-named work the author explains that the fourth volume originally contemplated1 which was to deal with the linguistic1 intellectual1 moral1 and aesthetic phenomena1 would have to remain unwritten by reason of the author's age and infirmities4 ,the astounding extent of ,herbert ,spencer's labors becomes1 indeed1 the more marvellous when one considers that impaired health has for many years incapacitated him for persistent application4 ,owing partly to his ill health1 and partly to the absorbing nature of his occupation1 his life has been a retired one1 and in the ordinary sense of the term1 uneventful4 ,he has never married1 and1 although the high opinion of his writings formed by contemporaries has led to many academic honors being pressed upon him at home and abroad1 these have all been declined4 ,it only remains to mention that in #ahhb he visited the ,united ,states1 where the importance of his speculations had been early recognized1 and that his home is now in ,brighton1 ,england4 ,,ii4 ,in ,mr4 ,spencer's latest book1 ,facts and ,comments1 a little light is thrown on the author's habits1 opinions1 and predilections4 ,referring to the athleticism to which so much attention is paid just now in ,english and ,american universities1 he points out how erroneous it is to identify muscular strength with constitutional strength4 ,not only is there error in assuming that increase of muscular power and increase of general vigor necessarily go together1 but there is error in assuming that the reverse connection cannot hold4 ,as a matter of fact1 the abnormal powers acquired by gymnasts may be at the cost of constitutional deterioration4 ,in a paper on ,party ,government the author maintains that what we boast of as political freedom consists in the ability to choose a despot1 or a group of oligarchs1 and1 after long misbehavior has produced dissatisfaction1 to choose another despot or group of oligarchs3 having meanwhile been made subject to laws1 some of which are repugnant4 ,abolish the existing conventional usages1 with respect to party fealty1--let each member of parliament feel that he may express by his vote his adverse belief respecting a government measure1 without endangering the government's stability1--and the whole vicious system of party government would disappear4 ,in a paper on ,patriotism1 ,mr4 ,spencer says that to him the cry ,our country1 right or wrong1 seems detestable4 ,the love of country1 he adds1 is not fostered in him by remembering that when1 after ,england's ,prime ,minister had declared that ,englishmen were bound in honor to the ,khedive to reconquer the ,soudan1 they1 after the reconquest1 forthwith began to administer it in the name of the ,queen and the ,khedive1 thereby practically annexing it2 and when1 after promising through the mouths of two colonial ,ministers not to interfere in the internal affairs of the ,transvaal1 the ,british ,government proceeded to insist on certain electoral arrangements1 and made resistance the excuse for a desolating war4 ,as to the transparent pretence that the ,boers commenced the war1 ,mr4 ,spencer reminds us that in the far ,west of the ,united ,states1 where every man carries his life in his hands and the usages of fighting are well understood1 it is held that he is the real aggressor who first moves his hand toward his weapon4 ,the application to the ,south ,african contest is obvious4 ,in an essay on ,style1 ,mr4 ,spencer tells us that his own diction has been1 from the beginning1 unpremeditated4 ,it has never occurred to him to take any author as a model4 ,neither has he at any time examined the writing of this or that author with a view of observing its peculiarities4 ,the thought of style1 considered as an end in itself1 has rarely1 if ever1 been present with him1 his sole purpose being to express ideas as clearly as possible1 and1 when the occasion called for it1 with as much force as might be4 ,he has observed1 however1 he says1 that some difference has been made in his style by the practice of dictation4 ,up to #ahfj his books and review articles were written with his own hand4 ,since then they have all been dictated4 ,he thinks that there is foundation for the prevailing belief that dictation is apt to cause diffuseness4 ,the remark was once made to him1 it seems1 by two good judges--,george ,henry ,lewes and ,george ,eliot--that the style of ,social ,statics is better than the style of his later volumes2 ,mr4 ,spencer would ascribe the contrast to the deteriorating effect of dictation4 ,a recent experience has strengthened him in this conclusion4 ,when lately revising ,first ,principles1 which originally was dictated1 the cutting out of superfluous words1 clauses1 sentences1 and sometimes paragraphs1 had the effect of abridging the work by about one-tenth4 ,touching the style of other writers1 ,mr4 ,spencer points out the defects in some passages quoted from ,matthew ,arnold and ,froude4 ,he says that he is repelled by the ponderous1 involved structure of ,milton's prose1 and he dissents from the applause of ,ruskin's style on the ground that it is too self-conscious1 and implies too much thought of effect4 ,on the other hand1 he has always been attracted by the finished naturalness of ,thackeray4 ,a word should here be said about the misconception of ,mr4 ,spencer's position with reference to the fundamental postulate of religions1--a misconception which used to be more current than it is now4 ,he cannot fairly be described as a materialist4 ,he is no more a materialist than he is a theist4 ,he is1 in the strictest sense of the word1 an agnostic4 ,he was the most conspicuous example of the thing before ,huxley invented the word4 ,the misconception was shared by no less a man than the late ,benjamin ,jowett1 the well-known master of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford1 who1 in one of his published ,letters1 says3 ,i sometimes think that we platonists and idealists are not half so industrious as those repulsive people who only 'believe what they can hold in their hand1' ,bain1 ,h4 ,spencer1 etc41 who are the very ,tuppers of philosophy4 ,it is hard to see how the law of evolution and other generalizations of an abstract kind with which ,mr4 ,spencer's name is associated can be held in anybody's hands4 ,letting that pass1 however1 ,mr4 ,spencer has himself suggested that1 since the system of synthetic philosophy begins with a division entitled the ,unknowable1 having for its purpose to show that all material phenomena are manifestations of a ,power which transcends our knowledge1--that force as we know it can be regarded only as a ,conditioned effect of the ,unconditioned ,cause--there has been thereby afforded sufficiently decided proof of belief in something which cannot be held in the hands4 ,it is1 indeed1 absurd to apply the epithet materialist to a man who has written in ,the ,principles of ,psychology3 ,hence1 though of the two it seems easier to translate so-called matter into so-called spirit than to translate so-called spirit into so-called matter 7which latter is1 indeed1 wholly impossible71 yet no translation can carry us beyond our symbols4 ,,iii4 ,any exposition of the ,synthetic ,philosophy must1 of course1 begin with the volume entitled ,first ,principles4 ,in the first part of this preliminary work the author carries a step further the doctrine of the ,unknowable put into shape by ,hamilton and ,mansel4 ,he points out the various directions in which science leads to the same conclusion1 and shows that in their united belief in an ,absolute that transcends not only human knowledge but human conception lies the only possible reconciliation of science and religion4 ,in the second part of the same book ,mr4 ,spencer undertakes to formulate the laws of the ,knowable4 ,that is to say1 he essays to state the ultimate principles discernible throughout all manifestations of the ,absolute1--those highest generalizations now being disclosed by science1 such1 for example1 as the ,conservation of ,force1 which are severally true1 not of one class of phenomena1 but of all classes of phenomena1 and which are thus the keys to all classes of phenomena4 ,the conclusions reached in ,first ,principles may be thus summed up3 over and over again in the five hundred pages devoted to their formulation1 it is shown in various ways that the deepest truths we can reach are simply statements of the widest uniformities in our experiences of the relations of ,matter1 ,motion1 and ,force2 and that ,matter1 ,motion1 and ,force are but symbols of the ,unknown reality4 ,a ,power of which the nature remains forever inconceivable1 and to which no limits in ,time and ,space can be imagined1 works in us certain effects4 ,these effects have certain likenesses of kind1 the most general of which we class together under the names of ,matter1 ,motion1 and ,force2 and between these effects there are likenesses of connection1 the most constant of which we class as laws of the highest certainty4 ,analysis reduces these several kinds of effects to one kind of effect2 and these several kinds of uniformity to one kind of uniformity4 ,the highest achievement of ,science is the interpretation of all orders of phenomena as differently conditioned manifestations of this one kind of effect1 under differently conditioned modes of this one kind of uniformity4 ,when science has done this1 however1 it has done nothing more than systematize our experiences1 and has in no degree extended the limits of our experiences4 ,we can say no more than before whether the uniformities are as absolutely necessary as they have become to our thought relatively necessary4 ,the utmost possibility for us is an interpretation of the process of things1 as it presents itself to our limited consciousness2 but how this process is related to the actual process we are unable to conceive1 much less to know4 ,similarly we are admonished to remember that1 while the connection between the phenomenal order and the ontological order is forever inscrutable1 so is the connection between the conditioned forms of being and the unconditioned form of being forever inscrutable4 ,the interpretation of all phenomena in terms of ,matter1 ,motion1 and ,force is nothing more than the reduction of our complex symbols of thought to the simplest symbols2 and when the equation has been brought to its lowest terms1 the symbols remain symbols still4 ,hence the reasonings contained in ,first ,principles afford no support to either of the antagonist hypotheses respecting the ultimate nature of things4 ,their implications are no more materialistic than they are spiritualistic1 and no more spiritualistic than they are materialistic4 ,the establishment of correlation and equivalence between the forces of the outer and the inner worlds serves to assimilate either to the other1 according as we set out with one or the other4 ,he who rightly interprets the doctrine propounded in ,first ,principles will see that neither the forces of the outer1 nor the forces of the inner1 world can be taken as ultimate4 ,he will see that1 though the relation of subject and object renders necessary to us the antithetical conceptions of ,spirit and ,matter1 the one is no less than the other to be regarded as but a sign of the ,unknown ,reality which underlies both4 ,in logical order the formulation of ,first ,principles should have been followed by the application of them to ,inorganic ,nature4 ,this great division of ,mr4 ,spencer's subject is passed over1 however2 partly because1 even without it1 the scheme is too extensive to be carried out in the lifetime of one man2 and partly because the interpretation of ,organic ,nature1 after the proposed method1 is of more immediate importance4 ,before noting how ,mr4 ,spencer applies his fundamental principles to the interpretation of the phenomena of life1 it may be well to put before the reader's eye the formula of evolution in the author's own language3 ,evolution is an integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of motion2 during which the matter passes from an indefinite1 incoherent homogeneity to a definite1 coherent heterogeneity2 and during which the retained motion undergoes a parallel transformation4 ,this law of evolution is equally applicable to all orders of phenomena1--astronomic1 geologic1 biologic1 psychologic1 sociologic1 etc41--since these are all component parts of one cosmos1 though disguised from one another by conventional groupings4 ,it is obvious that1 so long as evolution is merely established by induction1 it belongs1 not to philosophy1 but to science4 ,to belong to philosophy it must be deduced from the persistence of force4 ,mr4 ,spencer holds that this can be done4 ,for any finite aggregate1 being unequally exposed to surrounding forces1 will become more diverse in structure1 every differentiated part will become the parent of further differences2 at the same time1 dissimilar units in the aggregate tend to separate1 and those which are similar1 to cluster together 7segregation72 and this subdivision and dissipation of forces1 so long as there are any forces unbalanced by opposite forces1 must end at last in rest2 the penultimate stage of this process in which the extremest multiformity and most complex moving equilibrium are established1 being the highest conceivable state4 ,the various derivative laws of phenomenal changes are thus deducible from the persistence of force4 ,it remains to apply them to inorganic1 organic1 and superorganic existences4 ,the detailed treatment of inorganic evolution is omitted1 as we have said1 from ,spencer's plan1 and he proceeds to interpret the phenomena of life1 mind1 and society in terms of ,matter1 ,motion1 and ,force4 ,,iv4 ,the first volume of the ,principles of ,biology consists of three parts1 the first of which sets forth the data of biology1 including those general truths of physics and chemistry with which rational biology must start4 ,the second part is allotted to the inductions of biology1 or1 in other words1 to a statement of the leading generalizations which naturalists1 physiologists1 and comparative anatomists have established4 ,the third and final part of the first volume of the ,principles of ,biology deals with the speculation commonly known as the development hypothesis1 and considers its a priori and a posteriori evidences4 ,the inductive evidences for the evolutionary hypothesis1 as contra-distinguished from the special-creation hypothesis1 are dealt with in four chapters4 ,the ,arguments from ,classification are these3 ,organisms fall into groups within groups2 and this is the arrangement which we see results from evolution where it is known to take place4 ,of these groups within groups1 the great or primary ones are the most unlike1 the sub-groups are less unlike1 the sub-sub-group still less unlike1 and so on2 and this1 too1 is a characteristic of groups demonstrably produced by evolution4 ,moreover1 indefiniteness of equivalence among the groups is common to those which we know have been evolved1 and to those supposed in the volume before us to have been evolved4 ,there is the further significant fact that divergent groups are allied through their lowest rather than their highest members4 ,of the ,arguments from ,embryology1 the first is that1 when developing embryos are traced from their common starting-point1 and their divergencies and re-divergencies are symbolized by a genealogical tree1 there is manifest a general parallelism between the arrangement of its primary1 secondary1 and tertiary branches1 and the arrangement of the divisions and subdivisions of ,mr4 ,spencer's classifications4 ,nor do the minor deviations from this general parallelism1 which look like difficulties1 fail on closer observation to furnish additional evidence2 since those traits of a common ancestry which embryology reveals are1 if modifications have resulted from changed conditions1 liable to be disguised in different ways and degrees1 in different lines of descendants4 ,mr4 ,spencer next considers the ,arguments from ,morphology4 ,apart from those kinships among organisms disclosed by their developmental changes1 the kinships which their adult forms show are profoundly significant4 ,the unities of type found under such different externals are inexplicable1 except as results of community of descent1 with non-community of modification4 ,again1 each organism analyzed apart shows1 in the likenesses obscured by unlikenesses of its component parts1 a peculiarity which can be ascribed only to the formation of a more heterogeneous organism out of a more homogeneous one4 ,and1 once more1 the existence of rudimentary organs1 homologous with organs that are developed in allied animals or plants1 while it admits of no other rational interpretation1 is satisfactorily interpreted by the hypothesis of evolution4 ,last of the inductive evidences are the ,arguments from ,distribution4 ,while the facts of distribution in space are unaccountable as results of designed adaptation of organisms to their habitats1 they are accountable as results of the competition of species1 and the spread of the more fit into the habitats of the less fit1 followed by the changes which new conditions induce4 ,though the facts of distribution in time are so fragmentary that no positive conclusion can be drawn1 yet all of them are reconcilable with the hypothesis of evolution1 and some of them yield strong support1--especially the near relationship existing between the living and extinct types in each great geographical area4 ,thus of these four categories of evidence1 each furnishes several arguments which point to the same conclusion4 ,this coincidence would give to the induction a very high degree of probability1 even were it not enforced by deduction4 ,as a matter of fact1 the conclusion deductively reached is in harmony with the inductive conclusion4 ,mr4 ,spencer has deductively shown that1 by its lineage and its kindred1 the evolution-hypothesis is as closely allied with the proved truths of modern science as is the antagonist hypothesis1 that of special creation1 with the proved errors of ancient ignorance4 ,he has shown that1 instead of being a mere pseud-idea1 it admits of elaboration into a definite conception1 so showing its legitimacy as an hypothesis4 ,instead of positing a purely fictitious process1 the process which it alleges proves to be one actually going on around us4 ,to which may be added that the evolution-hypothesis presents no radical incongruities from a moral point of view4 ,on the other hand1 the special-creation hypothesis is shown to be not even a thinkable hypothesis1 and1 while thus intellectually illusive1 to have moral implications irreconcilable with the professed beliefs of those who hold it4 ,passing from the evidence that ,evolution has taken place to the question--,how has it taken place8--,mr4 ,spencer finds in known agencies and known processes adequate causes of its phenomena4 ,in astronomic1 geologic1 and meteorologic changes1 ever in progress1 ever combining in new and more involved ways1 we have a set of inorganic factors to which all organisms are exposed2 and in the varying and complicated actions of organisms on one another we have a set of organic factors that alter with increasing rapidity4 ,thus1 speaking generally1 all members of the ,earth's flora and fauna experience perpetual rearrangements of external forces4 ,each organic aggregate1 whether considered individually or as a continuously existing species1 is modified afresh by each fresh distribution of external forces4 ,to its pre-existing differentiations new differentiations are added2 and thus that lapse to a more heterogeneous state1 which would have a fixed limit were the circumstances fixed1 has its limits perpetually removed by the perpetual change of the circumstances4 ,these modifications upon modifications1 which result in evolution1 structurally considered1 are the accompaniments of those functional alterations continually required to re-equilibrate inner with outer actions4 ,that moving equilibrium of inner actions corresponding with outer actions1 which constitutes the life of an organism1 must either be overthrown by a change in the outer actions or must undergo perturbations that cannot end until there is a readjusted balance of functions and correlative adaptation of structures4 ,but where the external changes are either such as are fatal when experienced by the individuals1 or such as act on the individuals in ways that do not affect the equilibrium of their functions1 then the readjustment results through the effects produced on the species as a whole3 there is indirect equilibration4 ,by the preservation in successive generations of those whose moving equilibria are less at variance with the requirements1 there is produced a changed equilibrium completely in harmony with the requirements4 ,even were this the whole of the evidence assignable for the belief that organisms have been gradually evolved1 ,mr4 ,spencer holds that the belief would have a warrant higher than is possessed by many beliefs which are regarded as established4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the evidence is far from exhausted4 ,at the outset of the first volume of ,principles of ,biology1 it was remarked by the author that the phenomena presented by the organic world as a whole cannot be properly dealt with apart from the phenomena presented by each organism in the course of its growth1 development1 and decay4 ,the interpretation of either class of phenomena implies interpretation of the other1 since the two are in reality parts of one process4 ,hence the validity of any hypothesis respecting the one class of phenomena may be tested by its congruity with phenomena of the other class4 ,in the second volume of ,the ,principles of ,biology1 ,mr4 ,spencer passes to the more special phenomena of development1 as displayed in the structures and functions of individual organisms4 ,if the hypothesis that plants and animals have been progressively evolved be true1 it must furnish us with keys to these special phenomena4 ,mr4 ,spencer finds that the hypothesis does this1 and by doing it gives numberless additional vouchers for its truth4 ,it is impossible for us here to review1 even in outline1 the extensive field traversed in the second volume of ,principles of ,biology4 ,we would not omit1 however1 to direct attention to the interesting conclusion reached by ,mr4 ,spencer toward the close of the volume with regard to the future of the human race considered from the viewpoint of the possible pressure of population upon subsistence4 ,he points out that in man all the equilibrations between constitution and conditions1 between the structure of society and the nature of its members1 between fertility and mortality1 advance simultaneously towards a common climax4 ,in approaching an equilibrium between his nature and the ever-varying circumstances of his inorganic environment1 and in approaching an equilibrium between his nature and all the requirements of the social state1 man is at the same time approaching that lowest limit of fertility at which the equilibrium of population is maintained by the addition of as many infants as there are subtractions by death4 ,v4 ,next in logical order and in order of publication come the two volumes collectively entitled ,the ,principles of ,psychology4 ,in these volumes an attempt is made to trace objectively the evolution of mind from reflex action through instinct to reason1 memory1 feeling1 and will1 from the interaction of the nervous system with its environment4 ,subjectively1 mental states are analyzed1 and it is contended that all of them--including those primary scientific ideas1 the perceptions of matter1 motion1 space1 and time1 assumed in the ,first ,principles--can be analyzed into a primitive element of consciousness1 something which can be defined only as analogous to a nervous shock4 ,these perceptions have now become innate in the individual4 ,they may be called--as ,kant called space and time--forms of intuition2 but they have been acquired empirically by the race1 through the persistence of the corresponding phenomena in the environment1 and from the accumulated experiences of each individual being transmitted in the form of modified structure to his descendants4 ,this principle of heredity is one of the laws by which individuals are connected with one another into an organic whole2 and we thus pass to what ,spencer calls superorganic evolution1 implying the co-ordinated actions of many individuals1 and giving rise to the science of sociology4 ,it is this science which ,mr4 ,spencer undertakes to expound in the three volumes entitled the ,principles of ,sociology4 ,the first of these volumes presents a statement of the several sets of factors entering into social phenomena4 ,these factors are1 first1 human ideas and feelings considered in their necessary order of evolution2 secondly1 surrounding natural conditions2 and1 thirdly1 those ever-complicating conditions to which society itself gives origin4 ,under the caption ,the ,inductions of ,sociology1 are set forth the general facts1 structural and functional1 gathered from a survey of societies and their changes2 in other words1 the empirical generalizations that are arrived at by comparing different societies1 or successive stages of the same societies4 ,the author then examines the evolution of governments1 general and local1 as this is determined by natural causes2 their several types and metamorphosis2 their increasing complexity and specialization1 and the progressive limitation of their functions4 ,from political the author turns to ecclesiastical organization4 ,he traces the differentiation of religious government from secular2 its successive complications and the multiplication of sects2 the growth and continued modification of religious ideas1 as caused by advancing knowledge and changing moral character2 and the gradual reconciliation of these ideas with the truths of abstract science4 ,a good deal of space is devoted to what the author calls ceremonial organization1 by which he means that third kind of government which1 having a common root with the others1 and slowly becoming separate from and supplementary to them1 serves to regulate the minor actions of life4 ,finally1 ,mr4 ,spencer discusses industrial organization2 that is to say1 the development of productive and distributive agencies1 considered in its necessary causes1 comprehending not only the progressive division of labor and the increasing complexity of each industrial agency1 but also the successive forms of industrial government as passing through like phases with political government4 ,many pages would be requisite adequately to describe the result of the inquiries prosecuted by ,mr4 ,spencer during some twenty years1 and embodied in the three volumes entitled ,principles of ,sociology4 ,the ultimate conclusions reached1 however1 may be summed up in a few paragraphs4 ,it is the author's final conviction that1 if the process of evolution1 which1 unceasing throughout past time1 has brought life to its present height1 continues throughout the future1 as we cannot but anticipate1 then1 amid all the rhythmical changes in each society1 amid all the lives and deaths of nations1 amid all the supplantings of race by race1 there will go on that adaptation of human nature to the social state which began when savages first gathered together into hordes for mutual defence1--an adaptation finally complete4 ,mr4 ,spencer foresees that many will think this a wild imagination4 ,though everywhere around them are creatures with structures and instincts which have been gradually so moulded as to subserve their own welfares and the welfares of their species1 yet the immense majority ignore the implication that human beings1 too1 have been undergoing in the past1 and will undergo in the future1 progressive adjustments to the lives imposed on them by circumstances4 ,there are a few1 nevertheless1 who think it rational to conclude that what has happened with all lower forms must happen with the highest forms1--a few who infer that among types of men those most fitted for making a well-working society will hereafter1 as heretofore1 from time to time1 emerge and spread at the expense of types less fitted1 until a fully fitted type has arisen4 ,it is1 at the same time1 conceded that the view thus suggested cannot be accepted without qualification4 ,if we carry our thoughts as far forward as palaeolithic implements carry them back1 we are introduced1 not to an absolute optimism1 but to a relative optimism4 ,the cosmic process brings about retrogression1 as well as progression1 where the conditions favor it4 ,only amid an infinity of modifications1 adjusted to an infinity of changes of circumstances1 do there now and then occur some which constitute an advance3 other changes1 meanwhile1 caused in other organisms1 usually not constituting forward steps in organization1 and often constituting steps backward4 ,evolution does not imply a latent tendency to improve everywhere in operation4 ,there is no uniform ascent from lower to higher1 but only an occasional production of a form1 which1 in virtue of greater fitness for more complex conditions1 becomes capable of a longer life of a more varied kind4 ,and1 while such higher type begins to dominate over lower types1 and to spread at their expense1 the lower types survive in habitats or modes of life that are not usurped1 or are thrust into inferior habitats or modes of life in which they retrogress4 ,mr4 ,spencer's examination of ,the ,principles of ,sociology has led him to the belief that what holds with organic types must hold also with types of society4 ,social evolution throughout the future1 like social evolution throughout the past1 must1 while producing1 step after step1 higher societies1 leave outstanding many lower4 ,varieties of men adapted here to inclement regions1 there to regions that are barren1 and elsewhere to regions unfitted1 by ruggedness of surface or insalubrity1 for supporting large populations1 will1 in all probability1 continue to form small communities of simple structures4 ,moreover1 during future competitions among the higher races1 there will probably be left1 in the less desirable regions1 minor nations formed of men inferior to the highest2 at the same time that the highest overspread all the great areas which are desirable in climate and fertility4 ,but while the entire assemblage of societies thus fulfils the law of evolution by increase of heterogeneity1--while within each of them contrasts of structure1 caused by differences of environments and entailed occupations1 cause unlikenesses implying further heterogeneity1 we may infer that the primary process of evolution--integration--which1 up to the present time1 has been displayed in the formation of larger and larger nations1 will eventually reach a still higher stage1 and bring yet greater benefits4 ,as when small tribes were welded into great tribes1 the head chief stopped inter-tribal warfare2 as1 when small feudal governments became subject to a king1 feudal wars were prevented by him1--so1 in time to come1 a federation of the highest nations1 exercising supreme authority 7already foreshadowed by occasional agreements among the ,powers71 may1 by forbidding wars between any of its constituent nations1 put an end to the re-barbarization which is continually undoing civilization4 ,when1 eventually1 this peace-maintaining federation has been formed1 ,mr4 ,spencer looks for effectual progress towards that equilibrium between constitution and conditions1--between inner faculties and outer requirements1--implied by the final stage of human evolution4 ,adaptation to the social state1 now perpetually hindered by anti-social conflict1 may then go on unhindered2 and all the great societies1 in other respects differing1 may become similar in those cardinal traits which result from complete self-ownership of the unit1 and from exercise over him of nothing more than passive influence by the aggregate4 ,on the one hand1 by continual repression of aggressive instincts and by continual exercise of feelings which prompt ministration to public welfare1 and1 on the other hand1 by the lapse of restraints gradually becoming less necessary1 there will be produced1 in ,mr4 ,spencer's forecast1 a kind of man so constituted that1 while fulfilling his own desires1 he will fulfil also the social needs4 ,already1 small groups of men1 shielded by circumstances from external antagonisms1 have been moulded into forms of moral nature so superior to our own that the account of their goodness almost savors of romance2 and it is reasonable to infer that what has even now happened on a small scale may1 under kindred conditions1 ultimately happen on a large scale4 ,prolonged studies1 showing among other things the need for certain qualifications above indicated1 but also revealing facts like that just named1 have not caused our author to recede from the belief expressed nearly fifty years ago that the ultimate man will be one whose private requirements coincide with public ones4 ,he will be that manner of man who1 in spontaneously fulfilling his own nature1 incidentally performs the functions of a social unit2 and yet is only enabled so to fulfil his own nature by all others doing the like4 ,before taking leave of the ,principles of ,sociology1 we should caution the reader against a misconception that might seem1 at first sight1 to find some warrant in the following remark of a sympathetic reviewer3 ,like ,aristotle1 he ,mr4 ,spencer has had to delegate large portions of his work to be done for him by others4 ,as our author has himself pointed out in ,facts and ,comments1 the reviewer's reference will be rightly interpreted by those who know that the work delegated by ,aristotle to others was simply the collection of materials for his ,natural ,history1 not the classification of those materials1 much less the drawing of inductions from them4 ,as not one reader in ten knows this1 however1 wrong impressions are likely to be made by the reviewer's remark4 ,mr4 ,spencer's name being especially associated with the ,synthetic ,philosophy1 the sentence quoted will suggest to many the thought that large portions of that work were written by deputy4 ,this1 of course1 the reviewer did not mean to say4 ,the work to which he referred is entitled ,descriptive ,sociology1 or groups of sociological facts1 classified and arranged by ,herbert ,spencer1 compiled and abstracted by ,david ,duncan1 ,richard ,scheppig and ,james ,collier1 eight parts of which have thus far appeared4 ,knowing that he should be unable to read all the works of travel and history containing the facts he should need when dealing with the science of society1 ,mr4 ,spencer engaged these gentlemen--first one1 then two1 then three--to read up for him and arrange the extracts they made in a manner prescribed4 ,with much material he had himself accumulated in the course of many years1 our author incorporated a much larger amount of material derived from the compilations just mentioned when writing the ,principles of ,sociology4 ,,vi4 ,it is the two volumes entitled the ,principles of ,ethics to which we shall lastly invite attention4 ,the six parts of which this work is composed were published in an irregular manner4 ,part ,i41 presenting the data of ethics1 was issued in #ahgi2 ,part ,,iv41 a treatise on ,justice1 in #ahia2 ,parts ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 which set forth respectively the inductions of ethics and the ethics of individual life1 and which1 along with ,part ,i41 form the first volume1 were issued in #ahib2 ,parts ,v4 and ,,vi41 which treat respectively of negative beneficence and positive beneficence1 were issued in #ahic1 and1 along with ,part ,,iv41 constitute the second volume4 ,with regard to the ,principles of ,ethics1 considered as a whole1 it should be noted that the author was prompted to prepare the work1 notwithstanding the ill health by which he was incessantly interrupted1 by the conviction that the establishment of rules of conduct on a scientific basis is a pressing need4 ,now that moral injunctions are losing the authority given by their supposed sacred origin1 the secularization of morals is becoming imperative4 ,those who reject the current creed appear to assume that the controlling agency conferred by it may safely be thrown aside4 ,on the other hand1 those who defend the current creed allege that1 in the absence of the guidance it yields1 no guidance can exist1 divine commandments being1 in their opinion1 the only possible guides4 ,dissenting from both of these beliefs1 ,mr4 ,spencer has had for his primary purpose in the two volumes under review to show that1 apart from any supposed supernatural basis1 the principles of ethics have a natural basis4 ,in these two volumes this natural basis is set forth1 and its corollaries are elaborated4 ,if the conclusions to which the general law of evolution introduces us are not in all cases as definite as might be wished1 yet our author submits that they are more definite than those to which we are introduced by the current creed4 ,complete definiteness is not1 of course1 to be expected4 ,right regulation of the actions of so complex a being as man1 living under conditions so complex as those presented by a society1 evidently forms a subject-matter unlikely to admit of specific statements throughout its entire range4 ,the principal inductions drawn from the data collected in the first of these volumes may be set forth in a few sentences4 ,multitudinous proofs are brought forward of the fact that the ethical sentiment prevailing in different societies1 and in the same society under different conditions1 are sometimes diametrically opposed4 ,in ,europe and in the ,united ,states to have committed a murder disgraces for all time a man's memory1 and disgraces for generations all who are related to him4 ,by the ,pathans1 however1 a contrary sentiment is displayed4 ,one who had killed a ,mellah 7priest7 and failed to find refuge from the avengers1 said at length3 ,i can but be a martyr2 ,i will go and kill a ,sahib4 ,he was hanged after shooting a sergeant1 perfectly satisfied at having expiated his offence4 ,the prevailing ethical sentiment in ,england is such that a man who should allow himself to be taken possession of and made an unresisting slave would be regarded with scorn2 but the people of ,drekete1 a slave-district of ,fiji1 said it was their duty to become food and sacrifices for the chiefs1 and that they were honored by being considered adequate to such a noble task4 ,less extreme1 though akin in nature1 is the contrast between the feelings which the history of ,englishmen has recorded within a few centuries4 ,in ,elizabeth's time1 ,sir ,john ,hawkins initiated the slave-trade1 and1 in commemoration of the achievement1 was allowed to put in his coat-of-arms3 a demi-moor proper1 bound with a cord1--the honorableness of his action being thus assumed by himself1 and recognized by ,queen and public4 ,at the present day1 on the other hand1 the making slaves of men1 called by ,wesley the sum of all villanies1 is regarded in ,england with detestation2 and for many years the ,british government maintained a fleet to suppress the slave-trade4 ,again1 peoples who have emerged from the primitive family-and-clan organization1 hold that one who is guilty of a crime must himself bear the punishment1 and it is thought extreme injustice that the punishment should fall upon any one else4 ,the remote ancestors of the ,english people thought and felt differently1 as do still the ,australians1 whose first great principle with regard to punishment is that all the relatives of a culprit1 in the event of his not being found1 are implicated in his guilt3 the brothers of the criminal conceive themselves to be quite as guilty as he is4 ,then1 too1 among civilized peoples the individualities of women are so far recognized that the life and liberty of a wife are not supposed to be bound up with those of her husband2 and she now1 having obtained a right to exclusive possession of property1 contends for complete independence1 domestic and political4 ,it is1 or was1 otherwise in ,fiji4 ,the wives of the ,fijian chiefs consider it a sacred duty to suffer strangulation on the deaths of their husbands4 ,a woman who had been rescued by an ,englishman escaped during the night1 and1 swimming across the river1 and presenting herself to her own people1 insisted upon the completion of the sacrifice which she had in a moment of weakness reluctantly consented to forego4 ,another foreign observer tells of a ,fijian woman who loaded her rescuer with abuse1 and ever afterwards manifested the most deadly hatred towards him4 ,in ,england and on the ,continent the religious prohibition of theft and the legal punishment of it are joined with a strong social reprobation1 so that the offence of a thief is never condoned4 ,in ,beloochistan1 on the other hand1 quite contrary ideas and feelings are current4 ,there a favorite couplet is to the effect that the ,biloch who steals and murders1 secures ,heaven to seven generations of ancestors4 ,in ,england and the ,united ,states reprobation of untruthfulness is strongly expressed1 alike by the gentleman and the laborer4 ,in many parts of the world it is not so4 ,in ,blantyre1 for example1 according to ,mac,donald1 to be called a liar is rather a compliment4 ,once more3 ,english sentiment is such that the mere suspicion of incontinence on the part of a woman is enough to blight her life2 but there are peoples whose sentiments entail no such effect1 and1 in some cases1 a reverse effect is produced3 ,unchastity is1 with the ,wetyaks1 a virtue4 ,it seems1 then1 that in respect of all the leading divisions of human conduct1 different races of men1 and the same races at different stages1 entertain opposite beliefs1 and display opposite feelings4 ,in ,mr4 ,spencer's opinion1 the evidence here brought to a focus ought to dissipate once for all the belief in a moral sense1 as commonly entertained4 ,a long experience of mankind1 however1 prevents him from indulging in such an expectation4 ,among men at large1 lifelong convictions are not to be destroyed either by conclusive arguments or multitudinous facts4 ,only to those who are not by creed or cherished theory committed to the hypothesis of a supernaturally created human species will the evidence above summed up prove that the human mind has no originally implanted conscience4 ,mr4 ,spencer himself at one time espoused the doctrine of the intuitive moralists1 but it has gradually become clear to him that the qualifications required practically obliterate the doctrine as enunciated by them4 ,it has become clear to him1 in other words1 that if among civilized folk the current belief is that a man who robs and does not repent will be eternally damned1 while an accepted proverb among the ,bilochs is1 that ,god will not favor a man who does not steal and rob1 it is impossible to hold that men have in common an innate perception of right and wrong4 ,at the same time1 while the inductions drawn by ,mr4 ,spencer from the data of ethics show that the moral-sense doctrine in its original form is not true1 they also show that it adumbrates a truth1 and a much higher truth4 ,for the facts cited1 chapter after chapter1 unite in proving that the sentiments and ideas current in each society become adjusted to the kinds of activity predominating in it4 ,a life of constant external enmity generates a code in which aggression1 conquest1 revenge1 are inculcated1 while peaceful occupations are reprobated4 ,conversely1 a life of settled internal amity generates a code inculcating the virtues conducing to harmonious co-operation1--justice1 honesty1 veracity1 regard for others' claims4 ,the implication is that1 if the life of internal amity continues unbroken from generation to generation1 there must result not only the appropriate code1 but the appropriate emotional nature1--a moral sense adapted to the moral requirements4 ,men so conditioned will acquire to the degree needful for complete guidance that innate conscience which the intuitive moralists erroneously supposed to be possessed by mankind at large4 ,there needs but a continuance of absolute peace externally and a rigorous insistence on non-aggression internally1 to insure the moulding of men into a form naturally characterized by all the virtues4 ,this general induction is re-enforced by especial induction4 ,now as displaying this high trait of nature1 now as displaying that1 ,mr4 ,spencer has instanced various uncivilized peoples who1 inferior to us in other respects1 are morally superior to us4 ,he has also pointed out that such peoples are1 one and all1 free from inter-tribal antagonisms4 ,the peoples showing this connection between external and internal peacefulness on the one hand1 and superior morality on the other1 are of various races4 ,in the ,indian ,hills are found some who are by origin ,mongolian1 ,kelarian1 ,dravidian2 in the forests of ,malacca1 ,burma1 and in secluded parts of ,china exist such tribes of yet other bloods2 in the ,east ,indian archipelago are some belonging to the ,papuan stock2 in ,japan there are the amiable ,ainos1 who have no traditions of internecine strife2 and in ,north ,mexico exists yet another such people unrelated to the rest1 the ,pueblos4 ,our author holds that no more conclusive proof could be wished than that supplied by these isolated groups of men1 who1 widely remote in locality and differing in race1 are alike in the two respects that circumstances have long exempted them from war1 and that they are now organically good4 ,may we not reasonably infer1 asks ,mr4 ,spencer1 in conclusion1 that the state reached by these small1 uncultured tribes may be reached by the great cultured nations1 when the life of internal amity shall be unqualified by the life of external enmity8 ,we bring to an end our review of the ,synthetic ,philosophy by pointing out that the ethical doctrine constituting the culmination of the system which is set forth in the ,principles of ,ethics is fundamentally a corrected and elaborated version of the doctrine propounded in ,social ,statics issued as long ago as #ahej4 ,the correspondence between the two works is shown not only by the coincidence of their constructive divisions1 but also by the agreement of their cardinal ideas4 ,as in the one1 so in the other1 ,man1 in common with lower creatures1 is held to be capable of indefinite change by adaptation to conditions4 ,in both he is regarded as undergoing transformation from a nature appropriate to his aboriginal wild life1 to a nature appropriate to a settled civilized life2 and in both this transformation is described as a moulding into a form fitted for harmonious co-operation4 ,in both works1 too1 this moulding is said to be effected by the repression of certain primitive traits no longer needed1 and the development of needful traits4 ,as in the first work1 so in this last1 the great factor in the progressive modification is shown to be sympathy4 ,it was contended in ,social ,statics1 as it is contended in the ,principles of ,ethics1 that harmonious social co-operation implies that limitation of individual freedom which results from sympathetic regard for the freedoms of others2 and that the law of equal freedom is the law in conformity to which equitable individual conduct and equitable social arrangements co-exist4 ,mr4 ,spencer's theory in #ahej was1 as his theory still is1 that the mental products of ,sympathy which constitute what is called the moral sense1 arise as fast as men are disciplined into social life2 and that along with them arise intellectual perceptions of right human relations1 which become clearer as the form of social life becomes better4 ,further1 in the earlier work it was inferred1 as it is inferred in the latest1 that there is being effected a conciliation of individual natures with social requirements2 so that there will eventually be achieved the greatest individuation1 along with the greatest mutual dependence1--an equilibrium of such kind that each1 in fulfilling the wants of his own life1 will aid in fulfilling the wants of all other lives4 ,we observe1 finally1 that1 in the first work1 there were drawn essentially the same corollaries respecting the rights of individuals and their relations to the ,state that are drawn in the ,principles of ,ethics4 ,a word may be said in conclusion about the difference between the relation of ,mr4 ,spencer on the one hand and ,darwin on the other to the thought of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,the fact is not to be lost sight of that the principles of the ,evolutionary1 or1 as ,mr4 ,spencer prefers to term it1 the ,synthetic1 philosophy were formulated before the publication of the ,origin of ,species4 ,what the ultimately general acceptance of the theory propounded in ,darwin's work did for ,mr4 ,spencer was precisely this3 it greatly strengthened the biological evidence for the evolutionary hypothesis4 ,that hypothesis was upheld1 however1 by evidence drawn not merely from biology1 but from many other sources4 ,moreover1 while the ,darwinian theory of natural selection1 supplemented as it was by the adoption of the ,lamarkian factors1--the effect of use and disuse and the assumed transmissibility of acquired character1--merely attempted to explain the mode in which the changes in organic life have taken place upon the earth1 the evolutionary hypothesis put forth by ,mr4 ,spencer professed to be applicable to the whole sphere of the knowable4 ,it is further to be borne in mind that ,mr4 ,spencer has devoted a large part of his life to tracing in detail the applications of his fundamental principles to social1 political1 religious1 and ethical phenomena4 ,darwin1 on the other hand1 strictly confined himself to the biological field1 and left to disciples the task of indicating the bearing of the ,darwinian theory upon sociology1 theology1 and morals4 ,,authorities4 ,the ,complete ,works of ,herbert ,spencer 7,the ,synthetic ,philosophy74 ,also1 ,facts and ,comments1 by ,herbert ,spencer 7,appleton's74 ,john ,fiske's ,outlines of ,cosmic ,philosophy4 ,f4,h4 ,collins's ,epitome of the ,synthetic ,philosophy4 ,a4,d4 ,white's ,herbert ,spencer3 ,the ,completion of the ,synthetic ,philosophy4 ,,charles ,,robert ,,darwin4 #ahji-ahhb2 ,,his ,,place ,,in ,,modern ,,science4 ,,by ,,mayo ,w4 ,,hazeltine4 ,there is no doubt that1 by the judgment of a large majority of scientists1 the place of pre-eminence in the history of science during the nineteenth century should be assigned to ,charles ,robert ,darwin4 ,the theory associated with his name deserves to be called epoch-making4 ,the ,darwinian hypothesis1 indeed1 should not be confounded with the cosmic theory of ,evolution which was formulated earlier and independently by ,herbert ,spencer1 and supported by many arguments drawn from sources outside the field of natural history4 ,the specific merit of the ,darwinian hypothesis is that it furnishes a rational and almost universally accepted explanation of the mode in which changes have taken place in the development of organic life upon the earth4 ,with the possible cosmical applications of his theory ,darwin did not concern himself1 though the bearing of his hypothesis upon wider problems was at once discerned1 and has been set forth by ,spencer and others4 ,before stating1 however1 the conclusions at which ,darwin arrived in his ,origin of ,species1 the ,descent of ,man1 and other writings1 and before indicating the extent to which these conclusions have been adopted1 we should say a word about his interesting1 amiable1 and exemplary personality4 ,concerning his private life1 there is no lack of information4 ,he himself wrote an autobiographical sketch which has been amplified by his son ,francis ,darwin1 and supplemented with numerous extracts from his correspondence4 ,i4 ,charles ,robert ,darwin was born at ,shrewsbury1 ,feb4 #ab1 #ahji4 ,his mother was a daughter of ,josiah ,wedgwood1 the well-known ,staffordshire potter1 and his father1 ,dr4 ,robert ,waring ,darwin1 was a son of ,erasmus ,darwin1 celebrated in the eighteenth century as a physician1 a naturalist1 and a poet4 ,it is a curious fact that in some of his speculations ,erasmus ,darwin anticipated the views touching the evolution of organic life subsequently announced by ,lamarck1 and ultimately incorporated by ,charles ,darwin in the theory that bears his name4 ,the only taste kindred to natural history which ,dr4 ,darwin possessed in common with his father and his son was a love of plants4 ,the garden of his house in ,shrewsbury1 where ,charles ,darwin spent his boyhood1 was filled with ornamental trees and shrubs1 as well as fruit-trees4 ,when ,charles ,darwin was about eight years old1 he was sent to a day-school1 and it seems that even at this time his taste for natural history1 and especially for collecting shells and minerals1 was well developed4 ,in the summer of #ahah he entered ,dr4 ,butler's great school in ,shrewsbury1 well known to the amateur makers of ,latin verse by the volume entitled ,sabrinae ,corolla4 ,he expressed the opinion in later life that nothing could have been worse for the development of his mind than this school1 as it was strictly classical1 nothing else being taught except a little ancient biography and history4 ,during his whole life he was singularly incapable of mastering any language4 ,with respect to science1 he continued collecting minerals with much zeal1 and after reading ,white's ,selborne he took much pleasure in watching the habits of birds4 ,towards the close of his school life he became deeply interested in chemistry1 and was allowed to assist his elder brother in some laboratory experiments4 ,in ,october1 #ahbe1 he proceeded to ,edinburgh ,university1 where he stayed for two years4 ,he found the lectures intolerably dull1 with the exception of those on chemistry4 ,curiously enough1 while walking one day with a fellow-undergraduate1 the latter burst forth in high admiration of ,lamarck and his views on evolution4 ,so far as ,darwin could afterwards judge1 no impression was made upon his own mind4 ,he had previously read his grandfather's ,zonomia1 in which similar views had been propounded1 but no discernible effect had been produced upon him4 ,nevertheless1 it is probable enough that the hearing rather early in life such views maintained and praised may have favored his upholding them under a different form in the ,origin of ,species4 ,while at ,edinburgh1 ,darwin was a member of the ,plinian ,society1 and read a couple of papers on some observations in natural history4 ,after two sessions had been spent at ,edinburgh1 ,darwin's father perceived that the young man did not like the thought of being a physician1 and proposed that he should become a clergyman4 ,in pursuance of this proposal1 he went to the ,university of ,cambridge in #ahbh1 and three years later took a ,b4,a4 degree4 ,in his autobiography the opinion is expressed that at ,cambridge his time was wasted4 ,it was there1 however1 that he became intimately acquainted with ,professor ,henslow1 a man of remarkable acquirements in botany1 entomology1 chemistry1 mineralogy1 and geology4 ,during his last year at ,cambridge ,darwin read with care and interest ,humboldt's ,personal ,narrative1 and ,sir ,john ,herschel's ,introduction to the ,study of ,natural ,philosophy4 ,these books influenced him profoundly1 arousing in him a burning desire to make even the most humble contribution to the structure of natural science4 ,at ,henslow's suggestion he began the study of biology1 and in #ahca accompanied ,professor ,sedgwick in the latter's investigations amongst the older rocks in ,north ,wales4 ,it was ,professor ,henslow who secured for young ,darwin the appointment of naturalist to the voyage of the ,beagle4 ,this voyage lasted from ,dec4 #bg1 #ahca1 to ,oct4 #b1 #ahcf4 ,the incidents of this voyage will be found set forth in ,darwin's ,public ,journeys4 ,the observations made by him in geology1 natural history1 and botany gave him a place of considerable distinction among scientific men4 ,in #ahdd he published a series of observations on the volcanic islands visited during the voyage of the ,beagle1 and two years later ,geological ,observations on ,south ,america4 ,these two books1 together with a volume entitled ,coral ,reefs1 required four and a half years' steady work4 ,in ,october1 #ahdf1 he began the studies embodied in ,cirripedia 7barnacles74 ,the outcome of these studies was published in two thick volumes4 ,the time came when ,darwin doubted whether the work was worth the consumption of the time employed1 but probably it proved of use to him when he had to discuss in the ,origin of ,species the principles of a natural classification4 ,from ,september1 #ahed1 and during the four ensuing years1 ,darwin devoted himself to observing and experimenting in relation to the transmutation of species1 and in arranging a huge pile of notes upon the subject4 ,as early as ,october1 #ahch1 it had occurred to him as probable1 or at least possible1 that amid the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on in the animal world1 favorable variations would tend to be preserved1 and unfavorable ones to be destroyed4 ,the result would be the formation of new species4 ,it was not until ,june1 #ahdb1 however1 that ,darwin allowed himself the satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of his theory in thirty-five pages4 ,this was enlarged two years later into one of #bcj pages4 ,early in #ahef1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 the well-known geologist1 advised him to write out his views upon the subject fully1 and ,darwin began to do so on a scale three or four times as extensive as that which was afterwards followed in his ,origin of ,species4 ,he got through about half the work on this scale4 ,his plans were overthrown1 owing to the curious circumstance that1 in the summer of #aheh1 ,mr4 ,alfred ,e4 ,wallace1 who was then in the ,malay archipelago1 sent him an essay ,on the ,tendency of ,varieties to depart indefinitely from the ,original ,type4 ,it turned out upon perusal that this essay contained exactly the same theory as that which ,darwin was engaged in elaborating4 ,mr4 ,wallace expressed the wish that1 if ,darwin thought well of the essay1 he should send it to ,lyell4 ,it was ,sir ,charles ,lyell and ,sir ,joseph ,hooker who insisted that ,darwin should allow an abstract from his manuscript1 together with a letter to ,prof4 ,asa ,gray1 dated ,sept4 #e1 #aheg1 to be published at the same time with ,wallace's essay4 ,darwin was unwilling to take this course1 being then unacquainted with ,mr4 ,wallace's generous disposition4 ,as a matter of fact1 the joint productions excited very little attention1 and the only published notice of them asserted that what was new in them was false1 and that what was true was old4 ,from the indifference evinced to the papers which first propounded the theory of natural selection1 ,darwin drew the inference that it is necessary for any new view to be explained at considerable length in order to obtain the public ear4 ,in ,september1 #aheh1 ,darwin1 at the earnest advice of ,lyell and ,hooker1 set to work to prepare a volume on the transmutation of species4 ,the book cost him more than thirteen months' hard labor4 ,it was published in ,november1 #ahei1 under the title of ,origin of ,species4 ,this1 which ,darwin justly regarded as the chief work of his life1 was from the first highly successful4 ,the first edition was sold on the day of publication1 and the book was presently translated into almost every ,european tongue4 ,darwin himself attributed the success of the ,origin in large part to his having previously written two condensed sketches1 and to his having finally made an abstract of a much larger manuscript1 which itself was an abstract4 ,by this winnowing process he had been enabled to select the more striking facts and conclusions4 ,as to the current assertion that the ,origin succeeded because the subject was in the air1 or because men's minds were prepared for it1 ,darwin was disposed to doubt whether this was strictly true4 ,in previous years he had occasionally sounded not a few naturalists1 and had never come across a single one who seemed to doubt about the permanence of species4 ,probably men's minds were prepared in this sense1 that innumerable well-verified facts were stored away in the memories of naturalists1 ready to take their proper places as soon as any theory which would account for them should be strongly supported4 ,darwin himself thought that he gained much by a delay in publishing1 from about #ahci1 when the ,darwinian theory was clearly conceived1 to #ahei2 and that he lost nothing1 because he cared very little whether men attributed most originality to him or to ,wallace4 ,darwin's ,variation of ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication was begun in #ahfj1 but was not published till #ahfh4 ,the book was a big one1 and cost him four years and two months' hard labor4 ,it gives in the first volume all his personal observations1 and an immense number of facts1 collected from various sources1 about domestic productions1 animal and vegetable4 ,in the second volume the causes and laws of variation1 inheritance1 etc41 are discussed4 ,towards the end of the work is propounded the hypothesis of ,pangenesis1 which has been generally rejected1 and which the author himself looked upon as unverified1 although by it a remarkable number of isolated facts could be connected together and rendered intelligible4 ,the ,descent of ,man was published in ,february1 #ahga4 ,touching this work1 ,darwin has told us that1 as soon as he had become 7in #ahcg or #ahch7 convinced that species were mutable productions1 he could not avoid the belief that man must come under the same law4 ,accordingly1 he collected notes on the subject for his own satisfaction1 and not for a long time with any intention of publishing4 ,in the ,origin of ,species1 the derivation of any particular species is never discussed2 but in order that no honorable man should accuse him of concealing his views1 ,darwin had thought it best to add that by that work1 light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history4 ,it would have impeded the acceptance of the theory of natural selection if ,darwin had paraded1 without giving any evidence1 his conviction with respect to man's origin4 ,when he found1 however1 that many naturalists accepted his doctrine of the evolution of species1 it seemed to him advisable to work up such notes as he possessed1 and to publish a special treatise on the origin of man4 ,he was the more glad to do so1 as it gave him an opportunity of discussing at length sexual selection1 a subject which had always interested him4 ,darwin's book on the ,expression of ,emotion in ,men and ,animals was published in the autumn of #ahgb4 ,this had been intended to form a chapter on the subject in the ,descent of ,man1 but as soon as ,darwin began to put his notes together he saw that it would require a separate treatise4 ,in ,july1 #ahge1 appeared the book on ,insectivorous ,plants4 ,the fact that a plant should secrete1 when properly excited1 a fluid containing an acid and ferment closely analogous to the digestive fluid of an animal1 was certainly a remarkable discovery4 ,in the autumn of #ahgf appeared ,the ,effects of ,cross and ,self ,fertilization1 a work in which are described the endless and wonderful contrivances for the transportation of pollen from one plant to another of the same species4 ,about the same time was brought out an enlarged edition of the ,fertilization of ,orchids1 originally published in #ahfb4 ,among the minor works issued during the later years of ,darwin's life may be mentioned particularly the little book on ,the ,formation of ,vegetable ,mould through the ,action of ,worms4 ,this was the outgrowth of a short paper read before the ,geological ,society more than fourteen years before4 ,in order to appreciate the enormous amount of research accomplished by ,charles ,darwin1 it is needful to keep in mind the conditions of ill-health under which almost continually he worked4 ,for nearly forty years he never knew one day of the health of ordinary men4 ,his life was one long struggle against the weariness and drain of sickness4 ,during his last ten years there were signs of amendment in several particulars1 but a loss of physical vigor was apparent4 ,writing to a friend in #ahha1 he complained that he no longer had the heart or strength to begin any prolonged investigations4 ,in ,february and ,march1 #ahhb1 he frequently experienced attacks of pain in the region of the heart1 attended with irregularity of the pulse4 ,on ,april #ah he fainted1 and was brought back to consciousness with great difficulty4 ,he seemed to recognize the approach of death1 and said1 ,i am not the least afraid to die4 ,on the afternoon of ,wednesday1 ,april #ai1 he passed away4 ,on ,april #bf he was interred in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,the funeral was attended by representatives of ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,russia1 and by delegates of the universities and learned societies of which he had been a member4 ,among the pall-bearers were ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 ,professor ,huxley1 ,mr4 ,a4,r4 ,wallace1 ,mr4 ,james ,russell ,lowell1 the ,duke of ,argyll1 and the ,duke of ,devonshire4 ,the grave is appropriately placed in the north aisle of the nave1 only a few feet from the last resting-place of ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,,ii4 ,an outline of ,darwin's personality would not be complete without a glance at some of his mental characteristics1 and at his attitude toward religion4 ,of his intellectual powers1 he himself speaks with extraordinary modesty in his autobiography4 ,he points out that he always experienced much difficulty in expressing himself clearly and concisely1 but he opines that this very difficulty may have had the compensating advantage of forcing him to think long and intently about every sentence1 and thus enabling him to detect errors in reasoning and in his own observations1 or in those of others4 ,he disclaimed the possession of any great quickness of apprehension or wit1 such as distinguished ,huxley4 ,he protested1 also1 that his power to follow a long and purely abstract train of thought was very limited1 for which reason he felt certain that he never could have succeeded with metaphysics or mathematics4 ,his memory1 too1 he described as extensive1 but hazy4 ,so poor in one sense was it that he never could remember for more than a few days a single date or a line of poetry4 ,on the other hand1 he did not accept as well founded the charge made by some of his critics that1 while he was a good observer1 he had no power of reasoning4 ,this1 he thought1 could not be true1 because the ,origin of ,species is one long argument from the beginning to the end1 and has convinced many able men4 ,no one1 he submits1 could have written it without possessing some power of reasoning4 ,he was willing to assert that ,i have a fair share of invention1 and of common sense or judgment1 such as every fairly successful lawyer or doctor must have1 but not1 ,i believe1 in any higher degree4 ,he adds humbly that perhaps he was superior to the common run of men in noticing things which easily escape attention1 and in observing them carefully4 ,writing in the last year of his life1 he expressed the opinion that in two or three respects his mind had changed during the preceding twenty or thirty years4 ,up to the age of thirty or beyond it poetry of many kinds gave him great pleasure4 ,formerly1 too1 pictures had given him considerable1 and music very great1 delight4 ,in #ahha1 however1 he said3 ,now for many years ,i cannot endure to read a line of poetry2 ,i have tried lately to read ,shakspeare1 and found it so intolerably dull that it nauseated me4 ,i have also almost lost my taste for pictures or music4 ,music generally sets me thinking too energetically of what ,i have been at work on1 instead of giving me pleasure4 ,i retain some taste for fine scenery1 but it does not cause me the exquisite delight which it formerly did4 ,darwin was convinced that the loss of these tastes was not only a loss of happiness1 but might possibly be injurious to the intellect1 and more probably to the moral character1 by enfeebling the emotional side of one's nature4 ,so far as he could judge1 his mind had become in his later years a kind of machine for grinding general laws out of large collections of facts1 and that atrophy had taken place in that part of the brain on which the higher aesthetic tastes depend4 ,curiously enough1 however1 he retained his relish for novels1 and for books on history1 biography1 and travels4 ,it is well known that ,darwin was extremely reticent with regard to his religious views4 ,he believed that a man's religion was essentially a private matter4 ,repeated attempts were made to draw him out upon the subject1 and some of these were partially successful4 ,writing to a ,dutch student in #ahgc1 he said3 ,i may say that the impossibility of conceiving that this grand and wondrous universe1 with our conscious selves1 arose through chance seems to me the chief argument for the existence of ,god2 but whether this is an argument of real value ,i have never been able to decide4 ,i am aware that if we admit a ,first ,cause1 the mind still craves to know whence it came and how it arose4 ,nor can ,i overlook the difficulty from the immense amount of suffering through the world4 ,i am also induced to defer to a certain extent to the judgment of the many able men who have fully believed in ,god2 but here again ,i see how poor an argument this is4 ,the safest conclusion seems to me that the whole subject is beyond the scope of man's intellect2 but man can do his duty4 ,to questions put by a ,german student in #ahgi1 he replied3 ,science has nothing to do with ,christ1 except in so far as the habit of scientific research makes a man cautious in admitting evidence4 ,for myself ,i do not believe that there ever has been any revelation4 ,as for a future life1 every man must judge for himself between conflicting vague probabilities4 ,in the same year he told another correspondent3 ,in my most extreme fluctuations ,i have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a ,god4 ,i think that generally 7and more and more as ,i grow older71 but not always1 that an ,agnostic would be the more correct description of my state of mind4 ,his latest view is indicated in a letter dated ,july #c1 #ahha4 ,here he expressed the inward conviction that the universe is not the result of chance4 ,he adds1 however3 ,but1 then1 with me the horrid doubt always arises whether the convictions of man's mind1 which has been developed from the mind of the lower animals1 are of any value1 or at all trustworthy4 ,would any one trust the convictions in a monkey's mind1 if there are any convictions in such a mind8 ,the ,duke of ,argyll has recorded the few words on the subject spoken by ,darwin in the last year of his life4 ,the ,duke said that it was impossible to look at the wonderful contrivances for certain purposes in nature1 and fail to recognize that they were the effect and the expression of mind4 ,darwin looked at the ,duke very hard1 and said1 ,well1 that often comes over me with overwhelming force2 but at other times--here he shook his head vaguely--it seems to go away4 ,,iii4 ,we pass to a consideration of ,darwin's masterworks1 the ,origin of ,species1 the ,variation of ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 and the ,descent of ,man4 ,before indicating the conclusions reached in the first of these works1 we should point out to what extent ,darwin had been preceded by dissenters from the belief once almost universally entertained by biologists that species were independently created1 and1 once created1 were immutable4 ,lamarck was the first naturalist whose divergent views upon the subject excited much attention4 ,in writings published at various dates from #ahja to #ahae1 he upheld the doctrine that all species1 including man1 are descended from other species4 ,he pronounced it probable that all changes in the organic1 as well as in the inorganic world1 were the result of law1 and not of miraculous interposition4 ,he seems to have been led to his opinion that the change of species had been gradual by the difficulty experienced in distinguishing species from varieties by the almost perfect gradation of forms in certain groups1 and by the analogy of domestic productions4 ,with respect to the means of modification1 he attributed something to the direct action of the physical conditions of life1 something to the crossing of already existing forms1 and much to use and disuse1 or1 in other words1 to the effect of habit4 ,finally1 he held that characters acquired by an existing individual might be transmitted to its offspring4 ,in #ahac ,dr4 ,w4,c4 ,wells read before the ,royal ,society ,an ,account of a ,white ,female1 ,part of whose ,skin resembles that of a ,negro4 ,in this paper the author distinctly recognized the principle of natural selection1 but applied it only to the races of man1 and in man only to certain characters4 ,after remarking that negroes and mulattoes enjoy an immunity from certain tropical diseases1 he observed1 first1 that all animals tend to vary in some degree1 and1 secondly1 that agriculturalists improve their domesticated animals by selection4 ,he added that what is done in the latter case by art seems to be done with equal efficacy1 though more slowly1 by nature in the formation of varieties of mankind fitted for the countries which they inhabit4 ,again in #ahca ,mr4 ,patrick ,matthew published a work on ,naval ,timber and ,arboriculture1 in which he put forth precisely the same view concerning the origin of species as that propounded by ,mr4 ,wallace and by ,darwin4 ,unfortunately for himself1 the view was cursorily suggested in scattered passages of an appendix to a work on a different subject1 so that it remained unnoticed until ,mr4 ,matthew himself drew attention to it in #ahfj1 after the publication of the ,origin of ,species4 ,we observe finally that ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 in an essay published in #aheb1 and republished six years later1 contrasted the theories of the creation and the development of organic beings4 ,he argued from the analogy of domestic productions1 from the changes which the embryos of many species undergo1 from the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties1 and from the principle of general gradation1 that species have been modified2 and he attributed the modification to the change of circumstances4 ,the two volumes comprising the ,origin of ,species constitute1 as the author said1 one long argument4 ,it is1 of course1 impossible in the space at our command to recapitulate in detail even the leading facts and inferences which are brought forward to prove that species have been modified during a long course of descent4 ,we must confine ourselves to a succinct statement of the author's general conclusions4 ,what he undertakes to prove is that the modification of species during a long course of descent has been effected chiefly through the natural selection of numerous successive slight favorable variations1 aided in an important manner by the inherited effects of the use and disuse of parts2 and in an unimportant manner1--that is1 in relation to adaptive structures1 whether past or present1 by the direct action of external conditions1 and by variations which seem to us1 in our ignorance1 to arise spontaneously4 ,it should be observed that ,darwin does not attribute the modification exclusively to natural selection4 ,what he asserts is3 ,i am convinced that natural selection has been the main1 but not the exclusive1 means of modification4 ,he submits that a false theory would hardly explain in so satisfactory a manner as does the theory of natural selection the several large classes of facts marshalled in the two volumes now under review4 ,if it be objected that this is an unsafe method of arguing1 ,darwin rejoins that it is a method usual in judging of the common events of life1 and has often been used by the greatest natural philosophers4 ,the undulatory theory of light1 for instance1 has thus been arrived at2 and the belief in the revolution of the earth on its own axis was1 until lately1 supported by scarcely any direct evidence4 ,it is no valid objection to the ,darwinian theory of the origin of species that science as yet throws no light on the far higher problem of the essence or origin of life4 ,neither has any one explained what is the essence of the attraction of gravity1 though nobody now objects to following out the results consequent on this unknown element of attraction4 ,why1 it may be asked1 did nearly all the most eminent naturalists and geologists until recently decline to believe in the mutability of species8 ,darwin replies that the belief that species were immutable productions was almost unavoidable as long as the history of the world was thought to be of short duration4 ,even now that we have acquired some idea of the lapse of time1 men are too apt to assume without proof that the geological record is so perfect that it would have afforded plain evidence of the mutation of species if they had really undergone mutation4 ,the chief cause1 however1 of the once-prevalent unwillingness to admit that one species has given birth to other and distinct species is the fact that men are slow to admit great changes of which they do not see the steps4 ,the difficulty is the same which was experienced by many geologists when ,lyell first insisted that long lines of inland cliffs had been formed and great valleys excavated1 not by catastrophes1 but by the slow-moving agencies which we see still at work4 ,the human mind cannot grasp the full meaning of the term of even a million years2 cannot add up and perceive the full effects of many slight variations accumulated during an almost infinite number of generations4 ,when the first edition of the ,origin of ,species was published in #ahei1 ,darwin wrote that he by no means expected to convince experienced naturalists whose minds were stocked with a multitude of facts1 all regarded during a long course of years from a point of view directly opposite to his4 ,he looked forward with confidence1 however1 to the future1 to young and rising naturalists1 who would be able to view both sides of the question with impartiality4 ,he predicted that1 when the conclusions reached by him and by ,mr4 ,wallace concerning the origin of species should be generally accepted1 there would be a considerable revolution in natural history4 ,naturalists1 for instance1 would be forced to acknowledge that the only distinction between species and well-marked varieties is that the latter are known or believed to be connected at the present day by intermediate gradations1 whereas species were formerly1 though they are not now1 thus connected4 ,it might thus come to pass that forms generally acknowledged in #ahei to be merely varieties1 would thereafter be thought worthy of specific names2 in which case scientific and common language would come into accordance4 ,in short1 ,darwin looked forward to the time when species would have to be treated in the same manner as genera are treated by those naturalists who admit that genera are merely artificial combinations made for convenience4 ,darwin also foresaw that when his theory of the origin of species should be adopted1 other and more general departments of natural history would rise greatly in interest4 ,the terms used by naturalists--such terms as affinity1 relationship1 community of type1 paternity1 morphology1 adaptive characters1 rudimentary and abortive organs1 etc4--would cease to be metaphorical1 and would have a plain signification4 ,when1 he wrote1 we no longer look at an organic being as a savage looks at a ship1 as something wholly beyond his comprehension2 when we regard every production of nature as one which has had a long history2 when we contemplate every complex structure and instinct as the summing up of many contrivances1 each useful to the possessor1 in the same way as any great mechanical invention is the summing up of the labor1 the experience1 the reason1 and even the blunders of numerous workmen2 when we thus view each organic being1 how far more interesting--,i speak from experience--does the study of natural history become4 ,once more3 ,when we can feel assured that all the individuals of the same species1 and all the closely allied species of most genera1 have within a not very remote period descended from one parent1 and have migrated from some one birthplace2 and when we better know the many means of migration1 then1 by the light which geology now throws1 and will continue to throw1 on former changes of climate and of the level of the land1 we shall surely be enabled to trace in an admirable manner the former migrations of the inhabitants of the whole world4 ,when ,darwin published the ,origin of ,species1 he was aware that theologians and philosophers seemed to be fully satisfied with the view that each species had been independently created1 and was immutable4 ,to his own mind1 however1 it accorded better with what was known of the laws impressed on matter by the ,creator that the production and extinction of the past and present inhabitants of the world should have been due to secondary causes like those determining the birth and death of the individual4 ,when ,i view1 he said1 all beings not as special creations1 but as the lineal descendants of some few beings which lived long before the first bed of the ,cambrian system was deposited1 they seem to me to become ennobled4 ,and again3 ,as all the living forms of life are the lineal descendants of those which lived long before the ,cambrian epoch1 we may feel certain that the ordinary succession by generation has never once been broken1 and that no cataclysm has desolated the whole world4 ,hence we may look with some confidence to a secure future of great length4 ,and as natural selection works slowly by and for the good of each being1 all corporeal and mental endowments will tend to progress towards perfection4 ,for his own part1 ,darwin could see no good reason why the views propounded in the two volumes comprising the ,origin of ,species should shock the religious feelings of any one4 ,touching the likelihood of such a result1 he reassured himself by recalling the fact that the greatest discovery ever made by man--namely1 the law of the attraction of gravitation--was attacked by ,leibnitz as subversive of natural1 and inferentially1 of revealed1 religion4 ,darwin was confident that1 if any such impressions were made by his theory1 they would prove but transient1 and that ultimately men would come to see that it is just as noble a conception of the ,deity to believe that ,he created a few original forms capable of self-development into other and needful forms as to believe that it required the fresh act of creation to supply the voids caused by the action of ,his laws4 ,,iv4 ,it was1 as we have said1 in #ahfh that ,darwin published the two volumes collectively entitled ,variation of ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication4 ,it is the second and largely corrected edition brought out in #ahge which we have under our eye4 ,it is the outcome of the views maintained by the author in this work and elsewhere that not only the various domestic races but the most distinct genera and orders within the same great class--for instance1 mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 and fishes--are all the descendants of one common progenitor1 and the whole vast amount of difference between these forms has primarily arisen from simple variability4 ,darwin recognized that he who for the first time should consider the subject under this point of view would be struck dumb with amazement4 ,he submits1 however1 that the amazement ought to be lessened when we reflect that beings almost infinite in number during an almost infinite lapse of time have often had their whole organization rendered in some degree plastic1 and that each slight modification of structure which was in any way beneficial under excessively complex conditions of life has been preserved1 whilst each which was in any way injurious has been rigorously destroyed4 ,the long-continued accumulation of beneficial variations will infallibly have led to structures as diversified1 as beautifully adapted for various purposes1 and as excellently co-ordinated as we see in the animals and plants around us4 ,hence ,darwin regards selection as the paramount power1 whether applied by man to the formation of domestic beings or by nature to the production of species4 ,employing a favorite metaphor1 he said3 ,if an architect were to rear a noble and commodious edifice without the use of cut stone1 by selecting from the fragments at the base of a precipice wedge-form stones for his arches1 elongated stones for his lintels1 and flat stones for his roof1 we should admire his skill and regard him as the paramount power4 ,now1 the fragments of stone1 though indispensable to the architect1 bear to the edifice built by him the same relation which the fluctuating variations of organic beings bear to the varied and admirable structures ultimately acquired by their modified descendants4 ,some critics of the ,darwinian theory of the origin of species have declared that natural selection explains nothing1 unless the precise cause of each slight individual difference be made clear4 ,darwin rejoins that if it were explained to a savage utterly ignorant of the art of building how the edifice had been raised1 stone upon stone1 and why wedge-formed fragments were used for the arches1 flat stones for the roof1 etc42 and if the use of each part and of the whole building were pointed out1--it would be unreasonable if he declared that nothing had been made clear to him1 because the precise cause of the shape of each fragment could not be told4 ,this1 in ,darwin's opinion1 is a nearly parallel case1 with the objection that selection explains nothing because we know not the cause of each individual difference in the structure of each being4 ,the shape of the fragments of stone at the base of the hypothetical precipice may be called accidental1 but the term is not strictly applicable2 for the shape of each depends on a long sequence of events1 all obeying natural laws2 on the nature of the rock1 on the lines of deposition or cleavage1 on the form of the mountain1 which depends on its upheaval and subsequent denudation1 and1 lastly1 on the storm or earthquake which throws down the fragments4 ,in regard to the use1 however1 to which the fragments may be put1 their shape may be strictly said to be accidental4 ,here ,darwin acknowledged that we are brought face to face with a great difficulty in alluding to which he felt that he was travelling beyond his proper province4 ,an omniscient ,creator must have foreseen every consequence which results from the laws imposed by ,him4 ,but can it be reasonably maintained that the ,creator intentionally ordered1 if we use the words in any ordinary sense1 that certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes1 so that the builder might erect his edifice8 ,if the various laws which have determined the shape of each fragment were not predetermined for the builder's sake1 can it be maintained with any greater probability that ,he specially ordained for the sake of the breeder each of the innumerable variations in our domestic animals and plants1--many of these variations being of no service to man1 and not beneficial1 far more often injurious1 to the creatures themselves8 ,did ,he ordain that the crop and tail-feathers of the pigeon should vary in order that the fancier might make his grotesque pouter and fan-tail breeds8 ,did ,he cause the frame and mental qualities of the dog to vary in order that a breed might be formed of indomitable ferocity with jaws fitted to pin down the bull for man's brutal sport8 ,it is obvious1 however1 that if we give up the principle in one case1--if we do not admit that the variations of the primeval dog were intentionally guided in order that the greyhound1 for instance1 that perfect image of symmetry and vigor1 might be formed1--no shadow of reason can be assigned for the belief that variations similar in nature and the result of the same general laws which have been the groundwork through natural selection of the formation of the most perfectly adapted animals in the world1 man included1 were intentionally and specially guided4 ,darwin1 therefore1 was unable to follow the distinguished botanist1 ,prof4 ,asa ,gray1 in his belief that variation has been led along certain beneficial lines1 like a stream along definite and useful lines of irrigation4 ,darwin's conclusion was that1 if we assume that each particular variation was from the beginning of all time preordained1 then that plasticity of organization which leads to many injurious deviations of structure1 as well as the redundant power of reproduction which inevitably leads to a struggle for existence1 and1 as a consequence1 to a natural selection or survival of the fittest1 must appear to us superfluous laws of nature4 ,v4 ,next to the ,origin of ,species1 the volume which sets forth ,darwin's theory of the ,descent of ,man naturally excited the most widespread attention4 ,this book1 which took the author three years to write1 was published in #ahga1 a second and carefully revised edition appearing three years later4 ,the data brought together occupy more than six hundred pages4 ,the conclusions reached may be summed up in a few paragraphs4 ,the principal induction from the evidence is that man is descended from some less highly organized form4 ,it was ,darwin's conviction that the grounds upon which this conclusion rests will never be shaken1 for the close similarity between man and the lower animals in embryonic development1 as well as in innumerable points of structure and constitution1 both of high and of the most trifling importance1--the rudiments which he retains and the abnormal reversions to which he is occasionally liable1--are facts which cannot be disputed4 ,viewed in the light of our knowledge of the whole organic world1 their meaning is unmistakable4 ,the great principle of evolution stands out clear and firm when these groups of facts are considered in connection with others1 such as the mutual affinities of the members of the same group1 their geographical distribution in past and present times1 and their geological succession4 ,it is pronounced incredible that all these facts should speak falsely4 ,he who is not content to look like a savage at the phenomena of nature as disconnected cannot any longer believe that man is the product of a separate act of creation4 ,he will be forced to admit that the close resemblance of the embryo of man to that1 for instance1 of a dog1--the construction of his skull1 limbs1 and whole frame on the same plan with that of other mammals1 independently of the uses to which the parts may be put2 the occasional reappearance of various structures1 for instance1 of several muscles which man does not normally possess1 but which are common to the ,quadrumana1 and a crowd of analogous facts1--all point in the plainest manner to the conclusion that man is the co-descendant with other mammals of a common progenitor4 ,darwin recognized that the high standard of our intellectual powers and moral disposition constitutes the greatest difficulty which presents itself after we have been driven by the mass of biological evidence to accept his conclusion as to the origin of man4 ,touching this point1 he observes3 ,every one who admits the principle of evolution must see that the mental powers of the higher animals1 which are the same in kind with those of man1 though so different in degree1 are capable of advancement4 ,thus the interval between the mental powers of one of the higher apes and of a fish1 or between those of an ant and scale-insect1 is immense2 yet their development does not offer any special difficulty1 for with our domesticated animals the mental faculties are certainly variable1 and the variations are inherited4 ,no one doubts that their mental faculties are of the utmost importance to animals in a state of nature4 ,therefore the conditions are favorable for their development through natural selection4 ,the same conclusion may be extended to man2 the intellect must have been all-important to him1 even at a very remote period1 as enabling him to invent and use language1 to make weapons1 tools1 traps1 etc41 whereby1 with the aid of his social habits1 he long ago became the most dominant of all living creatures4 ,it is further pointed out that a great stride in the development of man's intellect must have followed as soon as the half-art and half-instinct of language came into use2 for the continued use of language must have reacted on the brain1 and produced an inherited effect1 and this again will have reacted on the improvement of language4 ,the largeness of the brain in man relatively to his body1 compared with the size of that organ in the lower animals1 is attributable in chief part to the early use of some simple form of language1 that engine which affixes signs to all sorts of objects and qualities1 and excites trains of thought which would never arise from the mere impression of the senses1 or1 if they did arise1 could not be followed out4 ,the higher intellectual powers of man1 such as those of ratiocination1 abstraction1 self-consciousness1 etc41 probably follow from the continued improvement and exercise of the other mental faculties4 ,how man's moral qualities came to be developed is an interesting problem which is considered by ,darwin at some length4 ,he holds that their foundation lies in the social instincts under which term are included family ties4 ,these instincts are highly complex1 and1 in the case of the lower animals1 give special tendencies toward certain definite actions4 ,but the more important elements are love and the distinct emotion of sympathy4 ,animals endowed with the social instincts take pleasure in one another's company1 warn one another of danger1 defend and aid one another in many ways4 ,these instincts do not extend to all the individuals of the species1 but only to those of the same community4 ,as1 however1 they are highly beneficial to the species1 they have in all probability been acquired through natural selection4 ,in ,darwin's judgment the moral nature of man has reached its present standard partly through the advancement of his reasoning powers1 and consequently1 of a just public opinion1 but especially from his sympathies having been rendered more tender and widely diffused through the effects of habit1 example1 instruction1 and reflection4 ,it is pronounced not improbable that1 after long practice1 virtuous tendencies may be inherited4 ,let us look a little more closely at the matter1 for the difficulty of explaining morality forms one of the greatest obstacles to the acceptance of the ,darwinian account of the descent of man4 ,what do we mean by a moral being8 ,manifestly1 a moral being is one who is capable of reflecting on his past actions and their motives1 and of approving of some while he disapproves of others4 ,man is the one being who certainly deserves this designation1 though attempts have recently been made to show that a rudimentary morality may be traced in some of the lower animals4 ,in the fourth chapter of the book before us1 ,darwin undertakes to demonstrate that the moral sense follows1--first1 from the enduring and ever-present nature of the social instincts2 secondly1 from man's appreciation of the approbation and disapprobation of his fellows2 and1 thirdly1 from the high activity of his mental faculties1 with past impressions extremely vivid2 in these latter respects he differs from the lower animals4 ,owing to this condition of mind1 man cannot avoid looking both backwards and forwards1 and comparing past impressions4 ,hence1 after some temporary desire or passion has mastered his social instincts1 he reflects and compares the now weakened impression of such past impulses with the ever-present social instincts2 and he then feels that sense of dissatisfaction which all unsatisfied instincts leave behind them1 and resolves to act differently for the future4 ,this dissatisfaction ,darwin would identify with conscience4 ,any instinct permanently stronger or more enduring than another gives rise to a feeling which we express by saying that it ought to be obeyed4 ,darwin suggests that a pointer dog1 if able to reflect on his past conduct1 would say to himself ,i ought 7as indeed we say of him7 to have pointed at that hare1 and not have yielded to the passing temptation of hunting it4 ,the belief in ,god has often been advanced as not only the greatest1 but the most decisive1 of all the distinctions between man and the lower animals4 ,darwin brings forward in the book before us a quantity of reasons for holding it to be impossible that this belief is innate or instinctive in man4 ,in some races of men1 for instance1 we encounter a total want of the idea of ,god4 ,on the other hand1 a belief in all-pervading spiritual agencies seems to be universal1 and apparently follows from a considerable advance in man's reason1 and from a still greater advance in the faculties of imagination1 curiosity1 and wonder4 ,i am aware1 says ,darwin1 that the assumed instinctive belief in ,god has been used by many persons as an argument for ,his existence4 ,but this is a rash argument1 as we should thus be compelled to believe in the existence of many cruel and malignant spirits only a little more powerful than man2 for the belief in them is far more general than in a beneficent deity4 ,the idea of a universal and beneficent ,creator does not seem to arise in the mind of man until he has been elevated by long-continued culture4 ,how does the belief in the advancement of man from some low organized form bear on the belief in the immortality of the soul8 ,sir ,john ,lubbock has proved that the barbarous races of man possess no clear belief of the kind2 but1 as ,darwin continually reminds us1 arguments derived from the primeval beliefs of savages are of little or no avail on either side of a question4 ,attention is directed by ,darwin to the more relevant fact that few persons feel any anxiety from the impossibility of determining at what precise period in the development of the individual1 from the first trace of a minute germinal vesicle1 man becomes an immortal being4 ,he submits that there should be no greater cause for anxiety because the period cannot possibly be determined in the gradually ascending organic scale4 ,darwin was well aware that the conclusions arrived at in the work before us--namely1 that man is descended from some lowly organized form--would be highly distasteful to many4 ,the very persons1 however1 who regard the conclusions with distaste admit without hesitation that they are descended from barbarians4 ,darwin recalls the astonishment which he himself felt on first seeing a party of ,fuegians on a wild and broken shore1 when the reflection rushed upon his mind that such men had been his ancestors4 ,these men were absolutely naked and bedaubed with paint1 their long hair was tangled1 their mouths frothed with excitement1 and their expression was wild1 startled1 and distrustful4 ,they possessed hardly any arts1 and1 like wild animals1 lived on what they could catch2 they had no government1 and were merciless to every one not of their own small tribe4 ,remembering the impression made on him by the ,fuegians1 ,darwin suggests that he who has seen a savage in his native land will not feel much shame if forced to acknowledge that the blood of some more humble creature flows in his veins4 ,for my own part1 he says1 ,i would as soon be descended from that heroic little monkey who braved his dreaded enemy in order to save the life of his keeper1--or from that old baboon1 who1 descending from the mountains1 carried away in triumph his young comrade from a crowd of astonished dogs1--as from a savage who delights to torture his enemies1 offers up bloody sacrifices1 practises infanticide without remorse1 treats his wives like slaves1 knows no decency1 and is haunted by the grossest superstitions4 ,darwin holds1 in fine1 that man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen1 though not through his own exertions1 to the very summit of the organic scale2 it is further submitted that the fact of his having thus risen1 instead of having been aboriginally placed there1 may give him hope for a still higher destiny in the distant future4 ,as a scientist1 however1 ,darwin is not concerned with hopes or fears1 but simply with the truth1 as man's reason enables him to discern it4 ,we must recognize1 he thinks1 as the truth1 established by an overwhelming array of inductive evidence1 that man1 with all his noble qualities1 with sympathy which he feels for the most debased1 with benevolence which extends not only to other men1 but to the humblest living creature1 with his godlike intellect1 which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system--with all these exalted powers--man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin4 ,,vi4 ,we have said that ,darwin's theory of the origin of species1 together with its corollary1 the descent of man1 has met with almost universal acceptance by scientists4 ,we have to use the qualifying adverb1 because some of ,darwin's contemporaries1 including ,virchow and ,owen1 not to mention ,st4 ,george ,mivart and the ,duke of ,argyll1 have withheld their adhesion4 ,since his death1 moreover1 his disciples have tended to split into two schools4 ,on the one hand1 ,weismann has rejected the ,lamarckian factors1--the effect of use and disuse upon organs1 and the transmissibility of acquired characters4 ,the importance of these factors has been emphatically re-asserted1 on the other hand1 by ,lankester and others4 ,whether biologists1 however1 range themselves in the ,neo-,darwinian or in the ,neo-,lamarckian camp1 the value of the principle of natural selection is acknowledged by all1 and nobody now asserts the independent creation and permanence of species4 ,,authorities4 ,the ,complete ,works of ,darwin1 published by ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,the ,works of ,alfred ,russel ,wallace4 ,francis ,darwin's ,life of ,charles ,darwin4 ,huxley's ,writings1 passim4 ,haeckel's ,natural ,history of ,creation4 ,weismann's ,studies in the ,theory of ,descent and subsequent papers4 ,romanes's ,scientific ,evidences of ,organic ,evolution4 ,lankester's ,degeneration4 ,fiske's ,darwinism and ,other ,essays4 ,for adverse criticism of ,darwin1 read ,mivart's ,genesis of ,species1 and the ,duke of ,argyll's ,unity of ,nature4 ,,john ,,ericsson4 #ahjc-ahhi4 ,,navies ,,of ,,war ,,and ,,commerce4 ,,by ,w4,f4 ,,durand1 ,,ph4,d4 ,the exact combination of inspiration1 heredity1 and environment which serves to produce genius will perhaps ever be a problem beyond the skill of human intelligence4 ,when the rare elements do combine1 however1 the result is always worthy of most careful study1 both because great achievements furnish a healthy stimulus to emulation1 and because some glimpse may be gained of ,nature's working in the formation of her rarest products4 ,few lives better illustrate these remarks than that of ,john ,ericsson4 ,born of middle-class parentage and with no apparent source of heredity from which to draw the stores of genius which he displayed throughout his life1 and with surroundings in boyhood but little calculated to awaken and inspire the life-work which later made him famous1 from this beginning and with these early surroundings ,john ,ericsson became unquestionably the greatest of the engineers of the age in which he lived and of the century which witnessed such mighty advances along all engineering lines4 ,the imprint left by ,ericsson's life on the engineering practice of his age was deep and lasting1 and if one may dare look into the future1 the day is far removed when engineers will have passed beyond their dependence on his life and labors4 ,it is perhaps not amiss that1 before looking more closely at the achievements of ,ericsson's life and activity1 note should be taken of the large dependence of our present civilization and mode of life on the engineer and his work4 ,in different ages of the world's history each has received its name1 appropriate or fanciful as the case may have been4 ,for the modern age no name is perhaps more adequately descriptive than the ,age of ,energy1 the age in which our entire fabric of civilization rests upon the utilization of the energies of nature for the needs of humanity1 and to an extent little appreciated by those who have not considered the matter from this point of view4 ,if we consider the various elements which enter into our modern civilization1--the items which enter into the daily life of the average man or woman2 the items which we have come to consider as necessities and those which we may consider as luxuries2 the items which go to make up our needs as expressed in terms of shelter1 food1 intercommunication between man and his fellow1 and pleasure1--the most casual consideration of such will serve to show distributed throughout almost the entire fabric of our civilization dependence at some point on the power of the steam-engine1 the water-wheel1 or windmill1 the subtle electric current1 or the heat-energy of coal1 petroleum oil1 or natural gas4 ,the harnessing and efficient utilization of these great natural energies is the direct function of the engineer1 or more especially of the dynamic engineer1 and in this noble guild of workers1 ,ericsson carved for himself an enduring place and left behind a record which should serve as an inspiration to all who are following the same pathway in later years4 ,no one feature perhaps better differentiates our modern civilization from that of earlier times1 four hundred years ago1 or even one hundred1 than that of intercommunication between man and his fellow4 ,compare the opportunities for such intercommunication in the present with those in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 ,george ,washington1 or ,napoleon ,i4 ,we now have our steamships1 steam and electric railroads1 cable1 telegraph1 and telephone4 ,a few years ago not a single one was known4 ,the modern age is one which demands the utmost in the possibility of communication between man and his kind1 and in this respect the wide world is now smaller than the confines of an ,english county a century ago4 ,in this field1 as we shall see1 ,ericsson did some of his greatest work1 and left perhaps his most permanent record for the future4 ,ericsson's life falls most naturally into three periods chronologically or geographically1 and likewise into three periods professionally1 though the latter mode of subdivision has by no means the same boundaries as the former4 ,the first mode of subdivision gives us the life in ,sweden1 the life in ,england1 and the life in the ,united ,states4 ,the second mode gives us the life of struggle and obscurity1 the life of struggle1 achievement1 and recognition1 and the calmer and easier life of declining years with recognition1 reward1 and the assurance of a life's work well done4 ,john ,ericsson was born in the province of ,vermland1 ,sweden1 in #ahjc4 ,his father was ,olof ,ericsson1 a mine owner and inspector who was well educated after the standard of his times1 having graduated at the college in ,karlstad1 the principal town of the province4 ,his mother was ,britta ,sophia ,yngstrom1 a woman of ,flemish-,scotch descent1 and to whom ,ericsson seems to have owed many of his stronger characteristics4 ,three children were born3 ,caroline in #ahjj1 ,nils in #ahjb1 and ,john in #ahjc4 ,of ,john's earliest boyhood we have but slight record1 but there seems to have been a clear foreshadowing of his future genius4 ,he was considered the wonder of the neighborhood1 and busied himself day after day with the machinery of the mines1 drawing the form on paper with his rude tools or making models with bits of wood and cord1 and endeavoring thus to trace the mystery of its operation4 ,in #ahaa the ,ericsson family fell upon evil times4 ,due to a war with ,russia1 business became disturbed and in the end ,olof ,ericsson became financially ruined4 ,this brought the little family face to face with the realities of life1 and we soon after find the father occupying a position as inspector on the ,gta ,canal1 a project which was just then occupying serious attention after having been neglected for nearly one hundred years1 and nearly three hundred years after it was first proposed in #aebf4 ,through this connection1 in #ahae1 ,john and ,nils ,ericsson were appointed as cadets in a corps of ,mechanical ,engineers to be employed in carrying out the ,government's plans with reference to the canal4 ,during the winter of #ahaf-ag and at the age of thirteen1 ,john ,ericsson received regular instruction from some of his officers in ,algebra1 ,chemistry1 ,field ,drawing1 and ,geometry1 and the ,english language4 ,ericsson's education previous to this seems to have consisted chiefly in lessons at home or from tutors1 after the manner of the time4 ,he had thus received instruction in the ordinary branches and in drawing and some chemistry4 ,his training in drawing seems to have been unusually thorough and comprehensive1 and with a natural genius for such work1 his later remarkable skill at the drawing board is doubtless in no small measure due to the excellent instruction which he received in his early years4 ,his progress in his duties as a young engineer was rapid1 and he was soon given employment in connection with the canal-work1 involving much responsibility and calling for experience and skill4 ,at length on reaching the age of seventeen he became stirred with military ambition1 and1 dissatisfied with his present prospects1 he left his position with its opportunities for the future1 and entered the ,swedish army as ensign of a regiment of ,field ,chasseurs4 ,this regiment was famous for its rifle practice1 and ,ericsson was soon one of its most expert marksmen4 ,the routine of army life was1 however1 far from being sufficient to satisfy the uneasy genius of ,john ,ericsson1 and we soon find him engaged in topographical surveying for the ,government1 and so rapid and industrious in his work that as the surveyors were paid in accordance with the amount accomplished1 he was carried on the pay rolls as two men1 and paid as such1 in order that the amount which he received might not seem too excessive for one individual4 ,even this was not sufficient to exhaust his energy1 and about this time he conceived the idea of publishing a book of plates descriptive of the machinery commonly employed in the mining operations of his day4 ,to this end he collected a large number of sketches which he had prepared in his earlier years1 and made arrangements to take up the work of preparation for publication4 ,the drawings selected were to be engraved for the book1 and1 nothing daunted by the undertaking1 ,ericsson proposed to do this work himself4 ,after some discouragement the engraving was undertaken1 and eighteen copper plates of the sixty-five selected1 averaging in size fifteen by twenty inches1 were completed within a year4 ,in various ways the project met with delays1 and it soon became apparent that the rapid advance in the applications of machinery to mining would render the work out of date1 and it was at length abandoned4 ,at about this time ,ericsson seems to have taken up seriously his work on his so-called flame-engine1 certain experiments made by his father having suggested to him the hope that a source of power might in this way be developed which would be more economical than the steam-engine4 ,at this point we see entering into ,ericsson's life an idea which never left him1 which controlled much of his work in mid-life1 and which attracted no small part of his attention throughout his closing years4 ,this idea was the discovery of some form of heat-engine which should be more economical than the steam-engine1 especially as it was in his day4 ,the flame-engine idea grew rapidly1 and soon absorbed his chief attention4 ,military life now lost its attraction1 and in #ahbf obtaining leave of absence he left his native land and turned his face toward ,london1 doubtless with the hope strong within him that a substitute for the steam-engine had been found1 and that his future lay secure and easy before him4 ,the characteristic features of ,ericsson's life up to this time1 when he had reached his twenty-third year1 are energy1 industry1 independence1 all in most pronounced degree1 and combined with a most astonishing insight into mechanical and scientific questions4 ,it was not a period of achievement1 but one of formation and of development in those qualities which were soon to make him famous in both worlds4 ,of his work during this period of life little or nothing outside the idea embodied in the flame-engine can be said to belong to the permanent record of his life's achievement4 ,this appeared in the ,caloric engine1 and still later in the well-known ,ericsson ,air engine of the present day4 ,this era was one of development and promise1 and richly were the promises fulfilled in the achievements of his later years4 ,a careful study of his life to this point is sufficient to show that1 with health and time1 such a nature would certainly leave a mark wide and deep on the world in which it was placed4 ,his characteristics were such that achievement was the very essence of life1 and1 with the promise and potency as revealed in this first twenty-three years of his life1 we may be well prepared for the brilliant record of the remaining sixty-three4 ,with ,ericsson's arrival in ,london began the second important period of his life4 ,his first efforts were directed toward the introduction of the flame-engine1 but he soon found unexpected difficulties in the use of coal as fuel instead of wood1 and it became clear that in order to live he must turn his attention to other matters for a time4 ,then followed a series of remarkable pieces of work in which ,ericsson's genius showed itself1 either in original invention or in the adaptation and improvement of the existing facts and material of engineering practice4 ,while thus occupied1 his leave from his regiment expired1 and he seems to have overlooked taking proper steps to have it renewed4 ,he was thus placed technically in the attitude of a deserter4 ,through the intervention of a friend1 however1 he was soon afterward restored1 and promoted to the rank of ,captain in the ,swedish ,army4 ,this commission he immediately resigned1 and thus his record became technically cleared of all reproach4 ,to give a mere list of the work with which ,ericsson was occupied during the years from #ahbg to #ahci1 when he removed to the ,united ,states1 would be no small task1 and reference to the more important only can be here made4 ,compressed air for transmitting power1 forced draft for boilers by means of centrifugal blowers1 steam boilers of new and improved types1 the surface condenser for marine engines1 the location of the engines of a ship for war purposes below the water line1 the steam fire-engine1 the design and construction of the ,novelty 7a locomotive for the ,rainhill contest in #ahbi1 when ,stephenson's ,rocket was awarded the prize1 though ,ericsson1 heavily handicapped in time and by lack of a track on which to adjust and perfect the ,novelty1 achieved a result apparently in many ways superior to ,stephenson's with the ,rocket71 various designs for rotary engines1 an apparatus for making salt from brine1 further experimental work with various forms of heat1 or so-called caloric engines1 and the final development1 in #ahcc1 of a type from which great results were for a time expected1 superheated steam and engines for its use1 a deep-sea-sounding apparatus embodying the same principle as that later developed by ,lord ,kelvin in the well-known apparatus of the present day1 a machine for cutting files automatically1 various types of steam-engines1 and finally his work in connection with the introduction of the screw-propeller as a means of propulsion for steam vessels4 ,these are some of the important lines of work on which ,ericsson was engaged during the twelve years of his life in ,london4 ,in connection with some he was undoubtedly a pioneer1 and deserves credit as an original inventor2 in connection with others1 his work was that of improvement or adaptation2 but in all his influence was profound1 and the legacy which we have received from this period of engineering progress is due in no small degree to ,ericsson1 and to his work in ,london during these years4 ,at a later point we shall refer in some further detail to these questions1 but desire for the moment1 rather1 to gain a broad and comprehensive view of his life as a whole4 ,ericsson has been by some called a spendthrift in invention1 and the term is not without some justice in its application4 ,his genius was uneasy1 and his mind was oppressed by the wealth of his ideas4 ,it was this very wealth which led him from one idea to another1 without always taking sufficient time in which to develop and perfect his plans4 ,rich in invention1 he cared but little for exploitation1 and when the truth of his predictions was demonstrated1 or the ground of his expectation justified1 he was eager for new achievements and new combinations of the materials of engineering progress4 ,in this spirit of struggle and unrest1 he passed the years in ,london1 rapidly becoming known for his versatility in invention1 and for his daring and originality in the details of his engineering work4 ,from #ahcc to #ahci1 or during the second half of this term of residence in ,london1 he became in increasing measure absorbed in his work connected with the screw-propeller as a means of marine propulsion4 ,ericsson's name in the popular mind has been most commonly associated with the ,monitor and her fight with the ,merrimac in the ,civil ,war1 and next1 probably1 with the screw-propeller as a means of marine propulsion4 ,it will1 therefore1 be proper at the present point to refer in some further detail to the circumstances connected with his relation to the introduction of the screw-propeller4 ,regarding this question an entire volume might be written without doing more than justice to the subject1 but only a brief statement of the chief facts can be here attempted4 ,as early as the ,seventeenth ,century the possibility of developing a propulsive thrust by the use of a submerged helicoidal1 or screw1 propeller1 had been vaguely recognized1 and during the following1 or ,eighteenth ,century1 the same idea had been brought forward4 ,it had been viewed in this connection1 however1 merely as a curiosity1 and led to no immediate results4 ,later1 in #ahjd1 ,francis ,b4 ,stevens1 of ,new ,jersey1 in an experimental boat on the ,hudson1 operated twin screws1 and demonstrated their applicability to the requirements of marine practice4 ,these propellers1 in fact1 had a form far more nearly approaching the modern screw-propeller than did those which came somewhat later1 and which marked the real entry of the screw-propeller into actual and practical service4 ,again1 in #ahab1 ,ressel1 a student in the ,university of ,vienna1 began to study the screw-propeller1 and his first drawing dates from this time4 ,in #ahbf he carried on experiments in a barge driven by hand1 and in #ahbg an ,austrian patent was granted him4 ,two years later he applied his screw to a boat with an engine of six horse-power1 and a speed of six miles per hour was said to have been attained4 ,then came a bursting steam-pipe1 and the police put a stop to the experiments1 which seem to have had no further results4 ,likewise in #ahbc ,captain ,delisle1 of the ,french ,engineers1 presented a memorial to his ,government in which he urged the use of the submerged propeller for the propulsion of steam vessels4 ,no especial attention was given to the suggestion1 however1 and it was apparently forgotten until later1 when the propeller had become a demonstrated success4 ,then this memorial was remembered1 and its author brought forward to receive his share of credit in connection with the adaptation of the propeller to marine propulsion4 ,these various attempts to introduce the screw-propeller seem curiously enough to have had no lasting result4 ,they were not followed up1 and in the mean time had to some extent passed out of memory1 or1 if remembered1 the absence of result can hardly have acted as an incentive to fresh effort4 ,at the same time it must be admitted that the screw-propeller as a possibility for marine propulsion was known in a vague way to the engineering practice of the day1 and it is at this time of course quite impossible to say how much may have been known by ,ericsson1 ,smith1 or others concerned in later developments1 or to what extent they may have been dependent for suggestion on what had preceded them4 ,the question of who invented the screw-propeller in the absolute sense is entirely futile and without answer4 ,no one could ever have reasonably advanced any such unique claim4 ,at the best it is simply a question of the relative influence in the introduction1 improvement1 and practical application of what was the common property of the engineering practice of the day4 ,in #ahcc1 or at the period now under consideration1 however1 the paddle-wheel was the recognized instrument of marine propulsion4 ,since the beginning of the century it had been growing in use with the gradual growth in the application of steam1 and at this time it held the field alone4 ,some years earlier it appears that some of the objections to the paddle-wheel had become plainly apparent to ,ericsson1 although1 occupied with other matters as he was1 there was no immediate result4 ,he apparently recognized that the slow revolutions possible with the paddle-wheel did not favor the improvement of the steam-engine along the lines which have since been followed1 and he saw clearly that for warship purposes the engines employed1 exposed above the water-line to destruction from the shell of an enemy1 were entirely out of the question4 ,finally in #ahcc and #ahcd we find him employed by a carrying company in ,london to conduct numerous trials with submerged propellers in the ,london and ,birmingham canal4 ,in an affidavit made in ,march1 #ahde1 he states that in #ahcc his attention was particularly called to the subject of oblique propulsion1 and that under his direction propellers of various patterns and embodying these principles were fitted on a canal-boat named the ,francis1 and later in #ahcd to another called the ,annatorius4 ,shortly after this1 or in #ahce1 his ideas took more definite form1 and he refers to his work in a letter to his friend ,john ,bourne in the following terms3-- #ahce4 ,designed a rotary propeller to be actuated by steam-power consisting of a series of segments of a screw attached to a thin broad hoop supported by arms so twisted as also to form part of a screw4 ,the propeller subsequently applied to the steamship ',princeton' was identical with my said design of #ahce4 ,even the mode adopted to determine1 by geometrical construction1 the twist of the blades and arms of the ',princeton's' and other propellers was identical with my design of the year last mentioned4 ,at about this same time1 or in #ahce1 the attention of ,mr4 ,f4,p4 ,smith seems to have been drawn to the subject of the screw-propeller1 and we find him taking out a patent for his form1 consisting of an elongated helix or spiral of several turns1 under date of ,may #ca1 #ahcf4 ,ericsson's patent followed some six weeks later1 or on ,july #ac1 #ahcf4 ,while it thus appears that ,ericsson had been studying the problem since #ahcc or earlier1 according to his own statements1 there is no evidence that ,smith's attention was drawn to the matter earlier than #ahce4 ,delay on ,ericsson's part in the matter of patent gives the earlier date to ,smith4 ,the mere date of a patent1 however1 is of small moment for our present purposes4 ,it must be admitted that the modern form of screw-propeller is quite unlike either of these original forms1 although they all involve of course the same fundamental principles4 ,ericsson's propeller may properly be called an engineering success1 built on sound principles1 but improved and largely modified by the results of later experience and research4 ,smith's propeller1 while capable of propelling a boat1 was the design of an amateur rather than of an engineer1 and in comparison with ,ericsson's seemed to show a somewhat less accurate appreciation of the underlying principles upon which the propeller operates4 ,in the present case1 as we have noted above1 the question is not so much one of invention as of influence in introduction1 adaptation1 and improvement4 ,the screw-propeller was already known1 but had not been introduced into and made a part of actual engineering practice4 ,services in this direction are all that can be claimed for any of those concerned with the question during the third decade of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,from this point of view we must give to ,ericsson large credit4 ,he had the courage of his convictions1 and did not allow his work in this direction to lapse for lack of effort on his part to secure its introduction into the practice of the day4 ,thus1 in #ahcg1 the ,francis ,b4 ,ogden was built for the special purpose of testing the power of the screw-propeller1 and was operated on the ,thames for the benefit of the ,british ,admiralty and many others4 ,shortly after this1 and largely through the influence of ,capt4 ,robert ,f4 ,stockton of the ,american ,navy and ,francis ,b4 ,ogden1 the ,american ,consul at ,liverpool1 ,ericsson began to consider a visit to the ,united ,states for the purpose of building1 under ,stockton's auspices1 a vessel for the ,united ,states ,navy4 ,while these negotiations were under way1 in #ahch1 he built for ,captain ,stockton a screw-steamer named the ,robert ,f4 ,stockton1 the trials of which attracted much attention from the public at large and from engineers of the time4 ,at about the same period ,ericsson's propeller was fitted to a canal-boat called the ,novelty1 plying between ,manchester and ,london4 ,this was presumably the first instance of a screw-propeller employed on a vessel actually used for commercial purposes4 ,finally1 in pursuance of ,ericsson's plans with ,captain ,stockton1 he left ,england ,nov4 #a1 #ahci1 and started for ,new ,york in the steamer ,great ,western1 where he arrived ,november #bc1 after a long and stormy passage4 ,we now reach the final scene of ,ericsson's life and professional activities4 ,his visit was at first intended only as temporary1 and he seems to have anticipated an early return after carrying out his plans with reference to a ship for the ,united ,states ,navy4 ,to quote from a letter to his friend1 ,mr4 ,john ,o4 ,sargent1 he says3 ,i visited this country at ,mr4 ,ogden's most earnest solicitations to introduce my propeller on the canals and inland waters of the ,united ,states4 ,i had at the same time strong reasons for supposing that ,stockton would be able to start the 'big frigate' for which ,i had prepared such laborious plans in ,england4 ,the event was otherwise determined1 however1 and during the remaining fifty years of his life he lived and wrought in the ,new ,world1 and as a citizen of his adopted country4 ,if the record of his twelve years of work in ,london was long1 that for the remaining and maturer years of his life may well be imagined as vastly greater4 ,during the earlier part of this period1 or until the ,civil ,war1 when all his energies were concentrated upon his work in connection with the ,monitor type of warship1 we find the same wealth of invention and human energy1 but for the most part directed along lines related to marine and naval construction4 ,it was a period of training for the fuller fruitage of his genius during the ,civil ,war4 ,shortly after his arrival1 or in #ahdj1 a prize was offered by the ,mechanics' ,institute of ,new ,york for the best plan of a steam fire-engine4 ,with his previous experience in ,london1 ,ericsson easily carried off the palm and was awarded the prize4 ,he further occupied himself with the introduction of propellers on boats engaged in the inland navigation of the ,united ,states1 with the design and construction of the ,united ,states steam frigate ,princeton1 with the development of the compound principle in the steam-engine1 then in #ahea with his hot-air ship ,ericsson1 or ship propelled by hot-air or caloric engines1 as they were then termed1 and later with caloric engines in smaller sizes for stationary purposes1 of which several thousand were sold during the next succeeding years4 ,in the work of introducing his propellers good progress was made1 especially in boats built for use on the ,great ,lakes1 so that by #ahdd1 when the ,u4,s4,s4 ,princeton went into commission1 there were in use some twenty-five vessels with the screw-propeller as a means of propulsion4 ,the project of building a vessel for the ,american ,navy1 the purpose which had most strongly attracted ,ericsson to the ,united ,states1 suffered long delay in connection with the arrangements between ,captain ,stockton and the naval authorities at ,washington4 ,at length1 in #ahda1 ,captain ,stockton was authorized to proceed with the construction of a screw steam frigate of about one thousand tons4 ,this was the ,u4,s4,s4 ,princeton1 which marks an epoch as the first screw vessel-of-war4 ,she was followed by the ,french ,pomone in #ahdc1 and the ,english ,amphion in #ahdd1 for the equipment of which ,ericsson's agent in ,england1 ,count ,von ,rosen1 received commissions from the ,french and ,english governments respectively4 ,the ,princeton was completed in due time and was equipped with two #ab-;inch wrought-iron guns1 one brought by ,ericsson from ,england and one designed and built under the direction of ,captain ,stockton4 ,at the trials of the ship in #ahdd the latter gun exploded1 killing the ,secretaries of ,state and of the ,navy1 besides other prominent visitors on board1 and wounding several others4 ,this terrible disaster threw an entirely undeserved stigma upon the ship herself and upon ,ericsson's work1 and it was not until many years after that his name was entirely free from some kind of reproach in connection with the ,princeton and the deplorable results of the accident on board4 ,these are some of the principal lines of work with which ,ericsson occupied himself during the twenty-two years between #ahci and #ahfa4 ,at the latter date came the supreme opportunity of his life1 and his services in the art of naval construction during the remainder of the ,civil ,war1 which was then in progress1 are a part of the history of that great struggle4 ,here1 as with the propeller1 volumes might be written in the attempt to give a full account of the inception1 growth1 and final vindication of ,ericsson's ideas regarding naval offence and defence1 as expressed by the means available in the engineering practice of the day4 ,the leading points only can be summarized4 ,the question of armored ships was in the air4 ,the advantages of armor had been already demonstrated on the ,french ship ,gloire and others in connection with the naval part of the ,crimean ,war1 and there was a feeling that ironclads of some kind were a necessity of the situation4 ,these facts were perhaps more clearly realized at the ,south than at the ,north2 and early in #ahfa we find ,mr4 ,stephen ,r4 ,mallory1 the ,confederate ,secretary of the ,navy1 taking active steps to raise the ,merrimac1 which had been sunken at the ,norfolk ,navy ,yard1 and convert her into an armor-clad4 ,information regarding this project naturally became known to the ,federal authorities1 and occasioned ,president ,lincoln and the entire ,cabinet the most serious anxiety4 ,at length on ,august #c1 #ahfa1 the appointment of a ,board was authorized1 the duty of which it should be to examine into the question fully1 obtain plans1 and recommend the construction of such armor-clads as they should judge best suited to the demands of the situation4 ,shortly after this1 ,ericsson forwarded to ,president ,lincoln a communication in which he offered to construct a vessel for the destruction of the ,rebel fleet at ,norfolk and for scouring the ,southern rivers and inlets of all craft protected by ,rebel batteries4 ,for one reason or another this communication does not seem to have produced any immediate result4 ,later1 however1 when the ,board made its report dated ,september #af1 they registered the opinion that the present demand called for vessels invulnerable to shot1 of light draft of water1 before going into a more perfect system of large iron-clad seagoing vessels of war4 ,in pursuance of this idea they recommended the construction of three vessels1--,ericsson's floating battery1 a broadside vessel later known as the ,ironsides1 and the ,galena4 ,mr4 ,c4,s4 ,bushnell1 who was instrumental in bringing ,ericsson's plans actually before the ,board1 later associated with himself and ,ericsson in the project two gentlemen of means1 and large manufacturers of iron plate1 ,mr4 ,john ,a4 ,griswold and ,mr4 ,john ,f4 ,winslow1 who advanced most of the money needed1 ,mr4 ,bushnell supplying the remainder4 ,the keel was laid ,oct4 #be1 #ahfa1 and the ,monitor1 as she was named by ,ericsson1 was launched ,jan4 #cj1 #ahfb1 and was turned over to the ,government ,feb4 #ai1 #ahfb4 ,this brief record of construction leaves untold all history of the ceaseless struggle against time and of the superb organization and distribution of the work which made possible the completion of such a piece of work in the period of one hundred working days4 ,one important fact which goes far to explain this astonishing speed in design and construction is found in the fact that ,ericsson was not dealing with an entirely new and freshly developed proposition4 ,he has stated that the thought of a floating battery1 which should be small in size1 but impregnable to the heaviest guns known and yet heavily armed herself1 had long occupied his thoughts in connection with the problem of the defence of ,sweden4 ,ericsson never forgot his native land1 and gave to her political troubles and to the question of her defence against her more powerful neighbors much serious thought4 ,as a result of this study1 he had produced as early as #ahed a design embodying all the essential features of the ,monitor1 and this design1 shown by a model1 was in that year sent to ,napoleon ,,iii41 who was then at war with ,russia4 ,this was in the hope that he might in this way contribute to the overthrow of the latter1 the hereditary enemy of his native land4 ,the design1 however1 was not adopted1 and after it was returned was laid aside to collect the dust of his office1 until the experiences of the ,civil ,war brought it again to the light4 ,the plan in all its main features had therefore long been matured1 and it only remained to proceed rapidly with the details and with the realization of the idea in the most suitable materials to be obtained4 ,the result of the battle between the ,monitor and the ,merrimac in ,hampton ,roads is a part of history4 ,the relentless devastation which the latter had begun on the old wooden ships of the ,american ,navy at ,hampton ,roads was stayed1 and the wild fears at the ,north concerning the destruction which she might cause to the shipping and to the seaboard cities was calmed4 ,the ,merrimac met her master1 and retired from the conflict crippled and shorn of power for further evil4 ,a short time later she sank beneath the waters of the ,chesapeake1 and is now remembered only as the antagonist of the ,monitor4 ,if the result of this battle between the ,monitor and the ,merrimac marked a turning-point in the naval aspect of the ,civil ,war1 it wrought a no less marked change in the standing and fortunes of her designer4 ,some of his engineering efforts had not met with the success for which he or his friends had hoped4 ,the engines of the air-ship1 while a success as a piece of mechanism1 were so enormous and heavy that she had to be considered as a commercial failure1 and the venture was not repeated2 the deplorable accident on the ,princeton was by some held to be in part chargeable to ,ericsson1 though a later and full knowledge of the circumstances shows that such was in no wise the case4 ,again1 ,ericsson1 as an experimenter and pioneer1 was by some considered as a dreamer1 and before the ,monitor was completed there was no lack of croakers who prophesied failure or who openly ridiculed the idea4 ,this condition was of course natural4 ,in many ways ,ericsson was ahead of his age2 and1 again1 it must not be supposed that he avoided mistakes or that all of his work fully realized the expectations which were based upon it4 ,furthermore1 ,ericsson's spirit was proud1 and he was little disposed to accept criticism from those whom he felt to be unqualified to pass adequate judgment on his work1 while he was especially impatient under the system by which government work was done4 ,he was therefore but little disposed to pleasantly submit to the exasperating delays and interferences with his work which arose from the methods of doing public business1 and it is no more than the simple truth to say that during the preceding years the relations between ,ericsson and the officials of the ,navy ,department had often become seriously strained1 and they were seldom in cordial accord regarding the various questions which arose in connection with his public work4 ,with the demonstration made by the ,monitor1 however1 the attitude of the public changed in a moment1 and ,ericsson was hailed on every hand as a public benefactor4 ,he received the thanks of ,congress on ,march #bh1 #ahfb1 and of the ,legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york a little later4 ,besides these1 he was the recipient of numbers of memorials and mementoes1 and of such praise in every form as might well have disturbed the equilibrium of a mind less well balanced4 ,in all this change of public opinion1 the one thing which must have given him the deepest satisfaction was the change in the attitude of the naval authorities at ,washington4 ,he was now considered as one whose ideas had demonstrated their right to serious and respectful attention1 and a large fleet of vessels of the monitor type was ordered1 similar to but larger than the prototype1 and containing such minor changes as experience had suggested4 ,yet even this was not accomplished without objection4 ,the officers of the navy were accustomed to the old type of wooden ship1 and were slow to realize that naval war was1 after all1 an engineering problem1 and that the ideas of the engineer must now be substituted for those which had been sanctified by long ages of past experience4 ,still1 the demonstration was too convincing to admit of serious question1 and ,ericsson and his associates in business were busily occupied during the remainder of the war in the design and construction of a numerous fleet of vessels of the monitor type4 ,ericsson's work during this period was enormous4 ,one design followed another in quick succession1 while work of supervision and inspection and cares of a business nature all combined to make a burden which would have broken down a nature less determined and self-centred1 and a body less inured to physical endurance and sustained nervous tension4 ,this prodigious load was not so much but that he found time to devote to the needs of other nations1 and in #ahfb he offered to construct for the ,chilian government a monitor similar to those under construction for the ,united ,states1 while later a similar offer was made to the ,peruvian ,government4 ,with the close of the ,civil ,war ,ericsson found still further time to devote to the introduction of this type of vessel into foreign navies1 and a considerable part of his time seems to have been occupied with projects of this character1 and more particularly with the question of the naval defence of his native land4 ,as regards the introduction of warships of the monitor type1 the results were not so pronounced as might have been expected1 and while the influence of the idea is seen in the practice of every maritime nation in regard to the construction of its warships1 still1 for the most part1 the leading nations preferred to make application of the idea in their own way rather than order such vessels direct from their original designer4 ,yet in not a few cases the original type was faithfully copied1 though it is not always clear to what extent ,ericsson himself may have had direct contact with their designs4 ,in #ahff the ,swedes were able to test the first of a small fleet of monitors built after ,ericsson's plans4 ,this was called the ,john ,ericsson1 and was armed with two #ae-;inch guns presented to ,sweden by ,ericsson himself4 ,later1 in #ahfh1 he designed for ,spain and superintended the construction of thirty small gunboats for use in ,cuban waters4 ,for nearly ten years now ,ericsson had devoted most of his energies to the art of war4 ,it was a time of change and unrest4 ,heavy guns and armor had brought about a complete break with the past4 ,the torpedo1 which had made its appearance in crude form during the ,civil ,war1 was attracting more and more attention1 and questions of naval offence and defence and of the best governmental policy were attracting the serious attention of all whose duty led them into relation with such matters4 ,into this problem in its broadest aspects ,ericsson threw himself in the early 'seventies with all the ardor of his younger days4 ,it is proper to explain here that there was one feature of the earlier plans which were submitted to ,napoleon ,,iii4 in #ahed1 which he did not embody in the ,monitor1 and which1 indeed1 was omitted from all published plans and descriptions of the system given out in former years4 ,this was a system of submarine or subaqueous attack1 which1 he states in a letter to ,john ,bourne1 had attracted his attention since #ahbf4 ,the time now seemed ripe for the presentation and development of this idea1 and he accordingly developed his designs for a torpedo1 and for a method of firing it under water from a gun carried in the bow of a boat1 and suitably opening to allow the discharge of the torpedo projectile4 ,this was ,ericsson's so-called ,destroyer system1 and was embodied finally in a boat called the ,destroyer1 which he built in company with his friend1 ,mr4 ,c4,h4 ,delamater1 and with which he carried on numerous experiments4 ,in the end1 however1 the system did not commend itself to the naval authorities1 and the ,destroyer was left on her designer's hands1 an instance of difference of opinion between ,ericsson and those charged with the duty of naval administration1 and with no supreme test of war to provide opportunity for the determination as to which were the more correct in their judgment4 ,with the ,destroyer1 and his work in connection with her1 closes the record of ,ericsson's connection with the advance in naval construction4 ,during these later years of his life it must not be supposed that he was less busily occupied than in earlier life4 ,his was a nature which knew no rest1 and to the last day of his life he was literally in the harness4 ,only brief mention however can be made of some of the more important lines of work which interested the closing years of ,ericsson's life4 ,in connection with his naval designs1 he devoted much study to the improvement of heavy ordnance1 both as to the gun and its mounting4 ,in particular1 his mounting of the guns in the ,monitor was quite original1 and the friction arrangement for absorbing the recoil was a great improvement over methods then in use1 and served as a model for many copies and adaptations of the same principles in later years by other designers4 ,in #ahfc he also designed and built for the acceptance of the ,government a forged #ac-;inch wrought-iron gun4 ,while his design was an advance on those of the day1 the demands on the makers of iron forgings were more than could be successfully met1 and the gun developed some slight cracks in the test1 which prevented further developments on this line4 ,ericsson always maintained that the tests to which this gun was submitted were unfairly severe1 and he showed how the defects could be remedied by a steel lining4 ,but the ,naval ,bureau of ,ordnance insisted that this should be done at his own expense1 and as he had already lost some #bj1jjj on the gun1 he was unwilling to proceed farther1 and the matter was allowed to lapse4 ,throughout his entire career the improvement of the steam-engine occupied a large share of ,ericsson's attention1 and in particular was this the case in connection with his naval designs4 ,from the ,princeton1 in #ahda1 to the ,destroyer1 in #ahgh1 there succeeded one long series of types and forms of steam-engine1 each in his opinion the best adapted to the circumstances of the case4 ,naturally1 opinions differ1 and he was brought into competition with other able engineers1 and his designs were often called into question or subjected to criticism4 ,in #ahfc1 in competition with ,chief ,engineer ,isherwood of the navy1 engines were designed for twin ships1 the ,madawaska1 afterward known as the ,tennessee1 and the ,wampanoag1 afterward called the ,florida4 ,this was a battle royal of types and modes of application of the power of the steam-engine to the propulsion of ships4 ,the result was a victory for ,isherwood1 although the ,madawaska1 which was first subjected to trial1 made a speed higher than any warship at that time afloat4 ,this was exceeded by the ,wampanoag a short time later2 but neither engine was of an enduring type1 and after a time the machinery of the ,madawaska was removed1 and she was repowered with a later type of machinery1 and long did service as the ,tennessee in the list of wooden frigates of the navy4 ,the ,florida was too expensive to maintain in commission1 and the special circumstances which had called her into existence having passed by1 she was laid up at ,new ,london1 and never again saw active service4 ,keenly as ,ericsson was interested in the steam-engine1 it must be admitted that he always showed a more profound interest in some form of engine which should be able to displace it with a superior efficiency2 and hence his long series of efforts relating to the flame-engine1 the caloric engine1 the gas-engine1 and finally the solar engine1--with either steam or heated air as the medium for carrying the heat4 ,during the last years of his life some of his most patient and careful study was given to the perfection of a solar engine1 or engine for utilizing directly the heat of the sun instead of that of coal or other carbon compounds4 ,besides this direct line of study and experimentation1 he gave during these years much thought to various scientific problems connected with solar energy1 the tides1 gravitation1 the nature of heat1 etc41 etc4 ,a plan for deriving power direct from the tides1 improvements in high-speed engines for electric-lighting purposes1 further improvements in his hot-air engine in small sizes for commercial purposes1--these are some of the further lines of work which occupied the attention of his closing years4 ,but the most cunningly devised of all mechanisms1 the heart and brain1 must sooner or later tire and cease from their labors4 ,the motive energy becomes exhausted1 and the mechanism must cease its work4 ,so it was with ,john ,ericsson4 ,in the first hour of the morning of ,march #h1 #ahhi1 ,ericsson died4 ,this was within one day of the twenty-seventh anniversary of the battle at ,hampton ,roads1 the event with which the name of ,ericsson will always be associated1 and which has given to it a significance that will never be forgotten4 ,his remains were first interred in ,new ,york1 and then1 in #ahij1 in accordance with the request of the ,swedish ,government1 they were returned with impressive services to his native land1 where they now rest4 ,in his death he received his highest honors1 for his remains were conveyed across the ,atlantic by the ,u4,s4,s4 ,baltimore1 one of the new ships of the navy specially detailed for that service1 and on both sides1 in the ,united ,states and in ,sweden1 the event was marked with every honor and ceremony which could indicate the significance of his life and services for his adopted land and for the world at large4 ,the two pieces of work which perhaps will be most permanently linked with the name of ,ericsson are the screw-propeller as a means of marine propulsion1 and the ,monitor as a type of warship4 ,in addition to these1 however1 his life-work was rich in results which bore direct relation to many other improvements in the broad field of marine engineering and naval architecture4 ,of these a few of the more important may be mentioned1 such as the surface condenser1 distiller1 and evaporator1 forced draft for combustion1 placing machinery of warships below the water-line1 and their protection by coal1 ventilation by fan-blowers1 together with a vast variety of items involved in the conception and design of the ,monitor as a whole1 and in his other naval designs4 ,in order to appreciate the influence of ,ericsson's life and work on the field of marine construction1 a brief glance may profitably be taken at this branch of engineering work as it was before ,ericsson's time1 and as it is now4 ,the material employed for shipbuilding was almost entirely wood4 ,this was displaced in the 'sixties and 'seventies by iron1 which in turn was displaced by steel1 so that at the present time1 except for special reason1 no material other than steel is thought of for this purpose4 ,with the gradual displacement of wood by iron in the mercantile marine1 ,ericsson's relation was only indirect4 ,some of the earlier mercantile vessels in which he was interested were of wood and some of iron4 ,in the field of warship construction1 however1 his influence through the ,monitor was more direct1 especially as to the value of metal armor as a protection against great gun-fire4 ,still1 it is no more than justice to say that with the change from wood to iron which took place during the active part of his life1 ,ericsson had only an indirect relation1 and the change would doubtless have come about at the same time1 and in much the same general way as it did1 independent of any influence which his work may have had upon the question4 ,turning to the means of propulsion1 we find sails as the main1 or almost only1 reliance during the early years of the century4 ,the steam-engine operating paddle-wheels had come to be recognized as a possibility1 and under certain conditions as a commercial success4 ,the screw-propeller as a means of propulsion was known only as a freak idea1 and was without status or recognition as a commercial or practical means for propelling ships4 ,so far as the screw-propeller was thought of as a means of propulsion1 it lay under a suspicion of loss of efficiency due to the oblique nature of its action1 and this was supposed to be such as to render it necessarily and essentially less efficient than the paddle-wheel4 ,ericsson lived to see the use of sails almost entirely discarded for war purposes1 and for mercantile purposes relegated to ships for special service and of continually decreasing importance4 ,he lived to see the steam-engine take its place as the only means for supplying the power required to propel warships1 and attain a position of almost equal relative importance in the mercantile marine4 ,he lived to see the paddle-wheel grow in importance and estimation as a means of propulsion only in turn to be supplanted by the screw-propeller1 which gradually increased in engineering favor from the days of its obscure infancy until it became the only means employed for the propulsion of ships navigating the high seas1 while it had become a most serious rival to the paddle-wheel even for the purposes of interior and shallow-water navigation1--long a field considered as peculiarly suited to the paddle-wheel and to the engines adapted to its operation4 ,regarding the change from wind to steam for the motive-power of ships1 ,ericsson did his full share among the engineers of his day1 but it would be unfair to many others to claim for him any exclusive or preponderating influence in this movement1 and in such matters it is difficult to clearly define the services of any one man4 ,the lines of progress1 however1 have been in accord with his studies1 and his work has certainly had a most direct and powerful influence upon the movement4 ,the most important points of contact between ,ericsson's work and these advances were in connection with his introduction of the surface condenser1 the use of artificial draft1 devices for heating feed water1 his studies in superheated steam and its use1 and his work in connection with the development of the compound principle in steam-engines1 his relation to the introduction of the screw-propeller1 and to the use of twin screws at a later time4 ,he also devised and adapted many new types of engines for marine purposes1 having respect to the geometrical character of the connections by means of which a reciprocating motion of the piston may be transformed into a rotary motion of the shaft4 ,in particular1 he was the first to introduce and show the advantages of engines directly connected to the propeller-shaft1 instead of through the more indirect and clumsy modes which others had previously thought necessary4 ,aside from his relation to the screw-propeller1 perhaps no item of his work in connection with the steam-engine is of more importance than the surface condenser1 with its variant forms in the distiller and evaporator4 ,if ,ericsson had done nothing else1 his claims to recognition and remembrance as an engineer and benefactor might have been well founded on his work in this connection4 ,as it is1 the fact that he was so largely instrumental in their perfection and adaptation to marine uses is wellnigh forgotten in the brighter light of his other achievements4 ,regarding ,ericsson's relation to the successful introduction of the screw-propeller1 little need be added to what has already been said4 ,whatever may be urged regarding dates and patents or earlier years in which the screw-propeller was used1 it is a fact that in #ahcc-ce it was not recognized as an accepted mode of propulsion4 ,while known as a possibility1 it had no standing in the engineering practice of the day4 ,a few years later it was recognized as an accepted mode of propulsion and had gained a permanent and definite place in the practice of the day1--a place which has continued to grow in importance until its earlier rival1 the paddle-wheel1 is almost on the brink of relegation to museums of antiquities1 except possibly for rare and special shallow-water uses4 ,a careful and dispassionate study of the facts1 so far as they can be known at the present time1 seems to indicate clearly that of those who were concerned in successfully adapting the screw-propeller to the needs of marine propulsion and in laying the foundation for these changed conditions1 especially in the ,united ,states1 none was so prominent as ,ericsson1 or so fairly deserving of the chief credit2 and with this judgment the mature thought of the present day seems to agree with little dissent4 ,turning to a consideration from a similar point of view of ,ericsson's services in connection with warship design and construction1 note may be first taken of the condition of the art of naval warfare in the years #ahdj-ej1 or when ,ericsson first began his labors in this field4 ,the material used was wood1 the means of propulsion sails1 with some thought of steam-engines and paddle-wheels2 the means of offence were cast-iron guns large in number but small in size1 the largest being #i or #aa inches in diameter and throwing a shell of some #ge or #acj pounds weight1 while the means of defence consisted solely in the wooden walls1 and modern ideas regarding armor had not even appeared above the horizon4 ,ericsson's contributions to the art of naval warfare are embodied in the ,princeton1 the ,monitor and its class1 and the ,destroyer4 ,in the ,princeton the material used was wood1 and in the ,monitor and ,destroyer iron1 following simply the developments of the age4 ,in the three the means of propulsion was by screw-propeller4 ,in the ,princeton the means of offence were two #ab-;inch wrought-iron guns1 as already noted4 ,in the ,monitor and its type the means of offence were two #aa-;inch smooth-bore cast-iron guns1 followed later by larger guns of #ac and #ae inches of similar type4 ,in the double-turreted monitors four such guns were of course installed4 ,in the ,destroyer the means of offence was a single gun for discharging a torpedo under water at the bow4 ,on the ,princeton the means of defence consisted still in wooden walls1 while in the ,monitor and its class the change was profound and complete4 ,the essential idea of the ,monitor was low freeboard and thus small exposed surface to the ship herself1 combined with the mounting of guns in circular revolving turrets1 thus giving an all-around fire and on the whole making possible an adequate protection of the exposed parts of the ship and providing for the combination in maximum proportions of armored protection and heavy guns for offence4 ,on the ,destroyer the means of defence consisted simply in a light deflecting deck armor forward1 the vessel being intended to fight bows on and depending on her means of offence rather than defence1 which were made quite secondary in character4 ,the ,monitor1 however1 was ,ericsson's great contribution to the art of naval war1 and with it his name will always be associated4 ,it broke with the past in every way4 ,it reduced the number of guns from many to few1 two or at most four2 it reduced the freeboard from the lofty topsides of the old ship-of-the-line to an insignificant two or three feet1 and thus made of the target a circular fort and a low-lying strip of armor4 ,it placed the guns in this circular fort and covered it with armor thick enough to insure safety against any guns then afloat1 and thus1 as perfectly as the engineering means of the day would permit1 insured the combination of offensive and defensive features in maximum degree4 ,it cleared away at one stroke masts1 sails1 and all the lofty top-hamper which since time immemorial had seemed as much an essential feature of the fighting ship as the guns themselves4 ,it transformed the design of the fighting ship from the older ideals expressed in the ,american frigate ,constitution1 or the ,english ,victory1 to the simplest terms of offence1 defence1 and steam motive-power4 ,it made of the man-of-war a machine rather than a ship1 an engine of destruction to be operated by engineers rather than by officers of the ancient and traditional type4 ,there is small wonder that in all quarters the idea of ships of this type was not received with enthusiasm4 ,the break with the past was too definite and complete4 ,the monitor type represented simply the solution of the problem of naval warfare worked out by a man untrammelled by the traditions of the past and determined only on reducing such a ship to the simplest terms of offence and defence as expressed by the engineering materials and possibilities of the day4 ,judged from this standpoint1 the vessel seems beyond criticism4 ,she filled perfectly the ideal set before himself by her designer1 and represents as a complete and harmonious whole what must still be recognized as the most perfect solution of the problem in terms of the possibilities of those days4 ,it is proper here that due reference should be made to the claims in behalf of ,mr4 ,theodore ,r4 ,timby as an inventor of the turret and of the monitor idea as expressed thereby4 ,these claims and the main facts in the case have long been known1 and there should certainly be no attempt to take from any one his due share in the developments which gave to our nation a ,monitor in her hour of need4 ,it is well known that ,mr4 ,timby between #ahdj and #ahej conceived the idea of a revolving fort of iron mounted with numerous guns and intended to take the place of the masonry or earth-structures in common use for such purposes4 ,he seems also to have conceived of a similar structure for use on a ship of low freeboard1 and a model showing such a design was constructed4 ,in #ahdc he filed a caveat for the invention of the revolving turret4 ,here the matter apparently rested until #ahfb1 and after the battle between the ,monitor and ,merrimac1 when he took out a patent which was dated ,july #h1 #ahfb1 covering a revolving tower for defensive and offensive warfare1 whether on land or water4 ,ericsson's associates in the business of building monitors for the ,government acquired these patents of ,timby1 presumably as shrewd business men1 in order to quiet any claim on his part1 and to have the plan available for land forts1 should the opportunity arise to push the business in this direction4 ,there is no question but that ,ericsson was antedated by ,timby in the suggestion of a revolving turret1 at least in so far as public notice is concerned4 ,ericsson frankly admitted this1 and stated that he made no claim to absolute originality in this respect4 ,he further stated what is undoubtedly true1 that the main idea in the turret1 that of a circular revolving fort1 antedates the ,nineteenth ,century as a whole1 and its origin is lost in the uncertainties of early tradition4 ,it is simply one of those early ideas which naturally must have been known in essence since time immemorial1 and as such it was the common property of the engineering practice of the century4 ,it belongs neither to ,timby nor to ,ericsson1 and no claims regarding priority in this respect are worthy of serious consideration4 ,the question is not who first conceived the idea of a revolving fort1 but who designed and built the ,monitor as she was1 and as she met the ,merrimac on the #ith of ,march1 #ahfb4 ,the answer to the latter is too well known a part of the history of the times to admit of question or to call for further notice4 ,ericsson's claim for recognition in this respect rests not on any priority of idea regarding the use of a circular fort1 but rather upon the actual ,monitor as she was built and as she crushed at one blow the sea-power of the ,south1 and representing as it did a completely and carefully designed whole1 dating back to the earlier dealings with ,napoleon ,,iii4 in #ahed4 ,this is an age which judges men by what they do1 and judged by this standard ,ericsson's claims in connection with the monitor type of warship are never likely to be seriously questioned4 ,taking ,ericsson's life and work1 what portion remains as a permanent acquisition or as a part of the practice of the present age8 ,this is a question which merits at least a moment's notice4 ,we should not make the mistake of thinking that permanency is necessarily a test of merit1 or that the value of his services to the world should be judged by such parts of his work as are plainly apparent in the practice of the present day4 ,a piece of work must be judged by the circumstances which brought it forth1 and by the completeness and perfection of its adaptation to the needs and possibilities of its age4 ,we have then the steam fire-engine2 compressed air which he early employed in ,england1 and which has become an instrument of enormous importance in connection with the industrial progress of the age1 although this is in no especial degree due to his efforts2 the surface condenser1 distiller1 and evaporator are a permanently and absolutely essential part of modern marine practice2 the screw-propeller has almost sole possession of the field of marine propulsion2 modern marine engines and boilers in naval practice are always placed below the water-line and are protected by deflective deck armor and frequently by coal as well2 the turret has become a permanent and accepted part of the practice of the age1 while the monitor type in its essential feature seems to be evanescent4 ,the modern battleship is a vastly more complex structure1 and represents more complex ideas and combinations than did ,ericsson's ,monitor4 ,it contains a battery of guns of the heaviest type known to naval ordnance4 ,at present such guns are usually of #ab-;inch bore and throw a shell of about #hjj pounds weight1 with an initial velocity of nearly #c1jjj feet per second4 ,then there is a supporting battery of guns1 #f1 #g1 or #h inches in diameter of bore1 and finally a secondary battery of smaller quick-firing guns1 throwing shells of from #a pound to #bj or #cj pounds weight1 and added to these there may be a torpedo outfit as well4 ,the exigencies of fighting ships at sea and in all weathers seems to have pronounced against the monitor type with its low freeboard as unsuitable for use on the open sea1 while the enormous advances in modern guns and armor have made a totally different problem of the distribution of means offensive and defensive4 ,again1 the monitor type was never intended for long cruising1 or indeed for other service than the defence of coasts and harbors4 ,the policy of building a vessel thus adapted only to an inner line of defence1 and not adapted to an outer line of defence and offence as well1 has been further called in question1 and the judgment of the present day has decided against such policy4 ,it is true that in the so-called new navy1 begun in #ahhc1 one monitor1 the ,monterey1 has been built1 while four others of older type have been somewhat modernized1 and there are three monitors building at the present time4 ,it may be doubted1 however1 if they will be followed by others1 at least so long as the conditions of naval warfare and the spirit of public policy remain as they now are4 ,the monitor type was a perfect solution of the problem of its day1 and nobly it answered the calls made on it4 ,the problem has now changed1 the conditions affecting its solution have also changed1 and it is no discredit to the original type that it now seems to have had its day1 and that it must give way to other forms more perfectly expressing the spirit of the present age1 and the means available for the solution of present-day problems in the art of naval war4 ,in many ways1 however1 the influence of ,ericsson's work still lives in the modern battleship1 and while in our modern designs we have gotten far away from the essential features of the monitor type1 yet it is not too much to say that the germ of the modern battleship is in many ways found in the ,monitor1 especially as expressed in terms of concentration of heavy gun-fire and localized protection of gun positions2 and in more ways than may be suspected1 the influence of ,ericsson and of his work had its part in the developments which have led to the splendid designs of the present day4 ,returning again to our note of the dependence of the present age on ,ericsson1 mention may be made of the blower for forcing the combustion in steam-boilers as a well-established feature of standard marine practice1 and one absolutely essential to the development of the highest attainable speeds1 such as are required in warships1 and especially in those of the torpedo and modern ,destroyer types4 ,likewise the use of the fan for ventilation1 as used by him in his early practice1 has become a necessity of modern conditions both on naval and passenger ships1 for the health and comfort of both passengers and crew4 ,his long series of experiments and his years of labor on air and other forms of caloric engine are only represented by the ,ericsson air-engine now on the market1 and having its fair share of service in locations where simplicity of operation and scarcity of water may naturally suggest its use4 ,of his labors in connection with a solar engine1 and with other questions which occupied much of the time of his closing years1 we have but little direct result4 ,others are at work on the idea of the solar engine1 and it may be that a practicable solution of the problem will be found4 ,ericsson's lasting imprint on engineering practice1 curious as it may seem1 was made in his earlier and middle life1 rather than in his later years1 and we have even more in the way of permanent acquisition from his earlier than from his middle years4 ,this results from the fact that in middle life he was largely engaged on warship designs1 admirably adapted to the needs of the time and to the possibilities of the age1 but no longer suited to either1 while in later life he no longer found it necessary to work at problems which would produce a direct financial return1 and therefore interested himself in a variety of questions somewhat farther removed from the walks of every-day engineering practice than those with which he was occupied in earlier life4 ,in personality ,ericsson possessed the most pronounced and self-centred characteristics4 ,professionally he felt that to him had been granted a larger measure of insight than to others into the mysteries of nature as expressed in the laws of mechanics1 and he was therefore little disposed to listen to the advice or criticism of those about him4 ,this was undoubtedly one of ,ericsson's most pronounced professional faults4 ,he did not realize that with all his insight into the laws of mechanics and all his capacity for applying these laws to the solution of the problems under consideration1 he might well make some use of the work of his fellow-laborers in the same field4 ,so little disposed was he to thus use the work of others that a given device or idea which had been in previous use was often rejected and search made for another1 different and original1 even though it might involve only some relatively trivial part of the work4 ,he was simply unwilling to follow in the lead of others4 ,he must lead or have none of it1 and thus the fact that a device or expedient was in common use would furnish an argument against rather than for its adoption4 ,his natural mode of work was utterly to disregard precedent and to seek for fundamental solutions of his problems1 having only in view the conditions to be fulfilled1 the laws of mechanics1 and the engineering materials of construction4 ,this habit of independence and of seclusion within the narrow circle of his own work so grew upon him in later years that mechanical science made many advances of which he took little or no note1 and of which he refused to avail himself1 even though he might have done so greatly to his own advantage4 ,in his later years1 in a letter to his friend ,captain ,adlersparre1 he says3 ,do not laugh at me now1 ,captain1 when ,i say that nobody can mislead me4 ,do not condemn me if ,i at the same time confess that ,i am directed by nobody's judgment but my own1 and that ,i never consult anybody and take nobody's advice4 ,in all matters connected with his work his will was imperious1 and he would brook no interference or criticism4 ,his temper was high1 his organization sensitive1 and many times throughout his life1 relations with his best friends became strained by his instability of temper or impatience with what he might construe as a criticism regarding his work4 ,with this instability of temper1 however1 was combined a deep-seated tenderness and kindness of heart1 and he was as quick to forget the cause of offence as he was to manifest displeasure upon occasion4 ,notwithstanding the asperities of ,ericsson's character in regard to his professional work1 and his entire lack of effort to make friends among the learned of his day1 recognition and unsought honors came in upon him4 ,he was elected to honorary membership in the societies of note in the ,united ,states and ,sweden1 and in addition to the thanks of ,congress and of the ,legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york1 he received a resolution of thanks from the ,swedish ,riksdag1 or ,parliament1 in #ahfe4 ,in #ahfb he was granted the rarely bestowed ,rumford medal1 and received at other times during his life medals1 honors1 and decorations such as have perhaps fallen to no other who has wrought in the same field of human effort4 ,while recognition of this character pleased him greatly when it came spontaneously and willingly1 he placed but little value on that which he thought grudgingly or tardily tendered1 and in one or two instances refused membership in societies which he thought granted in that manner4 ,a large measure of this independence of character is necessary to the performance of the work which ,ericsson did4 ,had he been ever ready to listen to the views of others1 and to modify his ideas in accordance with them1 his greatest achievements would never have been accomplished4 ,in ,ericsson1 however1 this characteristic was carried to an undue extreme1 and he might unquestionably have accomplished more had he been able to co-operate with others and to accept and use freely the best work of contemporaries in his own field4 ,ericsson was essentially a designing rather than a constructing engineer4 ,his genius lay in new adaptations of the principles of mechanics or in new combinations of the elements of engineering practice in such way as to further the purposes in view4 ,his mode of expression was the drawing-board4 ,while he wrote vigorously and well1 and while he was a frequent contributor in later years to scientific literature1 especially on the subject of solar physics1 yet his best and natural mode of expression was the graphical representation of his designs on the drawing-board4 ,forms and combinations took shape in his brain and were transferred to the drawing with marvellous speed and skill4 ,those who have been associated with him bear testimony that the amount of his work was simply astounding1 and that only by a combination of the most remarkable celerity and industry could they have been accomplished4 ,these drawings were furthermore so minute in detail and so accurate in dimension that as a rule he did not find it necessary to give further attention to the matter after it had left his hands4 ,of the many parts of a complicated mechanism1 one could be sent for construction to one shop and another elsewhere1 all ultimately coming together and making a harmonious and perfectly fitting whole4 ,in no other way could such astonishing speed in the detailed construction of the ,monitor and other vessels of her type possibly have been made2 and the fact that such speed in construction was obtained1 and largely in this manner1 is by no means the least impressive of the many evidences of ,ericsson's genius as a designer4 ,the designs once completed on the drawing-board1 however1 ,ericsson's interest in the work ceased in great measure1 and as a rule he paid but little attention to constructive details1 and took but slight interest in the completed whole4 ,thus he is said to have visited his ,destroyer but once after she was built1 and then simply in search of his assistant4 ,he also declined an invitation from the ,assistant ,secretary of the ,navy to visit ,hampton ,roads and inspect the ,monitor immediately after her fight with the ,merrimac4 ,he seemed to have no curiosity to inspect his work after it had left his hands1 or to receive a report as to the practical working of his designs4 ,this shows a peculiar lack of appreciation of the value of intimate contact with constructive and operative engineering work4 ,no one could hope to avoid errors1 or to realize by drawing-board alone the best possible solution of engineering problems4 ,ericsson wilfully handicapped himself in this manner1 and might unquestionably have more effectively improved and perfected his ideas had he been disposed to combine with his designs at the drawing-board practical contact with his work as constructed4 ,his work was all done in his office at his house4 ,for the last twenty-five years of his life he lived at #cf ,beach ,street1 ,new ,york1 where he wrought every day in the year1 and often until far into the night4 ,his office contained1 beside his drawing-table and other furniture1 a long table1 on which at times1 when overcome by fatigue1 he would stretch himself and take a short nap1 using a dictionary or low wooden box for a pillow4 ,his relations with his native land were always close1 and1 as already hinted1 he gave much of his best effort to the study of means for her defence4 ,toward his friends and relatives he was the embodiment of watchful care and generosity4 ,his private benefactions were for his means large1 and were given with a whole-hearted generosity which must have added much to the love and esteem in which the recipients regarded him4 ,his public benefactions were also notable1 and during the later years of his life he gave away regularly no inconsiderable share of his income4 ,though gifted with reasonable prudence1 he had no conception of the business sense1 and no capacity as a money-getter4 ,after acquiring by his inventions and enterprise a modest competence1 he devoted himself almost entirely to work less directly related to a financial return1 and lived comfortably upon the principal which his earlier efforts had provided4 ,ericsson had absolute faith in himself and in his mission to render available the energies of nature for the uses of humanity and civilization4 ,his character was framed about the central idea of fidelity to this mission4 ,he was dogmatic and optimistic as regards his own work2 he had a contemptuous indifference to the work of others1 and a disregard of the help which he might derive from a closer study of such work4 ,he trained himself1 body1 mind1 and affections1 solely with reference to his mission1 and allowed no interference with it4 ,he was the embodiment of physical and mental vigor1 prodigious industry1 continuity of purpose1 indomitable courage1 capacity for great concentration of mind1 and oblivion to all distracting surroundings4 ,with such characteristics1 combined with the rare endowment of mental capacity and insight regarding the principles of engineering science1 small wonder is it that his life was one so rich in results4 ,it could not have been otherwise1 and the results simply came as a consequence of the combination of the characteristics of the man and the surroundings in which he was placed4 ,the question as to how much more or how much better he might have done had he possessed more faith in the work of others and a willingness to be guided in some measure by their experience is of course idle4 ,ericsson was a combination of certain capacities and characteristics2 a combination of other capacities and characteristics would not have been ,ericsson1 and any discussion of such a supposition is therefore aside from the purpose of this sketch4 ,john ,ericsson lived in a period of rapid engineering development and change4 ,old ideals were passing away1 and the heritage which the ,nineteenth ,century was able to pass on to the ,twentieth was in preparation4 ,in this preparation ,ericsson bore a large and most important part4 ,so long as ships traverse the seas1 ,ericsson's name will be remembered for his work in connection with the introduction of the screw-propeller4 ,so long as the memory of naval warfare endures1 ,ericsson's name will be remembered for the part which he bore in the transition from wood to iron1 from unarmored ships to turrets and armor1 from scattered to concentrated energy of gun-fire1 and for his general share in the developments which have led to the ideal of a battleship prevailing at the opening of the ,twentieth century4 ,for these and for many other achievements he will be remembered1 and his life and works should serve as a constant stimulus to those upon whom the engineering work of the present age has fallen1 to see that with equal fidelity they live up to the possibilities of their endowments and opportunities1 and serve with like fervency and zeal the needs of the age in which they are placed4 ,,authorities4 ,contributions to the ,centennial ,exhibition3 ,ericsson1 ,john4 ,the ,life of ,john ,ericsson3 ,church1 ,w4,c4 ,history of the ,steam ,engine3 ,thurston1 ,r4,h4 ,steam ,navy of the ,united ,states3 ,bennett1 ,frank ,m4 ,who invented the ,screw ,propeller83 ,nicol1 ,james4 ,the ,naval and ,mail ,steamers of the ,united ,states3 ,stuart1 ,charles ,b4 ,a ,chronological ,history of the ,origin and ,development of ,steam ,navigation3 ,preble1 ,rear ,admiral ,g4,h4 ,a ,treatise on the ,screw ,propeller1 ,screw ,vessels1 and ,screw ,engine as adapted for ,purposes of ,peace and ,war3 ,bourne1 ,john4 ,,li ,,hung ,,chang4 #ahbc-aija4 ,,the ,,far ,,east4 ,,by ,w4,a4,p4 ,,martin1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d ,,introductory4 ,five years ago ,earl ,li was at the head of the ,tsungli ,yamen1 or ,foreign ,office in ,peking4 ,the present writer1 having known him long and intimately1 called one morning to request a letter of recommendation to aid in raising money for an ,international ,institute projected by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,reid4 ,he's got one letter2 why does he want another8 asked ,li1 in a tone of mingled surprise and irritation4 ,true1 said ,i1 but that is from the ,tsungli ,yamen4 ,nobody in ,america knows anything about the ,yamen4 ,what he wants is a personal letter from you2 because the only ,chinese name besides ,confucius that is known outside of ,china is ,li ,hung ,chang4 ,i'll give it6 ,i'll give it6 he exclaimed1 smiling from ear to ear at the thought of his world-wide reputation4 ,this was taking him on his weak side2 but it was fact1 not flattery4 ,over forty years ago ,li's rising star first came to view in connection with operations against the rebels in the vicinity of ,shanghai1 and from that day to this1 every war1 domestic or foreign1 has served to raise it higher and make it shine the brighter4 ,it reached its zenith in #aija1 when after settling terms of peace with several foreign powers he passed off the stage at the ripe age of fourscore4 ,what better type to set forth his age and nation than the man who1 through a long career of unexampled activity1 won for himself a triple crown of literary1 military1 and civil honors8 ,in physique he was a noble specimen of his race1 over six feet in height1 and in his earlier years uncommonly handsome4 ,the first half of his existence was passed in comparative obscurity at ,hofei in ,anhui1 a region remote from contact with foreign nations4 ,it was there his character was formed1 on native models2 there he carried off the higher prizes of the literary arena2 and there he became fitted for the role of ,china's typical statesman4 ,his career in outline may be stated in a few words4 ,his native province being overrun by rebels1 he passed from the school-room to the camp1 and got his earliest lessons in the military art under the leadership of the eminent viceroy ,tseng ,ko ,fan4 ,the neighboring province of ,kiangsu falling into the hands of rebel hordes a few years later1 he won renown by recapturing its principal cities1 by the aid of such men as the ,american ,ward and the ,english ,gordon4 ,his success as a general made him governor of ,kiangsu1 and his success as governor raised him to the rank of viceroy1 holding for many years a post at one or other of the foci of foreign trade north or south4 ,beyond the borders of ,china he was twice sent on special embassies1 and once he made the tour of the globe2 but his most brilliant achievement was in twice making peace on honorable terms1 when his country was lying prostrate before a victorious enemy4 ,it remains to expand this incomparable catalogue2 but to make intelligible that remarkable series of events in which he bore such a conspicuous part1 we must first invite our readers to accompany us in a historical retrospect in which we shall point out the opening and growth of foreign intercourse4 ,i4 ,,intercourse ,,with ,,china ,,by ,,land4 ,of the nature of that intercourse in its earlier period1 there exists a monument that speaks volumes4 ,that is no other than the ,great ,wall2 which1 hugest of the works of man1 stretches along the northern frontier of ,china proper for one thousand five hundred miles from the sea to the desert of ,gobi4 ,erected #bee ,b4,c4 it shows that even at that early date the enemies most dreaded by the ,chinese were on the north4 ,yet how signally it failed to effect its purpose6 ,for since that epoch the provinces of ,northern ,china have passed no fewer than seven centuries under ,tartar sway4 ,two ,tartar dynasties have succeeded in subjugating the whole empire1 and they have transmitted beyond the seas a reputation which quite eclipses the fame of ,china's ancient sovereigns4 ,in fact1 that which first made ,china known to the western world was its conquest by the ,mongols in the thirteenth century4 ,barbarous nomads1 with longing eyes forever directed to the sunny plains of the south1 they also conquered ,india1 bringing under their sceptre the two richest regions of the globe4 ,of ,genghis and ,kubla1 it may be asserted that they realized a more extended dominion than ,alexander1 ,caesar1 or ,napoleon ever dreamed of4 ,but ,extended empire1 like expanded gold1 ,exchanges solid strength for feeble splendor4 ,their tenure of ,china was of short duration1--less than a century4 ,in ,india1 however1 their successors1 the great ,moguls1 continued to maintain a semblance of sovereignty even down to our own times1 when they were wiped from the blackboard for having taken part in the ,sepoy mutiny4 ,liberal beyond precedent1 ,kubla ,khan encouraged the establishment of a ,christian bishopric1 in which ,john de ,monte ,corvino was the first representative of the ,holy ,see4 ,he also welcomed those adventurous ,italians1 the ,polos1 and sought to make use of them to open communication with ,europe4 ,yet we cannot forbear to express a doubt1 whether1 aside from the ,christian religion1 ,europe in that age had much in the way of civilization to impart to ,china4 ,three of the native dynasties1 which preceded the ,mongol conquest1 made themselves famous by advancing the interests of civilization4 ,the house of ,han 7,b4,c4 #bjb-;,a4,d4 #bba7 restored the sacred books1 which the builder of the ,great ,wall had destroyed in order to obliterate all traces of feudalism and make the people submit to a centralized government4 ,even down to the present day1 the ,chinese are proud to describe themselves as sons of ,han4 ,the house of ,tang1 ,a4,d4 #fah-ijh1 is noted above all for the literary style of its prose-writers and the genius of its poets4 ,in ,south ,china the people are fond of calling themselves sons of ,tang4 ,the house of ,sung1 ,a4,d4 #igj-aabg1 shows a galaxy of philosophers and scholars1 whose expositions and speculations are accepted as the standard of orthodoxy4 ,more acute reasoners it would be difficult to find in any country2 and in the line of erudition they have never been surpassed4 ,it is reported that in #fdc the ,emperor ,theodosius sent an envoy to ,china with presents of rubies and emeralds4 ,nestorian missionaries also presented themselves at court4 ,the ,emperor received them with respect1 heard them recite the articles of their creed1 and ordered a temple to be erected for them at his capital4 ,this was in the palmy period of the ,tangs1 when the frontiers of the ,empire had been pushed to the borders of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,if ,china in part or in whole was sometimes conquered by ,tartars1 it is only fair to state that the greatest of the native sovereigns more than once reduced the extramural ,tartars to subjection4 ,between the two races there existed an almost unceasing conflict1 which had the effect of civilizing the one and of preventing the other from lapsing into lethargy4 ,about ,b4,c4 #ajj1 ,su ,wu1 one of ,china's famous diplomatists1 was sent on an embassy to the ,grand ,khan of ,tartary4 ,an ode1 which he addressed to his wife on the eve of his perilous expedition1 speaks alike for the domestic affections of the ,chinese and for their ancient literary culture4 ,twin trees whose boughs together twine1 ,two birds that guard one nest1 ,we'll soon be far asunder torn ,as sunrise from the west4 ,hearts knit in childhood's innocence1 ,long bound in ,hymen's ties1 ,one goes to distant battlefields1 ,one sits at home and sighs4 ,like carrier dove1 though seas divide1 ,i'll seek my lonely mate2 ,but if afar ,i find a grave1 ,you'll mourn my hapless fate4 ,to us the future's all unknown2 ,in memory seek relief4 ,come1 touch the chords you know so well1 ,and let them soothe our grief4 ,,ii4 ,,intercourse ,,by ,,sea4 ,in #achh the ,mongols were expelled4 ,the ,christian bishopric was swept away1 and left no trace2 but a book of the younger ,polo1 describing the wealth of ,china1 gave rise to marvellous results4 ,together with the magnetic needle1 which originated in ,china1 it led to centuries of effort to open a way by sea to that far-off fairyland4 ,it was from ,marco ,polo that ,columbus derived his inspiration to seek a short road to the far ,east by steering to the ,west1--finding a new world athwart his pathway4 ,it was the same needle1 if not the same book1 that impelled ,vasco da ,gama to push his way across the ,indian ,ocean1 after the ,cape of ,good ,hope had been doubled by ,bartholomew ,diaz4 ,a century later the same book led ,henry ,hudson to search for some inlet or strait that might open a way to ,china1 when1 instead of it1 he discovered the port of ,new ,york4 ,the mariner's compass1 which wrought this revolution on the map of the world1 is only one of many discoveries made by the ancient ,chinese1 which1 unfruitful in their native land1 have1 after a change of climate1 transformed the face of the globe4 ,the polarity of the loadstone was observed in ,china over a thousand years before the ,christian era4 ,one of their emperors1 it is said1 provided certain foreign ambassadors with south-pointing chariots1 so that they might not go astray on their way home4 ,to this day the magnetic needle in ,china continues to be called by a name which means that it points to the south4 ,it heads a long list of contraries in the notions of the ,chinese as compared with our own1 such1 for example1 as beginning to read at the back of a book2 placing the seat of honor on the left hand2 keeping to the left in passing on the street1 with many others1 so numerous as to suggest that the same law that placed their feet opposite to ours must have turned their heads the other way4 ,to the ,chinese the south-pointing needle continued to be a mere plaything to be seen every day in the sedan chair of a mandarin1 or in wheeled vehicles4 ,if employed on the water1 it was only used in coasting voyages4 ,so with gunpowder1 of which the ,arabs were transmitters1 not inventors4 ,in other lands it revolutionized the art of war1 clothing their people with irresistible might1 while in its native home it remained undeveloped and served chiefly for fireworks4 ,have we not seen1 even in this our day1 the rank and file of the ,chinese army equipped with bows and arrows8 ,the few who were provided with firearms1 for want of gunlocks1 had to set them off by a slow-match of burning tow2 and cannon1 meant to guard the mouth of the ,peiho1 were trained on the channel and fixed on immovable frames4 ,the art of printing was known in ,china five centuries before it made its way to ,europe4 ,the ,confucian classics having been engraved on stone to secure them from being again burned up1 as they had been by the builder of the great wall1 the rubbings taken from those stones were printing4 ,it required nothing but the substitution of wood for stone and of relievo for intaglio to give that art the form it now has4 ,the smallest scrap of printed paper in the lining of a tea chest1 or wrapped about a roll of silk1 would suffice to suggest the whole art to a mind like that of ,gutenberg4 ,in ,china it never emerged from the state of wood engraving4 ,the ,peking ,gazette1 the oldest newspaper in the world1 is printed on divisible types1 but they are of wood1 not metal1 more than one attempt to introduce metallic types having proved unsuccessful1 for the want of that happy alloy known as type-metal4 ,it is from us that they have learned the art of casting type1 especially that splendid achievement1 the making of stereotype plates1 and1 later1 electrotype plates1 by the aid of electricity and acid solutions4 ,chemistry1 from which this beautiful art takes its rise1 carries us back to ,china1 for it was there that alchemy had its birth1 as ,i have elsewhere shown4#d ,footnote #d3 ,the ,lore of ,cathay4 ,new ,york3 ,fleming ,r4 ,revell ,co41 p4 #da4 ,man's first desire is long life2 his second1 to be rich4 ,the ,taoist philosophy commenced with the former before the ,christian era1 but it was not long in finding its way to the latter4 ,a powerful impulse was thus given to research in the three departments of science1--chemistry1 botany1 and geography4 ,as in the case of gunpowder1 the ,arabs transmitted these discoveries to the ,west1 and along with them the ,chinese doctrine as to the twofold objects of alchemic studies1--the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone4 ,from this double root sprang the chemistry of the ,west1 which in no mean sense has fulfilled its promise by prolonging life and enriching mankind4 ,in all these the ,west has performed the part of a nursing mother1 but she has brought the nursling back full grown1 and prepared to repay its obligation to its true parent by effective service4 ,portuguese merchants made their way to ,canton early in the sixteenth century1 but it was not till the latter part of the century that ,catholic missionaries entered on their grand crusade4 ,in #afja the ,jesuit pioneer ,matteo ,ricci and his associates1 impelled by religion and armed with science1 presented themselves at the court of ,peking4 ,the ,chinese had been able to reckon the length of the year with remarkable accuracy two thousand years before the time of ,christ1 but their science had made no headway4 ,the missionaries found their calendar in a state of confusion1 vanquished the native astronomers in fair competition1 and were formally installed as keepers of the ,imperial ,observatory2 and these missionaries supervised the casting of the bronze instruments which have since been taken to ,berlin4 ,this honor they retained even after the fall of the native dynasty that patronized them4 ,when the ,manchus effected their conquest in #afdd1 not only were the ,jesuit missionaries left in charge of the observatory1 but the heir apparent was placed under their instruction4 ,coming to the throne in #affb1 under the now illustrious title of ,kanghi1 the young prince showed himself a generous patron as he had previously been a respectful pupil4 ,he was apparently not averse to the idea of his people's adopting ,christianity as their national religion1 and allowed the missionaries a free hand to plant churches throughout the vast interior4 ,rarely if ever has so fine an opportunity offered for making an easy conquest of a pagan empire4 ,it was lost through the jealousy of contending societies1 and especially through the blunder of an infallible ,pope4 ,the ,dominicans denounced the ,jesuits for tolerating the practice of pagan rites1 such as the worship of ancestors1 and for employing for ,god the name of a pagan deity4 ,the name which they then objected to was ,shang-ti1 ,supreme ,ruler1 a venerable designation for the ,supreme ,power found in the earliest of the ,chinese canonical books1 and at this day accepted by a large proportion of ,protestant missionaries4 ,the question as to its fitness was referred to the ,emperor1 who decided in favor of the ,jesuits4 ,it was then brought before the ,papal ,see1 condemned as idolatrous1 and ,tien ,chu1 the ,lord of ,heaven1 adopted in its stead4 ,that ,shang-ti1 however pure in origin1 had come to be applied to a whole class of deities was perfectly true1 but the name proposed in its stead was not free from a taint of idolatry1--,tien ,chu1 ,lord of ,heaven1 being one of eight divinities1 and worshipped along with ,ti ,chu1 ,lord of ,earth1 ,hai ,chu1 ,lord of the ,sea1 etc4 ,the manner in which his opinions had been set aside by the ,pope had no doubt a repelling influence on the mind of the ,emperor1 so that if he had ever felt inclined to embrace ,christianity1 he drew back in his later years4 ,not only so1 but he left behind him a series of ,maxims in which he censures the foreign creed and warns his people against it4 ,these ,maxims were ordered to be read in public by mandarins1 and they continue to be recited and expounded as a sort of religious ritual4 ,is it surprising that this lost opportunity was followed by a century and a half of open persecution8 ,that most of the churches survived1 not only attests the zeal with which the ,faith had been propagated1 it throws a pleasing light on the force of the ,chinese character4 ,at the dawn of our new epoch1 there were still some half a million converts1--with here and there a foreign ,father hiding in their midst4 ,in bringing about this change of policy there was indeed another influence at work4 ,had not the ,emperor of ,china heard some rumors of what was going on in the dominion of his cousin1 the ,great ,mogul--how the ,french were dispossessing the ,portuguese2 and how the ,english later on succeeded in expelling the ,french8 ,how could they doubt that a large community of native ,christians would act as an auxiliary to any foreign invader8 ,a suspicion of this kind had in fact sprung up under the preceding dynasty4 ,in consequence of it not a single seaport except ,macao was opened to foreign trade2 and when foreigners went to ,canton1 they were lodged in a suburb and not allowed to penetrate within the walls of the provincial capital4 ,such misgivings as to the designs of foreigners we find strikingly expressed in a book of that period called ,strange ,stories of an ,idle ,student4 ,one story is as follows3 ,when ,red-,haired ,barbarians first appeared on our coast they were not allowed to come ashore4 ,they begged1 however1 to be permitted to spread a carpet on which to dry their goods1 and this being granted1 they took the carpet by its corners and stretched it so that it covered several acres4 ,on this1 they debarked in great force and1 drawing their swords1 took possession of the surrounding country4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,opium ,,war4 ,the first great event that woke ,china from her dream of solitary grandeur was the war with ,england1 which broke out in #ahci and was closed three years later by the ,treaty of ,nanking4 ,it was not1 however1 all that was needed to effect that object4 ,it made the giant rub her eyes and give a reluctant assent to terms imposed by superior force4 ,but many a rude lesson was still required before she came to perceive her true position1 as on the lower side of an inclined plane4 ,to bring her to this discovery four more foreign wars were to follow before the end of the century1 culminating in a siege in ,peking and massacres throughout the northern provinces which may be looked on as the fifth act in a long and bloody tragedy4 ,in the last three wars ,li ,hung ,chang was a prominent actor4 ,in the first two he took no part4 ,yet was it the shock which they gave to the empire that drove him from a life of literary seclusion to do battle in a more public arena4 ,the ,opium ,war of #ahci is not improperly so designated1 but nothing is more erroneous than to infer that it was waged by ,england for the purpose of forcing the product of her ,indian poppy fields on the markets of ,china4 ,opium was the occasion1 not the cause4 ,the cause1 if we are to put it in a single word1 was the overbearing arrogance of an ,oriental despotism1 which refused to recognize any equal in the family of nations4 ,in the ,straits settlements and in the seaports of ,india1 ,chinese merchants had been brought under sway of the bewitching narcotic4 ,it found its way to their southern seaports1 and without being recognized as an article of commerce1 the trade expanded with startling rapidity4 ,the ,emperor1 ,tao ,kwang1 one of the most humane of rulers1 resolved to take measures for the suppression of the vice4 ,he had come to the throne in #ahbj2 and there is a story that he was moved to action by the untimely fate of his eldest son1 who had fallen a victim to the seductive poison4 ,commissioner ,lin1 whom he selected to carry out his prohibitory policy1 was a fit instrument for such a master1 equally virtuous in his aims and equally tyrannical in his mode of proceeding4 ,arriving at ,canton1 his first object was to get possession of the forbidden drug1 which was stored on ships outside the harbor4 ,this he thought to accomplish by surrounding the whole foreign community by soldiers and threatening them with death if the opium was not promptly surrendered4 ,while its owners or their agents hesitated1 ,captain ,elliot1 the ,british ,superintendent of ,trade1 came up from ,macao1 and demanded to share the duress of his nationals4 ,he then called on them to deliver up the drug to him to be used in the service of the ,queen for the ransom of the lives of her subjects1 assuring them that they would be reimbursed from the public treasury4 ,no fewer than twenty-one thousand chests1 valued at nine million dollars1 were brought in from the opium ships and formally handed over to ,commissioner ,lin4 ,the foreign community was set free1 and the drug destroyed by being mixed with quicklime4 ,war was made to punish this outrage on the rights of the foreign community1 and to exact indemnity for the seizure of their property4 ,canton was not captured1 but held to ransom1 and the haughty ,viceroy sent into exile4 ,other cities were taken and held2 and1 in #ahdb1 a treaty of peace was signed at ,nanking by which five ports were opened to foreign trade4 ,the embargo on opium was not withdrawn2 but the defeat of the ,chinese resulted in a virtual immunity from seizure together with a growth of the traffic1 such as to justify the ill-odored name which that war still bears in history4 ,treaties with other powers followed in quick succession4 ,on demand of the ,french ,minister1 the ,emperor recalled his prohibitory decrees against ,christianity and issued an ,edict of ,toleration4 ,if the opening of the ports gave a stimulus to trade1 the decree of toleration opened a door for missionary enterprise4 ,as yet1 however1 neither merchant nor missionary was allowed to penetrate into the interior2 while the capital and the whole of the northern seacoast remained inaccessible4 ,this was obviously a state of things that could not be permanent2 yet fifteen years were to pass before another war came to settle the terms of intercourse on a broader basis4 ,when the war broke out1 ,li ,hung ,chang was seventeen years of age1 living at ,hofei in ,anhui4 ,as there were then no newspapers in ,china it may be doubted whether he heard of it until a ,british squadron sailed up to ,nanking and extorted a treaty at the cannon's mouth4 ,li was rudely startled by the appearance of a new force1 to which there was no allusion in any of his ancient books4 ,along with the sailing-ships there were two or three small steamers4 ,it struck the ,chinese with astonishment to see them make head against wind and tide4 ,shin ,chuan1 ships of the gods1 is the name they gave those mysterious vessels4 ,little could ,li foresee the part he was destined to take in creating a steam navy for ,china4 ,descended from a long line of scholars1 he was supposed to be born to the pursuit of letters4 ,he did1 in fact1 devote himself to study with unflagging zeal1 because he had as yet no temptation to turn aside4 ,was there not1 moreover1 an open door before his face inviting him to win for himself the honors of a mandarinate8 ,in his native town he placed his foot on the first step of the ladder by gaining the degree of ,a4,b41 or1 in ,chinese1 ,budding ,genius4 ,at the provincial capital he next carried off the laurel of the second degree1 which is worth more than our ,a4,m41 not merely because it is not conferred in course1 but because it falls to the lot of only one in a hundred among some thousands of competitors4 ,these provincial tournaments occur but once in three years2 and the successful candidates proceed to ,peking to compete for the third degree1 or ,d4,c4,l41--,tsin-shi1 or1 ,fit for ,office4 ,here the chances amount to three per cent4 ,li's fortunes were again propitious1 and in company with two or three hundred new-made doctors1 he was summoned to the palace to contend in presence of the emperor for the honor of a seat in the ,imperial ,academy1--the ,hanlin1 or ,forest of ,pencils4 ,here also he met with success1 but he was not among the first three whose names are marked by the vermilion pen of majesty1 each of whom sheds lustre on his native province4 ,the highest of the three is called ,chuang ,yuen1 ,head of the ,list or ,prince of ,letters4 ,in the 'fifties it fell to a native of ,ningpo1 where ,i then lived4 ,his good luck was announced to his wife by the magistrate in person1 who conducted her to the six gates1 at each of which she scattered a handful of rice1 as an omen of good fortune4 ,in the 'sixties1 when ,i had removed to ,peking1 this honor was for the first time conferred on a ,manchu1 a son of the ,general ,saishanga4 ,his daughter was deemed a fit consort for the heir to the throne1 wearing for a short time the tiara of empress1 and committing suicide on the death of her lord4 ,in the two previous contests1 handwriting goes for nothing1 but in this it is not without weight1 as the avowed object is to select scribes for the service of the throne4 ,on those occasions extent of erudition and originality of thought are the qualities most esteemed2 but this time the order of merit is decided by superficial elegance of style1 and by facility in the composition of verse4 ,however defective the standard of learning1 this long course of competition1 extending over ten or fifteen years1 has the effect of bringing before the throne a body of men each of whom is the survivor of a hundred contests4 ,no country can boast a better system for the selection of talent1 and the government guards it with jealous care4 ,i have known more than one examiner put to death for tampering with this ballot-box of the ,empire4 ,for ages it has provided the state with able officers2 nor is its least merit that of converting a dangerous demagogue into a quiet student4 ,while waiting for an appointment1 ,li heard with dismay that ,nanking had been taken by a body of rebels1 and that his native province was in danger of being overrun by them4 ,a new career opened before him1--one that led more directly to the highest offices within the gift of the sovereign4 ,asking a commission in the army1 he was assigned to a position on the staff of ,tsengkofan1 father of the ,marquis ,tseng1 who was afterwards ,minister to ,england4 ,this rebellion1 among the strangest of strange things1 now claims our attention4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,taiping ,,rebellion4 ,in ,april1 #ahec1 the news reached us that ,nanking had fallen into the hands of a body of rebels who1 by a curious irony1 called themselves ,taipings1 ,soldiers of ,peace4 ,they were ,chinese1 not ,manchus1 and their leaders were all from the extreme south4 ,starting near ,canton1 they had proclaimed as their object the expulsion of the ,tartars4 ,overrunning ,kwangsi and ,hunan1 they had got possession of ,hankow and the two adjacent cities1--a centre of wealth which may be compared to the three cities that form our ,greater ,new ,york4 ,everywhere they put to flight the government forces2 but they did not choose to stop anywhere short of the ancient capital of the ,mings4 ,seizing some thousands of junks1 they filled them with the plunder of that rich mart1 and sweeping down the river1 carried by assault every city on its banks until they reached ,nanking4 ,its resistance was quickly overcome2 and putting to death the entire garrison of twenty-five thousand ,manchus1 they announced their intention to make it the capital of their empire1 as ,hung ,wu had done when he drove out the ,mongols and restored freedom to the ,chinese race4 ,in a few months they despatched an expedition to expel the ,manchus from ,peking4 ,but that proved a more difficult task than they expected4 ,before the detachment had arrived at ,tientsin1 it was met on the ,grand ,canal by a strong force under ,sengkolinsin1 the ,mongol prince4 ,obliged to winter on the way1 it was divided and cut off in detail2 this defeat making it evident to all the world that the ,manchu domination might still hope for a considerable lease of life4 ,the blood and rapine which everywhere marked their pathway alienated the sympathy of foreigners from the ,soldiers of ,peace4 ,nor did the new power at ,nanking manifest the least anxiety to obtain foreign aid1 feeling assured of ultimate triumph4 ,yet1 indifferent as they were to the co-operation of foreigners1 the ,taipings proclaimed themselves ,christians1 and appeared to aim their blows no less at lifeless idols than at living enemies4 ,shangti1 the ,supreme ,ruler1 the ,god of the ancient sages1 was the object of their worship4 ,they found his name in the ,christian ,bibles1 and they published the ,bible as the source of their new faith4 ,their faith amounted to a frenzy1 giving them courage in battle1 but not imparting the self-control essential to ,christian morality4 ,filling their coffers with spoil1 they stocked their harems with the wives and daughters of their enemies4 ,if their lives had been more decent1 they might have had a better chance to secure the favor of those powerful nations which had now become the arbiters of destiny in ,china4 ,the leader of the movement was a ,cantonese by the name of ,hung ,siu ,chuen4 ,a copy of the ,bible having fallen into his hands1 he applied to a ,baptist missionary for instruction4 ,how much he learned may be inferred from the fact that he gave his followers a new form of baptism1 requiring them to wash the bosom as a sign for cleansing the heart4 ,he had ecstatic visions1 and preached a crusade against idolatry and the ,manchus4 ,the ease with which the ,manchus had been beaten by the ,british in #ahdb had revealed their weakness1 and the new faith supplied the rebels with a fresh source of power4 ,they mixed the teachings of the ,gospel with new revelations as freely as ,mohammed did in propagating the religion of the ,koran4 ,the chief called himself the younger brother of ,jesus ,christ4 ,his prime minister assumed the title of the ,holy ,ghost2 and his counsels were given out as decrees from ,heaven4 ,all this had an air of blasphemy that shocked the sensibilities of foreigners1 and compelled them to stand aloof or to support the ,manchus4 ,the native authorities were permitted to engage foreign ships and seamen to operate against the rebels1 who sustained a siege in ,nanking almost as long as the siege of ,troy4 ,from ,shanghai1 ,suchau1 and other cities the ,taipings were driven out by the aid of foreigners1 chiefly led by ,ward and ,gordon1 the former an ,american1 the latter a ,briton4 ,general ,ward was never under the command of ,li ,hung ,chang2 but to him more than to any other foreigner belongs the honor of turning the tide of the ,taiping ,rebellion4 ,a soldier of fortune1 he offered to throw his sword into the government scale if it were paid for with many times its weight in gold4 ,gathering a nondescript force of various nationalities1 he recaptured the city of ,sungkiang1 and followed this up by such a series of successes that his little troop came to be known as the ,ever-victorious ,army4 ,falling before the walls of ,tseki1 he was interred with pomp at the scene of his first victory1 where a temple was erected to his memory1 and he is now reckoned among the ,joss of the ,chinese ,empire4 ,his force was taken into ,li's pay4 ,general ,gordon 7the same who fell at ,khartoum7 acted under the direction of ,li ,hung ,chang2 and his chief exploit was the recovery of ,suchau4 ,unable to resist his artillery1 the rebel chiefs offered to capitulate4 ,they were assured by him that their lives would be spared4 ,to this ,li ,hung ,chang consented1 and the stronghold was at once surrendered4 ,regardless of his plighted faith1 ,li caused the five leaders to be beheaded1 an act of treachery which filled ,gordon with such fury that he went from camp to camp1 looking for ,li1 determined to put a bullet in his head4 ,li1 however1 avoided a meeting until ,gordon's wrath had time to subside1 and that treacherous act laid the foundation of his future fortunes4 ,he was made governor of the province1 and for forty years he rose in power and influence4 ,not only was this terrible rebellion which laid waste the fairest provinces a sequel to the first war with ,england1 it was prolonged and aggravated by a second war which broke out in #aheg4 ,in #ahfc1 the last stronghold of the rebels was recaptured1 and the rebellion finally suppressed1 after twelve years of dismal carnage4 ,in bringing about this result1 no names are more conspicuous than those of ,li ,hung ,chang and ,general ,gordon1 whose sobriquet of ,chinese ,gordon ever afterwards characterized him4 ,li's good fortune served him well in this war4 ,having won the favor of the ,court1 he was in command of the forces of eastern ,kiangsu1 and all the brilliant successes of ,ward and ,gordon were credited to him4 ,he was not only made governor of the province1 but also created an ,earl in perpetuity4 ,v4 ,,the ,,arrow ,,war2 ,,the ,,treaties4 ,never did a smaller spark ignite a greater conflagration4 ,in #ahef a native junk named the ,arrow1 sailing under a ,british flag1 was seized for piracy1 her flag hauled down and her crew thrown into prison at ,canton4 ,on demand of ,sir ,john ,bowring1 ,governor of ,hong ,kong1 they were handed over to ,consul ,parkes 7later ,sir ,harry72 but he refused to receive them because they were not accompanied by a suitable apology4 ,the haughty ,viceroy ,yeh put them all to death1 provoking reprisals on the part of the ,british1 resulting in the occupation of ,canton and the capture of ,peking after three campaigns to the north4 ,in this war ,england had ,france for ally2 as the two powers had been associated in that hugest of blunders1 the ,crimean ,war4 ,nor was the alliance a less blunder on this occasion4 ,napoleon's excuse for participation was the murder of a missionary in ,kwangsi2 but his real motive was a desire to checkmate ,great ,britain1 and prevent the conquest of new territory4 ,in the ,opium ,war she had stopped at ,nanking1 leaving the pride of ,china unhumbled1 and the state of relations so unstable that another war was required to place them on a better footing4 ,england1 with unselfish generosity1 invited the co-operation of ,russia and the ,united ,states4 ,either power might have found as good a pretext for hostile action as that of ,france2 but they chose to maintain an attitude of neutrality1 offering only such moral support as might enable them to gather up the apples after the others had shaken the tree4 ,in #aheg ,canton was taken and held by the allies4 ,the next spring the envoys of the four powers1 each with a considerable naval force1 proceeded to the mouth of the ,peiho1 the gateway to a capital as secluded and exclusive as that of the ,grand ,lama4 ,the forts made a show of resistance1 but they were put to silence in less than half an hour2 and negotiations which had been opened by the neutrals were resumed at ,tientsin4 ,dr4 ,s4 ,wells ,williams was ,chinese secretary to the ,united ,states minister1 ,mr4 ,william ,b4 ,reed2 and ,i acted as interpreter for the spoken language4 ,an article in favor of ,christian missions occasioned some delay2 and ,mr4 ,reed1 who was vain and shallow1 said to us1 ,now1 gentlemen1 hurry up with your missionary article for ,i intend to sign my treaty on the #ahth of ,june ,waterloo day with or without that clause4 ,fancy a mind that could think of a treaty obtained by ,british guns as entitling him to be associated with ,wellington6 ,yet ,mr4 ,reed had the effrontery to say that he expected us to make the missionary societies duly sensible of their obligations to him4 ,that twenty-ninth article was the gem of the treaty2 and it had the honor of being copied into that of ,lord ,elgin1 which was signed eight days later4 ,high-minded1 philanthropic1 and upright1 ,lord ,elgin made a mistake which led to a renewal of the war4 ,he refused to place ,tientsin on the list of open ports1 because1 as he said1 ,foreign powers would make use of it to overawe the ,chinese capital1--just as if overawing was not a matter of prime necessity4 ,he hastened away to ,india to aid in suppressing the ,sepoy mutiny1 eventually becoming viceroy after another campaign in ,china4 ,his brother1 ,sir ,f4 ,bruce1 succeeded him as minister in ,china2 and twelve months later 7,july1 #ahei7 the ministers of the four powers were again at the mouth of the ,peiho on their way to ,peking for the exchange of ratified copies of the several treaties4 ,the ,united ,states minister was ,john ,e4 ,ward1 a noble-hearted son of ,georgia1 and the chief of our little squadron was the gallant old ,commodore ,tatnall4 ,we were not a little surprised to see the demolished forts completely rebuilt1 and frowning defiance4 ,we were told by officers who came down to the shore that no vessel would be allowed to pass2 but that the way to ,peking was open to us via ,peitang1 a small port to the north4 ,to this ,mr4 ,ward made no objection1 but the ,british1 who had so recently held the keys of the capital1 were indignant to be met by such a rebuff4 ,they steamed ahead between the forts1 leaving the ,chinese to take the consequences4 ,all at once the long line of batteries opened fire4 ,one or two gunboats were sunk2 two or three were stranded4 ,a storming party was repulsed1 and ,admiral ,hope1 who was dangerously wounded1 begged our ,american commodore to give him a lift by towing up a flotilla of barges filled with a reserve force4 ,blood is thicker than water1 exclaimed ,tatnall1 in tones that have echoed round the globe1 and ,ward making no objection1 he threw neutrality to the winds1 and proceeded to tow up the barges4 ,our little steamer was commanded by ,lieutenant ,barker1 now ,admiral ,barker of the ,new ,york ,navy ,yard4 ,even this failed to retrieve the day1 the tide having fallen too low for a successful landing4 ,for the ,british admiral nothing remained but to withdraw his shattered forces1 and prepare for another campaign4 ,for the ,united ,states minister a dazzling prospect now presented itself1--that of intervening to prevent the renewal of war4 ,from ,peitang we proceeded by land two days4 ,then we continued our voyage for five days by boat on the ,upper ,peiho4 ,at ,peking1 calling on the genial old ,kweiliang1 who had signed the treaty in #aheh1 ,mr4 ,ward was astonished at his change of tone4 ,you wish to see the ,emperor4 ,that goes as a matter of course2 but his ,majesty knows you helped the ,british1 and he requires that you go on your knees before the throne in token of repentance4 ,tell him1 said ,mr4 ,ward to me1 that ,i go on my knees only to ,god and woman4 ,is not the ,emperor the same as ,god8 replied the old courtier1 taking no notice of a tribute to woman that was unintelligible to an ,oriental mind4 ,you need not really touch the ground with your knees1 he continued2 but merely make a show of kneeling4 ,there will be eunuchs at hand to lift you up1 saying ',don't kneel6 ,don't kneel6' ,the eunuchs1 as ,mr4 ,ward well knew1 would be more likely to push us to our knees than to lift us up2 and he wisely decided to decline the honor of an audience on such terms4 ,displeased by his obstinacy1 the ,emperor ordered him to quit the capital without delay1 and exchange ratifications at the sea-coast4 ,a report was long current in ,peking that foreigners have no joints in their knees2 hence their reluctance to kneel4 ,thus vanished for ,mr4 ,ward the alluring prospect of winning for himself and his country the beatitude of the peacemaker4 ,the summer of #ahfj saw the ,peiho forts taken1 and an allied force of thirty thousand men advancing on ,peking4 ,the court fled to ,tartary1 and the summer palace was laid in ashes to punish the violation of a flag of truce1 the bearers of which were bound hand and foot1 and left to perish within its walls4 ,for three days the smoke of its burning1 carried by a northwest wind1 hung like a pall over the devoted city1 whose inhabitants were so terrified that they opened the gates half an hour before the time set for bombardment4 ,no soldiers were admitted1 but the demands of the ,allies were all acceded to1 and supplementary treaties signed within the walls by ,lord ,elgin and ,baron ,gros4 ,peking was opened to foreign residence4 ,the ,french succeeded in opening the whole country to the labors of missionaries4 ,legations were established at the capital1 and a new era of peace and prosperity dawned on the distracted empire4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,war ,,with ,,france4 ,if the opening of ,peking required a prolonged struggle1 it was followed by a quarter-century of pacific intercourse4 ,china had at her helm a number of wise statesmen1--such as ,prince ,kung and ,wensiang4 ,the ,inspectorate of ,customs begun under ,mr4 ,lay took shape under the skilful management of ,sir ,robert ,hart1 and from that day to this it has proved to be a fruitful nursery of reforms1 political and social4 ,not only were students sent abroad for education at the instance and under the leadership of ,yung ,wing1 but a school for interpreters was opened in the capital1 which1 through the influence of ,sir ,robert ,hart1 was expanded into the well-known ,imperial ,college4 ,on his nomination the present writer was called to the head of it1 and ,wensiang proposed to convert it into a great national university by making it obligatory on the members of the ,hanlin ,academy1 the ,emperor's ,forest of ,pencils1 to come there for a course of instruction in science and international law4 ,against this daring innovation1 ,wojin1 a ,manchu tutor of the ,emperor1 protested1 declaring that it would be humiliating to ,china to have her choicest scholars sit at the feet of foreign professors4 ,the scheme fell through1 but before many years the ,emperor himself had taken up the study of the ,english language1 and two of our students were selected to be his instructors4 ,one of them is at this present time 7#aijb7 ,chinese minister at the ,court of ,st4 ,james4 ,several of our students have had diplomatic missions1 and one1 after serving as minister abroad1 is now a leading member of the ,board of ,foreign ,affairs in ,peking4 ,a press opened in connection with the college printed numerous text-books on international law1 political economy1 physics1 and mathematics1 translated by the president1 professors1 and students4 ,america was fortunate in the choice of the first minister whom she sent to reside at ,peking4 ,this was ,anson ,burlingame1 who1 after doing much to encourage the ,chinese in the direction of progress1 was by them made the head of the first embassy which they sent to foreign nations4 ,his success in other countries was largely due to the sympathy with which he had been received in the ,united ,states by ,secretary ,seward1 and to the advice and recommendations with which he was provided by that great statesman4 ,so deep an interest did ,mr4 ,seward take in ,china that he went in person to study its condition before the close of his career4 ,in his visit to ,peking he was accompanied by his nephew1 ,george ,f4 ,seward1 who was ,united ,states ,consul at ,shanghai4 ,the latter has since that date worthily represented our country as minister at ,peking2 but it may be doubted whether in that high position he ever performed an international service equal in importance to one performed during his consulship1 for which he has recently received the cross of the ,legion of ,honor4 ,in laying out their new concession at ,shanghai1 the ,french had excited the hostility of the people by digging up and levelling down many of those graves that occupied so much space outside of the city walls1 and where the ,chinese who worshipped their ancestors were to be seen every day burning paper and heaping up the earth4 ,a furious mob fell on the ,french police1 chased them from the field1 and menaced the ,french settlement with knife and firebrand4 ,the consuls were appealed to for aid1 but no one responded except ,mr4 ,seward1 who headed a strong force from one of our men-of-war1 dispersed the mob1 and secured the safety of the foreign settlement4 ,but for his timely intervention who knows that the ,french consulate would not have been reduced to ashes8 ,if the consulate had been burned down1 a war would have been inevitable1 with a chain of consequences that baffles the imagination4 ,in #ahga a horrid atrocity was perpetrated by ,chinese at ,tientsin which certainly would have led to war with ,france if ,napoleon ,,iii4 had not at that very time been engaged in mortal combat with ,germany4 ,the populace were made to believe that the sisters at the ,french hospital had been seen extracting the eyeballs from their patients to use in the manufacture of magical drugs4 ,they were set upon by a maddened multitude1 a score or more of them slaughtered1 and the buildings where they had cared for the sick and suffering turned to a heap of ruins4 ,count ,rocheschouart1 instead of reserving the case to be settled at a later day1 thought best to accept from the ,chinese government an apology1 with an ample sum in the way of pecuniary compensation4 ,that grewsome superstition has led to bloodshed in more than one part of ,china4 ,in the summer of #ahhe ,i was called one day from the ,western ,hills to the ,tsungli-,yamen1 or ,foreign ,office1 on business of great urgency4 ,on arriving1 ,i was informed that the ,chinese gunboats in the river ,min had been sunk by the ,french the day before2 that they had also destroyed the ,arsenal at the mouth of the river4 ,this1 said the ,secretary1 means war1 and we desire to know how non-combatants belonging to the enemy and resident in our country are to be treated according to the rules of ,international ,law4 ,while ,i was copying out the principles and precedents bearing on the subject1 the same ,secretary begged me to hasten my report1 because1 said he1 the ,grand ,council is waiting for it to embody in an ,imperial ,decree4 ,true enough1 the next day a decree from the throne announced the outbreak of war2 but it added that non-combatants belonging to the enemy would not be molested4 ,two of our professors were ,frenchmen1 and they were both permitted to continue in charge of their classes without molestation4 ,hostilities were brought to a happy conclusion by the agency of ,sir ,robert ,hart4 ,one of his customs cruisers employed in the light-house service having been seized by the ,french1 ,mr4 ,campbell was sent to ,paris to see the ,french ,president and petition for its release4 ,learning that ,president ,grvy would welcome the restoration of peace1 and ascertaining what conditions would be acceptable1 ,sir ,robert laid them before the ,chinese government1 putting an end to a conflict which1 if suffered to go on1 might have ruined the interests of more than one country4 ,in this war and in those peace negotiations the conduct of the ,chinese was worthy of a civilized nation4 ,yet the result of their experience was to make them more ready to appeal to arms in cases of difficulty4 ,li's connection with this war was very real1 though not conspicuous4 ,changpeilun1 director of the arsenal at ,foochow1 was his son-in-law4 ,not only was ,li disposed to aid him in taking revenge1 he was himself building a great arsenal in the north2 and it was1 no doubt1 owing to efficient succor from this quarter that ,formosa was able to hold out against the forces of the ,french4 ,,vii4 ,,war ,,with ,,japan4 ,both in its inception and in its tragic ending the notable conflict with ,japan connects itself with the name of ,li ,hung ,chang4 ,the ,island ,empire on the ,east had long been known to the ,chinese1 though until our times no regular intercourse subsisted between the two countries4 ,it is recorded that a fleet freighted with youth and maidens was despatched thither by the builder of the ,great ,wall to seek in those islands of the blest for the herb of immortality2 but none of them returned4 ,it was to be a colony1 and the flowery robe by which its object is veiled is not sufficient to hide the real aim of that ambitious potentate4 ,yet1 through that expedition and subsequent emigrations1 a pacific conquest was effected which does honor to both nations1 planting in those islands the learning of ,china1 and blending with their native traditions the essential teachings of her ancient sages4 ,for centuries prior to our age of treaties1 non-intercourse had been enforced on both sides1--the ,japanese confining their ,chinese neighbors1 as they did the ,dutch1 to a little islet in the port of ,nagasaki2 and ,china seeing nothing of ,japan except an occasional descent of ,japanese pirates on her exposed sea-coast4 ,to ,america belongs the honor of opening that opulent archipelago to the commerce of the world4 ,our shipwrecked sailors having been harshly treated by those islanders1 a squadron was sent under ,commodore ,perry to ,yeddo 7now ,tokio7 in #ahee1 to punish them if necessary and to provide against future outrages4 ,with rare moderation he merely handed in a statement of his terms and sailed away to ,loochoo to give them time for reflection4 ,returning six months later1 instead of the glove of combat he was received with the hand of friendship1 and a treaty was signed which provided for the opening of three ports and the residence of an ,american charg d'affaires4 ,in the autumn of #ahei it was my privilege to visit ,yeddo in company with ,mr4 ,ward and ,commodore ,tatnall4 ,we were entertained by ,townsend ,harris and shown the sights of the city of the ,shoguns when it was still clothed in its mediaeval costume4 ,the long swaddling-garb of the natives had a semi-savage aspect1 and the abject servility with which their todzies 7interpreters7 prostrated themselves before their officers excited a feeling of contempt4 ,like the mayors of the palace in mediaeval ,france1 the ,shoguns or generals had relegated the ,mikado to a single city of the interior2 while for six hundred years they had usurped the power of the ,empire1 practically presenting the spectacle of two ,emperors1 one spiritual 7or nominal71 one temporal 7or real74 ,little did we imagine that within five years the ,shoguns would be swept away1 and the ,mikado restored to more than his ancient power4 ,the conflagration was kindled by a spark from our engines4 ,the feudal nobles1 of whom there were four hundred and fifty1 each a prince within his own narrow limits1 were indignant that the ,shogun had opened his ports to those aggressive foreigners of the ,west4 ,raising a cry of ,kill the foreigners6 they overturned the ,shoguns and restored the ,mikado4 ,their fury1 however1 subsided when they found that the foreigner was too strong to be expelled4 ,a few more years saw them patriotically surrendering their feudal powers in order to make the central government strong enough to face the world4 ,about the same time our ,western costume was adopted1 and along with it the parliamentary system of ,great ,britain and the school system of ,america4 ,some foreigners were shallow enough to laugh at them when they saw those little soldiers in ,western uniform2 and the ,chinese despised them more than ever for abandoning the dress of their forefathers4 ,to protect themselves at once against ,china and ,russia1 the ,japanese felt that the independence of ,corea was to them indispensable4 ,the ,king had been a feudal subject to ,china since the days of ,king ,solomon2 and when at the instance of ,japan he assumed the title of ,emperor1 the ,chinese resolved to punish him for such insolence4 ,this was in #ahid4 ,the ,japanese took up arms in his defence2 and though they had some hard fighting1 they soon made it evident that nothing but a treaty of peace could keep them out of ,peking4 ,li ,hung ,chang1 who had long been ,viceroy at ,tientsin and who had built a northern arsenal and remodelled the ,chinese army1 had to confess himself beaten4 ,for him it was a bitter pill to be sent as a suppliant to the ,court of the ,mikado4 ,that ,china was beaten was not his fault4 ,yet he was held responsible by his own government and departed on that humiliating mission as if with a rope about his neck4 ,fortunately for him1 during his mission in ,japan an assassin lodged a bullet in his head1 and the desire of ,japan to undo the effect of that shameful act made negotiation an easy task1 converting his defeat into a sort of triumph4 ,happily1 too1 he enjoyed the counsel and assistance of ,j4,w4 ,foster1 formerly ,united ,states ,secretary of ,state4 ,formosa1 one of the brightest jewels in the ,chinese crown1 had to be handed over to ,japan1 and lower ,manchuria would have gone with it1 had not ,russia1 supported by ,austria and ,germany1 compelled the ,japanese to withdraw their claims4 ,the next turn of the kaleidoscope shows us ,china seeking to follow the example of ,japan in throwing off the trammels of antiquated usage4 ,in #ahih1 when the tide of reform was in full swing1 the ,marquis ,ito of ,japan paid a visit to ,peking1 and as president of the ,university1 ,i had the honor of being asked to meet him along with ,li ,hung ,chang at a dinner given by ,huyufen1 mayor of the city1 and the grand secretary1 ,sunkianai4 ,it was a lesson intended for them when he told us how1 on his returning from ,england in the old feudal days1 his prince asked him if anything needed to be reformed in ,japan4 ,everything1 he replied4 ,the lesson was lost on the three ,chinese statesmen1 progressive though they were1 for ,china was then on the eve of a violent reaction which threatened ruin instead of progress4 ,,viii4 ,,war ,,with ,,the ,,world4 ,the last summer of the century saw the forts at the mouth of the ,peiho captured for the third time since the beginning of #aheh4 ,it was the opening scene in the last act of a long drama1 and more imposing than any that had gone before1 not in the number of assailants nor in the obstinacy of resistance1 but in the fact that instead of one or two nations as hitherto1 all the powers of the modern world were now combined to batter down the barriers of ,chinese conservatism4 ,getting possession of ,tientsin1 not without hard fighting1 they advanced on ,peking under eight national flags1 against the eight banners of the ,manchu tribes4 ,what was the mainspring of this tragic movement8 ,what unforeseen occurrence had effected a union of powers whose usual attitude is mutual jealousy or secret hostility8 ,in a word1 it was humanity4 ,spurning petty questions of policy1 they combined their forces to extinguish a conflagration kindled by pride and superstition1 which menaced the lives of all foreigners in ,north ,china4 ,in #ahih1 when the ,emperor had entered on a career of progress1 the ,empress ,dowager was appealed to by a number of her old servants to save the ,empire from a young ,phaeton1 who was driving so fast as to be in danger of setting the world on fire4 ,coming out of her luxurious retreat1 ten miles from the city1 where she had never ceased to keep an eye on the course of affairs1 she again took possession of the throne and compelled her adopted son to ask her to teach him how to govern4 ,this was the coup d'tat4 ,in her earlier years she had not been opposed to progress1 but now that she had returned to power at the instance of a conservative party1 she entered upon a course of reaction which made a collision with foreign powers all but inevitable4 ,she had been justly provoked by their repeated aggressions4 ,germany had seized a port in ,shantung in consequence of the murder of two missionaries4 ,russia at once clapped her bear's paw on ,port ,arthur4 ,great ,britain set the lion's foot on ,weihaiwei2 and ,france demanded ,kwang ,chan ,bay1 all to maintain the balance of power4 ,exasperated beyond endurance1 the ,empress gave notice that any further demands of the sort would be met by force of arms4 ,the governor of ,shantung appointed by her was a ,manchu by the name of ,yuhien1 who more than any other man is to be held responsible for the outbreak of hostilities4 ,he it was who called the ,boxers from their hiding-places and supplied them with arms1 convinced apparently of the reality of their claim to be invulnerable4 ,for a hundred years they had existed as a secret society under a ban of prohibition4 ,now1 however1 they had made amends by killing ,german missionaries1 and he hoped by their aid to expel the ,germans from ,shantung4 ,on complaint of the ,german ,minister he was recalled2 but1 decorated by the hands of the ,empress ,dowager1 he was transferred to ,shansi1 where later on he slaughtered all the missionaries in that province4 ,in ,shantung he was succeeded by ,yuen ,shikai1 a statesmanlike official1 who soon compelled the ,boxers to seek another arena for their operations4 ,instead of creeping back to their original hiding-place they crossed the boundary and directed their march toward ,peking1--on the way not merely laying waste the villages of native ,christians1 but tearing up the railway and killing foreigners indiscriminately4 ,they had made a convert of ,prince ,tuan1 father of the heir apparent4 ,he it was who encouraged their advance1 believing that he might make use of them to help his son to the throne4 ,their numbers were swelled by multitudes who fancied that they would suffer irreparable personal loss through the introduction of railways and modern labor-saving machinery2 and ,china can charge the losses of the last war to those misguided crowds4 ,fortunately several companies of marines1 amounting to four hundred and fifty men1 arrived in ,peking the day before the destruction of the track4 ,the legations were threatened1 churches were burnt down1 native ,christians put to death1 and fires set to numerous shops simply because they contained foreign goods4 ,then it was that the foreign admirals captured the forts1 in order to bring relief to our foreign community4 ,that step the ,chinese ,foreign ,office pronounced an act of war1 and ordered the legations and all other foreigners to quit the capital4 ,the ministers remonstrated1 knowing that on the way we could not escape being butchered by ,boxers4 ,on the #bjth of ,june1 the ,german ,minister was killed on his way to the ,foreign ,office4 ,the legations and other foreigners at once took refuge in the ,british legation1 previously agreed on as the best place to make a defence4 ,professor ,james was killed while crossing a bridge near the legation4 ,that night we were fired on from all sides1 and for eight weeks we were exposed to a daily fusillade from an enemy that counted more on reducing us by starvation than on carrying our defences by storm4 ,about midnight on ,august #ac1 we heard firing at the gates of the city1 and knew that our deliverers were near4 ,the next day1 scaling the walls or battering down the gates1 they forced their way into the city and effected our rescue4 ,the day following1 the ,roman ,catholic ,cathedral was relieved1--the defence of which forms the brightest page in the history of the siege1 and in the afternoon we held a solemn service of thanksgiving4 ,the palaces were found vacant1 the ,empress ,dowager having fled with her entire court4 ,she was the same ,empress who had fled from the ,british and ,french forty years before4 ,she was not pursued1 because ,prince ,ching came forward to meet the foreign ministers1 and he and ,li ,hung ,chang were appointed to arrange terms of peace4 ,li was ,viceroy at ,canton4 ,had he been in his old viceroyalty at ,tientsin1 this ,boxer war could not have occurred4 ,that its fury was limited to the northern belt of provinces was owing to the wisdom of ,chang#e and ,liu1 the great satraps of ,central ,china who engaged to keep their provinces in order1 if not attacked by foreigners4 ,footnote #e3 ,chang is regarded as the ablest of ,china's viceroys4 ,he published1 prior to the coup d'tat1 a notable book1 in which he argues that ,china's only hope is in the adoption of the sciences and arts of the ,west4 ,i called on the old statesman in the summer of #aija1 after the last of the treaties was signed4 ,he seemed to feel that his work was finished1 but he still had energy enough to write a preface for my translation of ,hall's ,international ,law1 and before the end of another month his long life of restless activity had come to a close at the age of seventy-nine4 ,by posthumous decree1 he was made a ,marquis4 ,in the autumn the court returned to ,peking1 the way having been opened by ,li's negotiations4 ,thanks to the lessons of adversity1 the ,dowager has been led to favor the cause of progress4 ,not only has she re-enacted the educational reforms proposed by the ,emperor1 but she has gone a step farther1 and ordered that instead of mere literary finish1 a knowledge of arts and sciences shall be required in examinations for the ,civil ,service4 ,the following words ,i wrote in an obituary notice1 a few days after ,li's death3-- ,for over twenty years ,earl ,li has been a conspicuous patron of educational reform4 ,the ,university and other schools at ,tientsin were founded by him2 and he had a large share in founding the ,imperial ,university in ,peking4 ,during the last twenty years ,i have had the honor of being on intimate terms with him4 ,five years ago he wrote a preface for a book of mine on ,christian ,psychology1--showing a freedom from prejudice very rare among ,chinese officials4 ,another preface which he wrote for me is noteworthy from the fact that it is one of the last papers that came from his prolific pencil4 ,having finished a translation of ',hall's ,international ,law' 7begun before the siege71 ,i showed it to ,li ,hung ,chang not two weeks ago4 ,the old man took a deep interest in it1 and returned it with a preface in which he says ',i am now near eighty2 ,dr4 ,martin is over seventy4 ,we are old and soon to pass away2 but we both hope that coming generations will be guided by the principles of this book4' ,with all his faults--those of his time and country--,li ,hung ,chang was a true patriot4 ,for him it was a fitting task to place the keystone in the arch that commemorates ,china's peace with the world4 ,,david ,,livingstone4 #ahac-ahgc4 ,,african ,,development4 ,,by ,,cyrus ,c4 ,,adams4 ,africa is the most ancient and the most recent conquest of the human race4 ,as far as the light of history can be projected into the past1 we see ,egypt among the first and foremost on the threshold of civilization4 ,the continent discovered last and opened last to the enterprises of the world is still ,africa4 ,why is it that we see there both the dawn of civilization and the tardiest development of human progress8 ,the reasons are not far to seek4 ,the physical conformation of no other continent is so unfavorable for exploration and development4 ,africa's straight coast-lines1 affording little shelter to the primitive ships of early mariners1 repelled the enterprising ,phoenicians and other seafarers in their eager search for new lands worth colonizing4 ,nor was it easy for explorers to penetrate into the interior4 ,in its surface ,africa has been compared to an inverted saucer1--the high plateaus occupying most of the interior descending to the sea by short1 abrupt1 and steep slopes1 so that the wide and peaceful rivers of the plateaus are lashed into foam as they approach the ocean by many series of rapids and cataracts4 ,in all the other continents rivers have been the lines of least resistance to the advance of man4 ,civilization has developed first along the great rivers4 ,the valleys were first settled1 and up these valleys man carried his industries and commerce far inland4 ,thus the ,euphrates and ,tigris of ,mesopotamia1 the ,ganges and ,indus of ,india1 and the ,hoang and ,yangtse of ,china1 were the creators of history2 but this is true in ,africa only of the ,nile4 ,all the other rivers have been impediments instead of helpful factors in the formidable task of exploration and development4 ,the trying climate1 also1 gave ,africa odious repute and delayed for centuries the study and utilization of the continent4 ,when the ,british expedition under ,captain ,tuckey attempted to ascend the ,congo1 in #ahaf1 to see if it were really the lower part of the ,niger ,river1 as had been conjectured1 nearly all of its members perished miserably among the rapids less than two hundred miles from the sea4 ,such tragedies as this paralyzed enterprise in ,africa until white men learned that the climate was not so deadly1 after all1 if they adhered to the manner of life1 the hygienic rules1 that should be observed in that tropical expanse4 ,in all the other continents1 also1 explorers have had the advantage of domestic animals to carry their food and camp equipment2 but in large parts of tropical ,africa the horse1 ox1 and mule cannot live4 ,the bite of the little tsetse fly kills them4 ,its sting is hardly so annoying as that of the mosquito1 but near the base of its proboscis is a little bag containing the fatal poison4 ,camels have been loaded near ,zanzibar for the journey to ,tanganyika1 but they did not live to reach the great lake4 ,the ship of the desert can never be utilized in the humid regions of tropical ,africa4 ,the elephant is found from sea to sea1 but he has not proved to be so amenable to domestication as his ,asian brother4 ,he may yet be reduced to useful servitude4 ,the efforts in this direction in the ,german and ,french colonies are somewhat encouraging1 though in #aija only six elephants had thus far been broken to work and were daily used as beasts of burden4 ,explorers of tropical ,africa have always been compelled to rely upon human porterage1 the most expensive and unsatisfactory form of transportation1 with the result that nearly all the great lines of exploration have been extended through the continent at enormous cost4 ,so most other parts of the world were occupied1 colonized1 civilized1 before ,africa was explored4 ,a continent one-fourth larger than our own was for centuries neglected and despised4 ,nothing good can come out of ,africa became proverbial4 ,seventy years ago ,africa1 away from the coasts and the ,nile1 was almost a blank upon our maps1 save for fanciful details that are ludicrously grotesque in the light of our present knowledge 7#aijb74 ,then dawned the era of ,david ,livingstone4 ,sixty-two years ago this humble ,scotchman went to ,south ,africa as a missionary4 ,it was not long before he became imbued with the idea that missionary service could not be projected on broad1 economic1 and effective lines till the field was known4 ,the explorer1 he said1 must precede the teacher and the merchant4 ,we can work best for ,christianity and civilization after we learn what the people are and know the nature of their environment4 ,this was the thought that took him into the unknown2 that inspired him with unflagging courage and zeal throughout twenty years of weary plodding in the ,african wilderness among hundreds of tribes who never before had seen a white man4 ,and all the years he was studying the country and winning the love of its people1 his faith in ,africa1 in its abounding resources worth the world's seeking1 in the capacity of its people for development1 steadily grew till it became the all-pervading impulse of his life4 ,livingstone's faith converted the world to the belief that1 after all1 there was good in ,africa4 ,i shall never forget1 said ,stanley1 one day in ,new ,york1 the time when ,i stood with ,livingstone on the shore of ,lake ,tanganyika1 and he raised his trembling hand above his head1 leaned towards me as he looked me in the eye1 and said in a voice broken with emotion3 ',the day is coming when the whole world will know that ,africa is worth reclaiming1 and that its people may be brought out of barbarism4 ,the world needs ,africa2 and teachers1 merchants1 railroads1 and every influence of civilization will be spread through this continent to fit it for the place in human interests that belongs to it4' ,i thought then that ,livingstone was an enthusiast and a visionary2 but long ago ,i learned to believe that every word he said was true4 ,europe and ,america were thrilled by the simple narrative of those twenty-two thousand miles of wanderings that brought into the light of day millions of human beings who had been as much unknown to us as though they inhabited ,mars4 ,livingstone did not live to know it1 but it was he who kindled the great ,african ,movement1--an outburst of zeal for geographic discovery and economic development such as was never seen before4 ,thirteen years ago 7#ahhi7 a ,frenchman named ,de ,bissy completed the largest map yet made of ,africa4 ,in the preparation of this great work1 which occupied much of his time for eight years1 he used as his sources of information nearly eighteen hundred route and other maps1 nearly all of which were the result of the work of explorers in the preceding quarter of a century4 ,all that we know of the geography of over three-fourths of ,africa is the work of the past half-century since ,livingstone made his first journey in #ahdi2 and we know far more of inner ,africa to-day than was known of inner ,north ,america three hundred years after ,columbus discovered the western world4 ,a little over a century ago1 our great-grandfathers were reading in their school geographies that ,north ,america had no conspicuous mountains except the ,alleghanies2 and these mountains and the ,andes of ,south ,america were believed to be one and the same chain1 interrupted by the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,many men not yet bent with years can remember when the interior of ,africa was a white space on the maps2 but it is not possible to-day to make such a geographical blunder as we have mentioned1 about any part of ,africa4 ,it is because of the work he did in those twenty years1 sowing all the while the seeds from which sprang the great ,african ,movement1 that the gentle master of ,african exploration is acclaimed to-day as one of the world's great men1 and that his body rests in ,westminster ,abbey among the illustrious dead of ,britain4 ,the son of a worthy weaver in ,blantyre1 ,scotland1 ,livingstone's early life was that of a poor boy1 working in a spinning-mill1 quiet1 sober1 affectionate1 and faithful in every relation of life4 ,moved at last by the thirst for knowledge that has distinguished many a humble ,scotch boy1 he entered the ,university at ,glasgow1 studying during the winter months and spending the summers at his trade in the factory1 fitting himself all the while for the conquests he little dreamed he was to achieve over difficulties almost insurmountable4 ,a classmate spoke of him as a pale1 thin1 retiring young man1 but frank and most kind-hearted1 ready for any good and useful work1 even for chopping the ,university fuel and grinding wheat for the bread4 ,in #ahch1 when he was twenty-five years old1 he went to ,london to be examined as a candidate for the ,african missionary service4 ,two years later he was sent to ,south ,africa1 where for eight or nine years he labored among the natives earnestly and unostentatiously north of the place now famous as the site of the ,kimberley diamond mines4 ,it was here that he became intimately acquainted with the celebrated missionary1 ,robert ,moffatt1 whose daughter he married4 ,his devoted wife accompanied him in some of his later travels1 but long before he finished his work her body was laid to rest under the shade of a tree that for years was pointed out to all visitors to the ,lower ,zambesi4 ,in #ahdi1 began the series of explorations that continued till his death4 ,the end of geographical discovery is the beginning of missionary enterprise1 he wrote4 ,burning with zeal to reveal ,africa to the world1 ,livingstone never forgot the main aim of his life1--to open ways for the planting of mission stations among all the scores of tribes he visited4 ,i hope ,god will in mercy permit me to establish the ,gospel somewhere in this region1 he wrote from the land of the ,barotse1 on the ,upper ,zambesi4 ,does he now look down from his eternal home upon that very land whose churches and schools are the fruition of the labors of ,french ,protestants2 whose king1 in ,london to attend the coronation of ,edward ,,vii41 said he wanted more teachers and more men to train his people to build houses and work iron8 ,he prayed that he might live to see the double influence of the spirit of commerce and ,christianity employed to stay the bitter fountain of ,african misery4 ,the glowing zeal of the ,christian philanthropist and the untiring ardor of the born explorer were perfectly blended in the spirit of the great pioneer of modern ,african discovery4 ,livingstone's routes through ,africa would extend about seven times between ,new ,york ,city and ,san ,francisco2 and in his almost endless marches over plain1 through jungle1 across mountains and wide rivers1 the natives met him almost without exception in a generous and hospitable spirit4 ,love was the secret of his success4 ,he won his way by kindness4 ,give the barbarous ,african time to see that you wish him well1 that you would do him good in ways he knows are helpful1 and his affection is evoked4 ,it was said that the ,british could never establish their rule over the great ,wabemba tribe1 southwest of ,tanganyika1 without a military campaign4 ,in #ahid1 two humble ,catholic fathers entered ,lobemba1 walked straight to the chief town1 and were told that if they did not leave the country in one day they would be killed4 ,as the stern message was delivered1 they saw an old woman on the ground in great pain from a severe wound4 ,the news soon spread that these unwelcome strangers had washed and dressed the wound1 and made the old woman comfortable4 ,these people love men1 was the word that passed from lip to lip1 as the sick and suffering came out from the town to be treated1 while thousands of natives looked on4 ,at nightfall the white men were told they might remain another day2 they ministered for eleven days to those who needed help1 and were then invited to remain the rest of their lives4 ,the mission stations of the ,white ,fathers are to-day scattered all over ,lobemba2 the country is open in every corner to the whites1 and in #ahii ,british rule was established4 ,the victory was won1 not with guns1 but by gentle1 helpful kindness4 ,livingstone never believed that the sympathies of our common humanity are extinct even in the bosom of a savage4 ,enfolded in the panoply of ,christian kindness1 he passed unscathed among the most warlike tribes4 ,no memory of wrong or pain rankled in the heart of any man1 woman1 or child he ever met4 ,he is known to-day as the good old man wherever his path led him in those twenty years4 ,when explorers began to study the healthful highlands of the ,akikuyu tribe in ,east ,africa a few years ago1 the natives rushed to arms4 ,keep away from us1 they said4 ,one of your white men came through the land1 stealing food from our gardens1 and killing all who said he ought to pay us for our vegetables4 ,we want nothing to do with thieves and murderers like you4 ,but no vengeance fell on the head of any white traveller who ever followed in the footsteps of ,livingstone4 ,those explorers have achieved most who adhered to his example of unfailing kindness1 mercy1 and justice4 ,the brutal ,german1 whose crimes made the ,akikuyu hostile to all whites1 marked his path with blood from the ,indian ,ocean to ,victoria ,nyanza4 ,serpa ,pinto1 renowned for the scientific value of his work1 aroused condemnation and disgust because he fought his way through many tribes1 among whom ,livingstone and ,arnot had wandered almost alone and in perfect safety4 ,fortunately1 there have not been many explorers militant4 ,the brilliant discoveries of ,grenfell1 ,delcommune1 ,lemaire1 and others1 who are in the first rank of ,african pioneers1 were made without harming a native4 ,let us glance at a few of ,livingstone's discoveries and form our own conclusions as to whether his sublime faith in the future of ,africa has thus far been justified by events4 ,in the depths of the wilderness he discovered the large lake1 ,mweru1 through which the ,upper ,congo flows4 ,though white influences have reached that remote region only within the past two or three years1 a little steamboat now plies those waters4 ,a photograph of ,mpweto1 one of the white settlements on the lake1 shows the commodious quarters of the ,europeans1 two long lines of cabins in which the native workmen live1 and well-tilled gardens extending for a half-mile along the shore4 ,livingstone brought to light the coal fields of the ,zambesi1 the only coal yet known in tropical ,africa4 ,while these lines are being written1 the ,british of ,rhodesia are preparing to open mines along these deposits4 ,he told the world of the ,victoria ,falls of the ,zambesi1 the largest known1 a mile wide and twice as high as ,niagara4 ,the installation of an electrical plant at this great source of power is now in progress1 and it is hoped within three years to transmit electrically all the power required to work the large copper mines in the north1 the coal fields in the east1 and to move trains on the ,cape to ,cairo ,railroad for a distance of three hundred miles4 ,the recent improvements in long-distance transmission of power encourages the belief that the ,victoria ,falls may some day possess large industrial utility for a wide region around them4 ,coffee plantations on the hills overlooking the long expanse of ,nyassa1 the splendid freshwater sea which ,livingstone revealed in its setting of mountains1 are selling their superior product in ,london at a high price4 ,the town of ,blantyre1 among the ,nyassa highlands which ,livingstone first described1 has a newspaper1 telegraphic and cable communication with all the world1 and industrial schools in which the manual arts are taught to hundreds of natives4 ,here is the large brick church1 now famous1 built by native craftsmen1 who before ,livingstone's time had never seen a white man1 and lived in a state of barbarism2 an edifice that would adorn the suburbs of any ,american city1 and of which the explorer1 ,joseph ,thomson1 said3 ,it is the most wonderful sight ,i have seen in ,africa4 ,the natives made the brick1 burned the lime1 sawed and hewed the timbers1 and erected the building to the driving of the last nail4 ,they had the capacity1 and it was evoked by the genius of one of the most remarkable men in ,africa1 ,missionary ,scott of ,blantyre4 ,steamboats are afloat on five of the six important seas of the great lake region of ,central ,africa2 on two of the three which ,livingstone discovered4 ,only a beginning has been made1 for the field stretches from ocean to ocean2 but the man who1 in #ahgc--the year of ,livingstone's death1--should have predicted one-half of the achievement of the present generation would have been laughed at as a crack-brained visionary4 ,even the surface of ,africa is changing1 and the truth of ,livingstone is not always the truth of to-day4 ,in his first journey1 in which he braved the perils of the ,south ,african thirst lands1 he reached the broad and placid expanse of ,lake ,ngami1 covering an area of three hundred square miles4 ,in the gradual desiccation of that region1 the lake has now entirely disappeared4 ,its place is wholly occupied by a partly marshy plain covered with reeds1 and no vestige of water surface is to be seen4 ,he found the little ,lake ,dilolo so exactly balanced on a flat plain between two great river systems that one stream from the lake flowed north to the ,congo and another south to the ,zambesi2 but for years past there has been no connection between the lake and the ,congo4 ,he sought in vain1 like many explorers after him1 for the outlet to ,lake ,tanganyika4 ,the mystery was not solved till1 more than twenty years after1 ,burton discovered the lake2 the solution came when the explorer ,thomson and ,missionary ,hore found the waters of ,tanganyika pouring in a perfect torrent down the valley of the ,lukuga to the ,congo4 ,the explanation of the strange phenomenon is that for a series of years the evaporation exceeds the water receipts1 the level of the lake steadily falls1 and the valley of the ,lukuga becomes choked with grass2 then a period follows when the water receipts exceed the evaporation1 and the waters rise1 burst through the barriers of vegetation in the ,lukuga1 and are carried to the ,congo once more4 ,it was his second and third journeys that established ,livingstone's fame as a great explorer4 ,in those journeys 7#ahec-ef7 his routes were from the ,upper ,zambesi to ,loanda in ,portuguese ,west ,africa1 and then from ,loanda to the mouth of the ,zambesi1 nearly twelve thousand miles of travel4 ,the third journey was the first crossing of the continent2 and while traversing the wide savannas of the uplands and revealing the ,zambesi1 the fourth largest river of ,africa1 from source to delta1 he was able to verify one of the most brilliant generalizations ever made by a geologist4 ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 ,president of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 in #aheb1 deducing his conclusions from the very fragmentary and imperfect knowledge of ,africa then extant1 evolved his striking hypothesis as to the physical conformation of the continent1 which has been briefly mentioned above and is the accepted fact of to-day4 ,livingstone was able to prove the accuracy of this hypothesis1 and he dedicated his ,missionary ,travels to its distinguished author4 ,the ,makalolo chief1 ,sekeletu1 on the ,zambesi ,river1 supplied ,livingstone with men1 ivory1 and trading commissions1 that helped the humble and unknown white man1 lacking all financial resources except his slender salary1 to make the two great journeys which kindled the world's interest and led to the wonderful achievements of our generation4 ,in this noteworthy incident we see the human agencies through which ,africa will attain the full stature allotted to her4 ,the ,caucasian and the ,negro each has his onerous part in the work of bringing the civilized world and ,africa into touch and accord4 ,when ,livingstone went home1 after his third journey1 his fellow-countrymen crowded to see and hear the explorer1 who had added more facts to geographical knowledge than any other man of his time4 ,they saw a person of middle age1 plainly and rather carelessly dressed1 whose deep-furrowed and well-tanned face indicated a man of quick and keen discernment1 strong impulses1 inflexible resolution1 and habitual self-command4 ,they heard a speaker whose command of his mother tongue was imperfect1 and who apologized for his broken1 hesitating speech by saying that he had not spoken the ,english language for nearly sixteen years4 ,in no public place did he ever allude to his personal sufferings1 though fever had brought him to death's door and the years had been crowded with the most harrowing cares4 ,the work he had done and would carry on to the end1 the new ,africa he alone could describe1 the faith that had grown and strengthened in every week of his long pilgrimage that the world needed ,africa1 its resources and peoples1 were the burden of every utterance4 ,the great ,london meeting where he first appeared took practical measures to support him in the work he had begun unaided2 and one of the resolutions adopted1 declaring that the important discoveries of ,dr4 ,livingstone will tend hereafter greatly to advance the interest of civilization1 commerce1 and freedom among the numerous tribes and nations of that vast continent1 was prophetic of all the best fruits of the colossal work that has been done to the present time4 ,during his two years at home1 ,livingstone wrote his ,missionary ,travels4 ,he returned to ,england once more 7#ahfd-fe71 when he published ,a ,narrative of an ,expedition to the ,zambesi1 and in #ahff went back to ,africa to resume the explorations which ended only with his death4 ,between #ahdi and #ahgc he was four years in ,europe and twenty years in the field1 eating native food1 sleeping in straw huts 7in one of which he died71 lost to view for many years at a time because he had no means of communication with the coasts4 ,it was this fact that led to ,stanley's successful search for ,livingstone in #ahga4 ,perhaps no other explorer ever gave so many years to continuous field-work4 ,in this respect he far surpassed the record of any other of the ,african pioneers4 ,the discoveries in his last journeys1 covering the periods from #aheh to #ahfd1 and from #ahff to #ahgc1 were as brilliant and fruitful as his earlier work1 but not so astonishing1 because his first years were given to revealing the broader aspects of ,africa and its tribes1 while his later labors were devoted to more detailed research in a smaller field4 ,this region1 about as large as ,mexico and ,central ,america1 extends north and south1 from ,tanganyika to the ,zambesi1 and covers the wide region of the ,congo sources between ,nyassa and ,lake ,bangweolo4 ,the greatest results were the discovery of ,lake ,nyassa and the ,shire ,river1 now the water route into ,east ,central ,africa2 ,lakes ,bangweolo and ,mwero2 and the mapping of the eastern part of the sources of the ,upper ,congo1 which ,livingstone believed to the day of his death were the ultimate fountains of the ,nile4 ,livingstone's ,last ,journeys was published from the manuscript which his faithful servants brought to the seacoast with the mortal remains of their gentle master4 ,not far from the south coast of ,bangweolo stands a wooden construction to which is affixed a bronze tablet bearing the simple inscription1 ,livingstone died here4 ,ilala1 ,may #a1 #ahgc4 ,it has taken the place of the tree under which he died1 and where his heart1 which had been so true to ,africa1 was buried4 ,as the tree was nearly dead1 the section bearing the rude inscription cut by one of his servants was carefully removed and is now in ,london4 ,livingstone's geographical delineations were remarkably accurate1 considering the inadequate surveying instruments with which he worked4 ,dr4 ,ravenstein1 one of the greatest authorities on ,african cartography1 has said3 ,i should be loath to reject ,livingstone's work simply because the ground which he was the first to explore has since his death been gone over by another explorer4 ,it would be marvellous1 however1 if in the course of twenty years of exploration he had not made some blunders4 ,his map of ,lake ,bangweolo1 for example1 was very inaccurate4 ,the ,lokinga ,mountains1 which he mapped to the south of the lake1 have not been found by later explorers4 ,these imperfections resulted from the fact that his map of ,bangweolo and its neighborhood was largely based upon native information4 ,he knew that his map was inadequate1 and as soon as he was able to travel he returned to ,bangweolo to complete his survey4 ,he was making straight for the true outlet of the lake1 and was within thirty-five miles of it when one morning his servants found him in his lowly straw hut1 dead on his knees4 ,if ,livingstone had lived a few weeks longer and been able to travel1 he and not ,giraud would have given us the true map of ,bangweolo4 ,as a whole1 ,livingstone's work in geography1 anthropology1 and natural history1 stands the test of time4 ,no river in ,africa has yet been laid down with greater accuracy than the ,zambesi as delineated by this explorer4 ,the success of ,livingstone was both brilliant and unsullied4 ,the apostle and the pioneer of ,africa1 he went on his way without fear1 without egotism1 without desire of reward4 ,he proved that the white man may travel safely through many years in ,africa4 ,he observed richness of soil and abundance of natural products1 the guarantees of commerce4 ,he foretold the truth that the ,african tribes would be brought into the community of nations4 ,the logical result of the work he began and carried so far was the downfall of the ,african slave-trade1 which he denounced as the open sore of the world4 ,what eulogy is too great for such a work and such a man8 ,in #ahih1 twenty-one journeys had been made by explorers from sea to sea4 ,livingstone completed the first journey1 from ,loanda to the mouth of the ,zambesi1 in one year1 seven months1 and twenty-two days4 ,nineteen years elapsed before ,central ,africa was crossed again1 when ,cameron gave two years and nearly eight months to the journey4 ,it took ,stanley two years and eight months to cross ,africa1 when he solved the great mystery1 the course of the ,congo2 and when he went to the relief of ,emin ,pasha1 in #ahhg1 he was almost exactly the same time on the road4 ,when ,trivier crossed from the ,atlantic to the ,indian ,ocean1 in #ahhh-hi1 in nine days less than a year1 the event was held as a remarkably rapid performance4 ,a little later the journey was made by several travellers in from twelve to fifteen months4 ,in #ahih1 the ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,lloyd1 crossed from ,lake ,victoria to the mouth of the ,congo in three months1 about thirteen hundred miles of the journey being by ,congo steamboat and railroad4 ,in #aijb1 the journey from the ,indian ,ocean to ,lake ,victoria is made by rail in two and one-half days1--a journey that occupied ,speke for nine1 and ,stanley for eight months4 ,with the present facilities1 the continent may be crossed by way of the lake region and the ,congo in about three months4 ,the era of long and weary foot-marches has nearly ended2 now succeeds travel by steam4 ,no influence has been so potent in improving the art of the explorer1 or in raising the standard of the work required of him1 as the enormous interest that for thirty years past has centred in ,african exploration4 ,the larger part of the best achievements of the explorers of the present generation in scientific investigation1 and in an approach to scientific map-making1 are found in tropical ,africa4 ,many of the hundreds of the route surveys are not unworthy to be compared with those of ,pogge and ,wissmann1 when they laid down on their map every cultural and topographic feature for two miles on both sides of their route1 from ,angola to the ,upper ,congo4 ,the extreme care with which some of the best explorers have performed their tasks is illustrated by the remarkable achievement of the late ,dr4 ,junker along the ,mobangi ,river4 ,after years of service1 his scientific equipment had become practically worthless4 ,he started on his four-hundred-mile journey down the river through the jungle1 with absolutely no instrument except a compass to aid him in determining his positions4 ,endeavoring1 by the most scrupulous care1 to make up as far as possible for his lack of scientific outfit1 he trudged through the grass1 compass in hand1 counting every step4 ,every fifteen minutes he jotted in his notebook the distance and the mean direction travelled4 ,at night he used these accumulated data to lay down on his route map the journey of the day4 ,for many weeks he kept up this trying routine till he reached his furthest west1 and again till he had returned to his starting-point1 whose latitude and longitude he had previously determined4 ,when he returned to ,europe1 ,dr4 ,hassenstein and he made a map from the data ,junker had collected1 and fixed the position of his furthest west4 ,this position was found later by the astronomical observations of ,lieutenant ,le ,marinel to be less than two miles out of the way4 ,one of the latest to win a large prize in ,african discovery is ,dr4 ,a4 ,donaldson ,smith1 a young physician of ,philadelphia1 in the northeastern region known as ,somaliland and ,gallaland4 ,his method may be mentioned here as an illustration of the kind of work that geographers now require4 ,before he began his explorations1 he took a thorough course in the use of surveying instruments and the methods of accurately laying down his positions and making a route map4 ,many a cartographer1 burning with desire to draw a good map of a newly explored region1 has been driven to despair by the inadequacy of the route surveys in his hands4 ,not a few of these surveys have been unworthy of reproduction in the books of the explorers who made them1 and the best that could be done was to generalize their information on maps of comparatively small scale4 ,but ,donaldson ,smith's route-maps appear in his book on the comparatively large scale of #a3a1jjj1jjj 7about sixteen statute miles to the inch71 and they are worthy of that treatment1 for his surveys and observations for geographical positions were recorded in such a way that their value might be easily ascertained by any one familiar with such computations4 ,his route-maps have been found to be admirable map-making material2 thus1 he has not only traversed a new region of great extent1 but has given in his map ample materials which may be employed by any atlas-maker in the production of good maps of all the territory that came under his observation4 ,when ,sir ,clements ,markham presented to ,dr4 ,smith the ,patrons' ,medal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 he said3 ,you have not1 like an ordinary explorer1 made a common route survey1 but you have made a scientific survey1 a triangulation frequently checked by astronomical observations with theodolite and chronometer4 ,most ,african explorers have been painstaking1 conscientious workers1 eager in their quest for the truth1 desirous to report nothing but the truth1 and treating the lowly and ignorant they have met as men1 with sensibilities like their own1 capable of gratitude for a kindness and keenly sensitive to an outrage4 ,the world has recognized and applauded such heroes of discovery1--the men who faced hardship and peril1 enduring and sacrificing much that knowledge might grow2 who had to conquer not only unkind ,nature1 but to overcome the ignorant violence of man4 ,and not a few of the leaders in this work have carried it out with a degree of tactfulness1 humanity1 gentleness1 and kindliness of spirit amounting to genius4 ,some of them spent months in disguise1 collecting facts of the highest scientific value among fanatical ,mohammedans who would have killed them if they had known their secret4 ,such men were ,burton in ,harrar1 ,dr4 ,lenz in ,timbuctoo1 and ,de ,foucauld and ,harris in ,morocco1 who1 in stained skins and borrowed costumes1 personated merchants and devotees and doctors and ,jews2 and most of whom have enriched the literature of discovery with valuable books4 ,men also such as ,dr4 ,junker1 who1 rich as he was1 left his home to spend eight years alone among the savages of the ,welle ,makua basin in ,central ,africa1 living on their food and in their huts that he might minutely study the people in their country2 or ,grenfell1 who has travelled far more widely in the ,congo basin than ,stanley or any of his followers except ,delcommune1 and revealed to the world more river systems and unknown peoples than they1 and who1 in his long career as an explorer1 never fired a shot upon a native1 though his life was often threatened4 ,these men1 and others like them1 have exemplified the manysidedness of human resources against a great variety of peril and obstacle1 as no other explorers in any other part of the world have had an opportunity to do in equal measure4 ,their work1 with its environment of almost overwhelming difficulty1 should be known to our youth as most forceful illustrations of what good men may dare and do in good causes and in a worthy manner4 ,there have been some exceptions to this rule4 ,a few men have been less anxious to perform useful service than to figure in the newspapers and pose before their public4 ,one day a man stood on the north shore of ,victoria ,nyanza1 and looking south he saw land4 ,when he returned to ,london he published a sensational book1 in which he said it was ridiculous for ,speke to assert that he had discovered a lake as large as ,scotland1 one of the greatest lakes in the world4 ,why1 said the writer1 ,i have stood on the north shore of the ,victoria ,nyanza and looked south and seen the southern shore4 ,lake ,victoria is only an insignificant sheet of water1 after all the talk of its being second only to ,lake ,superior4 ,what he really saw was the chain of the ,sesse ,islands extending far out into the lake4 ,his book was scarcely off the press when the letters describing ,stanley's boat journeys around the shores of ,victoria ,nyanza began to be published in ,london and ,new ,york2 and the foolish fellow was compelled to recall all the copies of his book that had not passed beyond his reach1 and eliminate the statements that made him so ridiculous4 ,fortunately1 there are not many explorers of this stripe4 ,all who watched the progress of ,african discovery were constantly reminded that geographical progress is usually made only by slow and painful steps4 ,they saw an explorer emerge from the unknown with his notebooks and route maps replete with most interesting facts for the student and the cartographer4 ,then another explorer would enter the same region1 discover facts that had escaped the notice of the pioneer1 correct blunders his predecessor had made and perpetrate blunders of his own2 so explorer followed explorer1 each adding something to geographical knowledge1 each correcting earlier misconceptions1 till the total product1 well sifted by critical geographers1 gave the world a fair idea of the region explored2 but not the best attainable idea1 for scientific knowledge of a region comes only with its detailed exploration by trained observers1 equipped with the best appliances for use in their special fields of research4 ,this is the advanced stage of geographical study1 which is now being reached in many parts of ,africa4 ,it was ,livingstone's task1 in #ahei1 to inform us that there was a great ,lake ,nyassa4 ,it was ,rhoades's task1 in #ahig-aija1 to make a careful and accurate survey of its coast-lines1 and to sound its depths1 so that we now have an excellent idea of the conformation of the lake bottom4 ,between ,livingstone and ,rhoades came many explorers1 each adding important facts to our knowledge of this great sheet of water nearly twice as large as ,new ,jersey4 ,as each explorer came from the wilds1 our maps were corrected to conform with the new information he supplied2 and if we should examine the maps of ,africa in school geographies1 atlases1 and wall maps1 from the time of ,livingstone to the present day1 we should see that1 as relates to nearly every part of ,africa1 they have been in a continual state of transition4 ,for years our only map of ,victoria ,nyanza was that which ,speke made on his second journey to the lake1 in #ahfj-fb2 but ,speke saw the great lake only at one point on its south shore1 and along its northwest and north central coasts4 ,his map1 being based very largely upon native information1 was in many respects most incomplete and erroneous4 ,then came ,stanley's survey of the lake1 made in a boat journey around its coasts1 and for years his map supplanted that of ,speke4 ,but he was not able to follow the shore-line in all its intricate details4 ,his mapping was a great advance upon that of ,speke1 but it was necessarily rough and imperfect4 ,he missed entirely the deep indentation of ,baumann ,gulf and the southwestern prolongation of the lake1 surveyed by ,father ,schynse1 in #ahia4 ,stanley's map1 modified by the partial surveys of various explorers1 is still our mapping of the lake2 but if the reader will watch the maps for the next year or so1 he will doubtless observe important changes in the contours of ,victoria ,nyanza2 for all the maps1 from ,speke to those of #aijb1 will be placed on the shelf to serve only as the historical record of the good1 honest work which a number of explorers have done4 ,commander ,whitehouse has recently spent thirteen months surveying with infinite pains these coasts and islands4 ,i seem to see1 writes ,stanley of this important service1 the sailor1 with his small crew and his little steel boat1 wandering from point to point1 crossing and recrossing1 going from some island to some headland1 taking his bearings from that headland back again to the island1 and to some point far away4 ,commander ,whitehouse has made a new delineation of the entire #b1bjj miles of coasts1 and the results of his survey will be used in making all the maps of the lake4 ,his map in turn will undoubtedly be replaced some day by detailed topographic surveys of the best quality1 such as the ,british already contemplate making of that entire region4 ,a wall map recently in use in one of the public schools of ,new ,york ,city was a curious example of ignorant compilation4 ,it exhibited the ,victoria ,nyanza of ,speke1 the ,bangweolo of ,livingstone1 and the ,upper ,congo of ,stanley1 all obsolete for practical purposes years before this map was printed4 ,most of our home map-makers were very slow in availing themselves of the rich materials constantly supplied for the maps by the army of explorers in ,africa4 ,but the most alert cartographers1 particularly between #ahhj and #ahie1 could not keep their maps abreast of the news of discovery as it came to ,europe4 ,more men and energy and money were utilized in those fifteen years of ,african discovery than in the first century and a half of ,american exploration4 ,the route or mother-maps1 some covering a wide extent of country1 others devoted to a small area1 or a short line of travel1 were going to ,europe for the improvement of atlas sheets by nearly every steamer4 ,father ,schynse's chart of the southwest extension of ,victoria ,nyanza had hardly been utilized in ,european map-houses before it was replaced by ,dr4 ,baumann's more accurate survey4 ,mr4 ,wauters of ,belgium withdrew his large map of the ,congo ,basin from the printer four times1 in order to include fresh information before it was finally issued to the public4 ,this process is still going on1 though more slowly4 ,the mapping we see of ,lake ,tanganyika1 one of the longest lakes in the world1 has been in use for seventeen years since missionary ,hore made his boat journey of one thousand miles around its coasts1 but the new map of the ,moore expedition now being introduced gives the main axis of the lake a more northeast and southwest direction4 ,the ,hore map has met the fate that usually overtakes the early surveys of every region4 ,it rendered good service as long as it was the best map2 but the ,moore expedition had first-rate appliances for computing longitudes1 and as ,captain ,hore lacked these1 it is not strange that his map has been found to be defective4 ,the world has been treated to many geographical surprises in the course of this incessant transformation of the map of the continent4 ,many of us may remember in our school geographies1 the particular blackness and prominence of the ,kong ,mountains1 extending for two hundred miles parallel with the ,gulf of ,guinea4 ,they were accepted on the authority of ,mungo ,park1 ,cailli1 and ,bowditch1 all reputable explorers who had not seen the mountains1 but believed from native information that they existed4 ,the ,french explorer1 ,binger1 in #ahhg sought in vain for them4 ,later explorers have been unable to find them4 ,they are1 in fact1 a myth1 and will be remembered chiefly as a conspicuous instance of geographic delusion4 ,it had long been supposed that the navigation of the ,niger ,river1 the third largest river in ,africa1 was permanently impaired by the ,bussa ,rapids1 about one hundred miles in length1 where ,mungo ,park was wrecked and drowned4 ,but ,major ,toute1 a few years ago1 when assailed by hostile natives1 made a safe journey with his boats through the rapids2 and ,captain ,lenfant1 in #aija1 carried #ejj1jjj pounds of supplies up the river and through the rapids to the ,french stations between ,bussa and ,timbuktu4 ,he had a small1 flat-bottomed steamboat and a number of little boats propelled by fifty black paddlers4 ,he says that by the land route he would have required #ab1jjj porters1 and they would have been one hundred and thirty days on the road4 ,it was believed that a land portage would always be necessary between the sea and the ,zambesi1 above the delta1 till #ahhi1 when ,mr4 ,rankin discovered the ,chinde branch of the delta1 so broad and so deep that ocean vessels may ascend it and exchange freight with the river craft4 ,it has been found that more water pours into the ocean through the ,congo's mouth1 which is six miles wide1 than from all the other rivers in ,africa together4 ,it is second among the world's rivers1 and the dark detritus it carries to the ,atlantic has been distinctly traced on the ocean bed for six hundred miles from the land4 ,some geographers still believed thirty years ago that all the waters of its upper basin might be tributary to the ,nile4 ,map-makers have been kept very busy recording discoveries on the ,congo4 ,about one hundred explorers1 some of them missionaries and many employees of the ,congo ,free ,state1 have mapped the whole basin along its water-courses1 and discovered the ultimate source of its main stream4 ,our ideas of the hydrography of this great basin have been revolutionized since ,stanley1 second only to ,livingstone among the great ,african explorers1 in #ahgg revealed the course of the main river4 ,on his map1 for example1 he showed the southern tributaries as probably flowing nearly due north2 but all except one of these rivers rise in the east and flow far to the west4 ,when ,wissmann was sent to the ,upper ,kassai to follow it to the ,congo1 he was greatly surprised to find himself floating westward week after week4 ,when he reached the ,congo a steamboat was waiting for him at ,equatorville1 two hundred miles further up the river1 where he was expected to emerge4 ,schweinfurth believed the ,welle ,makua flowed north to ,lake ,chad on the edge of the ,sahara2 seventeen years later1 after six or seven explorers had tried to solve the problem1 the river was found to be the upper part of the ,mobangi tributary of the ,congo1 larger than any rivers of ,europe1 excepting the ,volga and ,danube4 ,while ,stanley was for five years planting his stations on the ,congo1 he knew nothing of this great tributary1 #a1ejj miles long1 whose mouth was hidden by a cluster of islands which his steamers repeatedly passed4 ,missionary ,grenfell1 on his little steamer1 was ascending the ,congo one day1 when accidentally he got into the mouth of the ,mobangi and went on for one hundred miles before he discovered that he had left the main river4 ,few explorers have unwittingly stumbled upon so rich a geographical prize4 ,while exploratory enterprises have been centred largely in tropical ,africa1 no part of the continent has been neglected4 ,we now know that large areas of the ,sahara are underlaid by waters which need only be brought to the surface to cover the desert around them with verdure2 that most of the rain falling on the south slopes of the ,atlas ,mountains sinks into the earth to impermeable strata of rock1 along which it makes its way far out into the desert2 that where the surface is depressed so that these waters come near to it1 there are wells for the refreshment of the camel caravans1 and oases1 blooming islands of green1 in the sterile wastes2 and that artesian wells bring inexhaustible supplies of water within reach1 so that millions of date palms have been planted along the northern edge of the desert in southern ,algiers and ,tunis1 making these regions the largest sources of the world's supply of dates4 ,it has also been discovered why there are very large areas of dry or desert lands in ,africa4 ,the ,sahara and the southwest of ,africa are deserts because the prevailing winds1 the carriers of moisture1 blow towards the sea instead of away from it1 and consequently are always dry4 ,the winds from the ,indian ,ocean crossing the highlands of ,abyssinia are wrung nearly dry while passing the mountains1 and so ,somaliland and the lowlands to the south of ,abyssinia are parched4 ,it has been found that the most of ,south ,africa stands so high above the sea that the influences of a temperate climate are projected far towards the ,equator2 so that many white men1 women1 and children are living and thriving on farms in ,mashonaland1 seven degrees of latitude nearer the equator than the south end of ,florida4 ,this fact will profoundly influence the development of ,south ,africa4 ,it is to be the home of millions of the white race1 the seat of a highly civilized empire1 whose business relations with the rest of the world will be to the advantage of every trading nation4 ,the presence of these millions of toilers will vitally affect the work of developing tropical ,africa which is now absorbing such enormous treasure and energy2 for ,south ,africa is to be brought by railroads to the very doors of the tropical zone4 ,it is hoped that such facts as these1 even though very briefly stated1 may convey broadly a correct impression of the magnitude of ,african exploration1 since its revival about the time that ,livingstone died4 ,it is impossible in brief space to signalize the good work that many of the most conspicuous pioneers have done4 ,the world rendered tardy tribute to the notable achievements of some of them4 ,when ,rebmann discovered ,kilimanjaro1 not far from the equator1 and told of the snows that crown the loftiest of ,african summits1 it was decided by ,british geographers that ,rebmann's snow was probably an imaginary aspect4 ,the snow was there1 and plenty of it1 but ,rebmann died before justice was done to his faithful labors4 ,when ,paul du ,chaillu described the ,obongo dwarfs of ,west ,africa1 his narrative was discredited2 but four or five groups of dwarfs1 probably numbering many thousands1 are now known to be scattered from the lower border of ,abyssinia to the ,kalahara desert in the far south4 ,the ancients had heard of the dwarfs1 but the geographers of the eighteenth century expunged from the maps of ,africa about all that the geographers of ,greece and ,rome1 as well as those of later times1 placed on them2 and the nineteenth century was slow in crediting the early investigators even with statements that were wholly or approximately accurate4 ,a curious history is connected with the discovery of the northeastern group of pygmies1 a little south of ,abyssinia4 ,no white man had ever seen them1 but about fifteen years ago ,dr4 ,henry ,schlichter1 of the ,british ,museum1 collected all the information which natives had given to missionaries1 traders1 and explorers of the existence of these little people some hundreds of miles from the sea4 ,sifting all this evidence1 he concluded that these dwarfs really existed1 and that they lived in a region which he marked on the map north of ,lake ,stefanie4 ,donaldson ,smith had not heard of ,schlichter's paper1 and knew nothing of these dwarfs1 but he found them in #ahie in the region which ,schlichter had indicated as their probable habitat4 ,the broadest generalization with regard to the ,african tribes is that which separates most of the peoples south of the ,sahara ,desert into two great groups1--the ,negro tribes1 whose habitat may be roughly indicated as extending between the ,atlantic and ,gallaland in ,east ,africa1 with the ,sahara as their northern1 and the latitude of the ,cameroons as their southern1 boundaries2 and the ,bantu tribes1 occupying nearly all of ,africa south of the ,negroes4 ,the distinction between these two great groups is not based upon special differences as to physical structure1 mental characteristics1 habits1 or development1 but depends solely upon philological considerations1 the languages of the ,negroes and the ,bantus forming two distinct groups4 ,most of the slaves who were brought to our country were ,negroes1 while most of those transported to ,latin ,america were from the ,bantu tribes4 ,one fact that stood out above all others in the study of the ,african natives1 was the remarkable prevalence of cannibalism in the ,congo basin4 ,in all his wanderings1 ,livingstone met only one cannibal tribe1--the ,manyema living between ,tanganyika and the ,upper ,congo2 but though they are not found near the sources of the river1 nor near its mouth1 they occupy about one-half of the ,congo basin4 ,they are regarded with fear and abhorrence by all tribes not addicted to the practice4 ,they number several millions4 ,instead of being the most debased of human creatures1 many of them1 in physical strength and courage1 in their iron work1 carving1 weaving1 and other arts1 are among the most advanced of ,african tribes4 ,the larger part of the natives in the service of the ,congo ,free ,state are from the cannibal tribes4 ,the laws now impose severe penalties for acts of cannibalism1 and the evil is decreasing as the influence of the state is extended over wider areas4 ,a few isolated tribes along the ,gulf of ,guinea are also cannibals4 ,there is no doubt that the helpful influences of the ,caucasian in every part of ,africa so far outweigh his harmful influences that the latter are but a drop in the bucket in comparison4 ,it is most unfortunate that a certain admixture of blundering1 severity1 brutality1 and wickedness seems inseparable from the development of all the newer parts of the world4 ,the demoralizing drink traffic1 the scandalous injustice and cruelty of some of the agents of civilized governments1 are not to be belittled or condoned4 ,but there is also a very bright side to the story of the white occupancy of ,africa4 ,the family of a deceased chief in ,central ,africa recently preserved his body unburied for fourteen months1 in the hope that they might prevail upon the ,british ,government to permit the sacrifice of women and slaves on his grave1 that he might have companions of his own household in the other world4 ,he was buried at last1 without shedding a drop of blood4 ,human sacrifices are now punishable with death throughout a large part of barbarous ,africa1 and the terrible evil is being abated as fast as the influence of the ,european governments is extended over new regions4 ,the practice of the arts of fetichism1 a kind of chicanery1 most injurious in its effects upon the superstitious natives1 is now punishable throughout the ,congo ,free ,state and ,british ,rhodesia4 ,arab slave-dealers no longer raid the ,congo plains and forests for slaves1 killing seven persons for every one they lead into captivity4 ,slave-raiding has been utterly wiped out in all parts of ,africa1 except in portions of the ,sudan and other districts over which white rule has not yet been asserted4 ,the ,arabs of the ,congo1 who went there from ,east ,africa solely that they might grow rich in the slave trade1 are now settled quietly on their rice and banana plantations4 ,the sale of strong drink has been restricted by international agreement to the coast regions1 where the traffic has long existed1 and its evils are somewhat mitigated there by the regulations now enforced4 ,fifty thousand ,congo natives who would not carry a pound of freight for ,stanley in #ahhj1 are now in the service of the white enterprises1 many of them working1 not for barter goods1 but for coin4 ,many of the missionary fields are thriving1 and wonderful results have been achieved in some of them4 ,in ,uganda1 where ,stanley in #ahge saw ,king ,mtesa impaling his victims1 there are now ninety thousand natives professing ,christianity1 three hundred and twenty churches1 and many thousands of children in the schools4 ,fifty thousand of the people can read4 ,between #ahhj and #ahhb ,stanley carried three little steamboats around #bce miles of rapids to the ,upper ,congo4 ,eighty steamers are now afloat there1 plying on nearly #h1jjj miles of rivers1 and connected with the sea by a railroad that has paid dividends from the day it was opened4 ,at the end of #ahij there were only #e1hac miles of railroad in ,africa4 ,about #ae1jjj miles are now in operation1 and the end of this decade is certain to see #be1jjj miles of railroads4 ,trains are running from ,cairo to ,khartum1 the seat of the ,mahdist tyranny1 in the centre of a vast region which1 until recently1 had been closed for many years to all the world4 ,these wonderful results are the fruits of the partition of ,africa among the ,european states4 ,with the exception of some waste regions in the ,libyan desert1 which no one has claimed1 ,morocco1 ,abyssinia1 and ,liberia1 every square mile of ,african territory has been divided among ,european powers1 either as colonies or as spheres of influence4 ,the scramble of twenty years for ,african lands is at an end1 there now being no valuable areas that are not covered by the existing agreements4 ,it is no mere love of humanity that has impelled the ,european countries to divide these regions among themselves4 ,we can scarcely realize the intensity of the struggle for existence in many of the overcrowded parts of ,europe4 ,their factories are enormously productive1 but their people will suffer for food unless they can export manufactures4 ,the crying need for new markets1 for new sources of raw material1 drove these states into ,africa4 ,and we should be glad1 for ,africa's sake1 that they have gone there1 even though the desire to make money is one of the most powerful incentives4 ,it is under the protective aegis of these governments that explorers are settling down in smaller areas to see what may be found between the explored water-courses1 to study the continent in detail1 to give to our knowledge of ,africa the scientific quality now required4 ,the greatest geographical work there in recent years is the extension of a line of stations across tropical ,africa by ,commander ,lemaire1 each position astronomically fixed by the most careful methods1 constituting a base-line east and west through ,africa to which the scientific mapping of a very large area will be referred4 ,the day of the minuter study of the whole continent has now dawned1 and we are witnessing a most notable work4 ,all the colonial powers1 and the ,germans most conspicuously1 are studying the economic questions relating to their ,african possessions4 ,the suitability of climates for colonists1 the essential rules of hygiene1 the development of agriculture1 labor supplies1 transportation and commercial facilities1 and many other problems are receiving the most careful attention4 ,experiment stations are maintained in the colonies and colonial schools at home1 to fit young men for service in the field4 ,the ,germans have already proved that cotton and tobacco are certain to become profitable export crops4 ,the mine-owners of the ,witwatersrand1 on which ,johannesburg stands1 have begun a movement which they hope will result in the immigration of #ajj1jjj white laborers to the mining field4 ,we may look for remarkable development in ,south ,africa1 whose promise is larger than that of any other part of the continent4 ,whatever may be said of some of the methods by which the ,british have enlarged their empire1 their rule has blessed the barbarous peoples whose countries they have absorbed4 ,the task of improving the few millions of blacks in ,south ,africa1 and of developing the large and in some respects wonderful resources of that region1 will be greatly assisted by the incoming of hundreds of thousands of ,europeans1 bringing with them the arts and other blessings of civilization4 ,the future of none of the newer parts of the world is brighter with the hope of great development than the region between the ,zambesi and the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,in order to observe intelligently the progress of ,south ,africa in coming years1 the limitations as well as the advantages of the country must be kept in view4 ,more than half of it1 including the entire western half1 is deficient in rainfall and can never be the home of a dense white population4 ,some mining will develop on those broad1 dry plains and sandy wastes2 some agriculture where irrigation is possible2 and great wool-growing wherever thrive the nutritious grasses on which #ac1jjj1jjj sheep1 scattered over the ,karroo of ,cape ,colony1 and #d1jjj1jjj in the little ,orange ,free ,state1 were grazing before the recent war4 ,wool-growing will always be the greatest grazing industry1 though cattle and horses are raised in large numbers1 and the fine1 soft hair of the ,angora goat is second only to wool in export importance4 ,a narrow strip of fine farm lands across the south end of ,africa1 another along the southern border of the former ,boer republics1 and a large area among the highlands of ,mashonaland1 far towards the equator1 produce nearly all the crops of the temperate zones4 ,it is not yet certain1 however1 that ,south ,africa will ever raise enough wheat for a great white population4 ,on the northern slopes of the hills1 east and northeast of ,cape ,town1 are thousands of acres of grapes4 ,cape ,colony is becoming one of the important wine countries2 and in ,february and ,march1 large quantities of grapes1 peaches1 nectarines1 and plums are placed in cool rooms on steamships and sent fresh to ,british markets almost before ,english fruit trees are in bloom4 ,east of the grape region is an area peculiarly adapted for the cultivation of tobacco2 and east of the tobacco district1 north of the coastal belt of wheat in a region of sandy scrub1 the bush country1 are the ostrich farms1 in the hands mainly of men of considerable capital1 who supply nearly all the feathers derived from the domesticated ostrich4 ,the plumes are sometimes worth as much as #bjj a pound1 the ordinary feathers bringing from #e to #g a pound4 ,natal is unique in two of its agricultural industries1 being the only colony that is producing tea and important quantities of cane sugar4 ,but gold1 widely scattered over the country on the interior plateau1 exceeds in value all the other exports together4 ,the world never saw such a development of gold mining in a small area as has occurred on the ,witwatersrand1 where ,johannesburg stands4 ,the ,witwatersrand 7,white ,river ,slope7 is a slight elevation1 the water parting between rivers1 about one and a half miles wide and #abe miles long4 ,on twenty-five miles of the rand1 at and near ,johannesburg1 more gold was produced in the year before the ,boer war than was yielded by any other country in the world1 ,the other rich mining regions of the ,transvaal and other parts of ,south ,africa have been completely dwarfed by the wonderful product of the rand4 ,the surveys in ,matabeleland and ,mashonaland show gold-bearing areas #e1jjj square miles in extent1 which as yet have practically no development4 ,the mining companies on the rand and elsewhere are now preparing for far larger operations than ever before4 ,the ,kimberley diamond mines1 turning out more than #bj1jjj1jjj worth of rough stones a year1 supply nearly all the diamonds of commerce4 ,two other diamond centres in the ,orange ,river ,colony have scarcely been touched1 and diamonds are found on the ,limpopo ,river and in other regions where no mining has been undertaken4 ,the minerals of ,south ,africa1 including iron and coal1 bid fair to be for many years the largest sources of wealth2 and in wool1 hides1 mohair1 fresh fruits1 and some other products1 ,south ,africa may rival other parts of the world4 ,there are no good natural harbors except ,delagoa ,bay in ,portuguese ,east ,africa1 but by great expenditure the harbors of ,cape ,town1 ,port ,elizabeth1 ,east ,london1 and ,durban have been adapted for great commerce4 ,many persons mistakenly regard ,cape ,town as the chief commercial centre of ,south ,africa4 ,it is so only in respect of the export of gold and diamonds4 ,as it is not centrally situated for business with the interior1 more of the things that ,south ,africa sells to and buys from the rest of the world1 excepting gold and diamonds1 pass through ,port ,elizabeth than through any other port4 ,here is centred the largest wholesale trade4 ,what ,south ,africa needs is more railroads and more white labor4 ,manufacturing industries on an important scale are yet to come1 for as yet the white population is too sparse to develop anything but the natural products of the country4 ,the broad summing up of the future work in ,africa is that the native will be taught to help himself4 ,the destiny of the continent depends largely upon his development1 for great parts of ,africa may never be adapted to become the home of many white men4 ,the most powerful motives1 philanthropic and selfish1 incite and will sustain the work of helping these millions to rise to a higher plane of humanity4 ,this work1 now well begun1 is the great task which in the present century will call for all the knowledge1 patience1 humanity1 and justice that may be brought to bear upon the problem of reclaiming ,africa4 ,,authorities4 ,livingstone's ,missionary ,travels1 ,a ,narrative of an ,expedition to the ,zambesi1 and ,last ,journeys2 ,blaikie's ,livingstone's ,personal ,life2 ,stanley's ,how ,i found ,livingstone4 ,stanley's ,through the ,dark ,continent1 ,the ,congo and the ,founding of its ,free ,state1 ,in ,darkest ,africa2 ,schweinfurth's ,the ,heart of ,africa2 ,burton's ,the ,lake ,regions of ,central ,africa2 ,speke's ,journal of the ,discovery of the ,source of the ,nile2 ,thomson's ,to the ,central ,african ,lakes and ,back2 ,barth's ,travels and ,discoveries in ,central ,africa2 ,theal's ,compendium of ,south ,african ,history2 ,greswell's ,geography of ,africa ,south of the ,zambesi2 ,noble's ,the ,redemption of ,africa 7,a ,history of ,african ,missions74 ,no comprehensive compendium of the history of ,african exploration has yet been written4 ,our knowledge of the geography1 peoples and resources of ,africa is treated with considerable detail in a number of works such as ,reclus's ,africa 7in ,the ,earth and ,its ,inhabitants7 and ,sievers's ,afrika 7,german74 ,a very large part of the exploratory enterprises in ,africa have not been described in books1 but only in the reports of the explorers1 printed with their original maps in the publications of many geographical and missionary societies4 ,,sir ,,austen ,,henry ,,layard4 #ahag-ahid4 ,,modern ,,archaeology4 ,,by ,,william ,,hayes ,,ward1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,it was twenty-three long centuries ago that a ,greek soldier of fortune1 who had the honor to be also a disciple of ,socrates1 was leading ten thousand mercenaries back to their native land after their famous failure to set the ,younger ,cyrus on the throne of ,persia4 ,clearchus and the other generals had been treacherously murdered4 ,dispirited1 almost hopeless1 on their way to the longed-for ,black ,sea1 in anticipation of the perilous and tedious journey1 past wild mountains and wilder ,kurds1 they toiled up the valley of the ,tigris ,river4 ,of one incident of their journey their historian and leader makes no record4 ,they reached the spot where now stands the city of ,mosul4 ,on the bank of the river their eyes fell on a bare and lofty hill4 ,they did not know1 they never suspected1--,xenophon wrote no word of it1--that under that hill lay buried the ruins of one of the mightiest conquering cities that had ever ruled the world4 ,from the palaces of that hill1 ,ninus and ,semiramis and ,sardanapalus had led their conquering armies1 all now covered with silence4 ,two centuries earlier1 in #fjf ,b4,c41 there had occurred one of the most tremendous catastrophes recorded in all the grim annals of war4 ,after a thousand years of primacy in the ,east1 but twenty years after the death of ,sardanapalus 7the ,greek name of ,asshurbanapal71 who had carried his armies to ,egypt and had made his capital the centre of the world's culture and magnificence1 as it was of its cruel and hated power1 ,nineveh was captured1 buried1 and utterly desolated by a horde of savage ,scythians from the mountains of the north and east1 such people as we now call the ,kurds4 ,its palaces had no lofty ,greek columns to stand for memorials1 as at ,palmyra or ,persepolis2 and when the outer casings of brick and alabaster were cracked away1 and the ashes of the upper stories and the clay of the inner constructions1 soaked by the rains1 covered the ruins of temple and palace1 nothing was left to mark the site but the grass-covered hill4 ,no wonder that the learned scholar of ,socrates saw nothing1 knew nothing of the city1 most glorious and most detested of all the cities of the earth4 ,but in its day the overthrow of ,nineveh and the destruction of the ,assyrian ,empire had been the most terrible event in the world's history4 ,how the ,hebrew prophets gloated over it6 ,where now is the den of the lions1 and the feeding-place of the young lions1 where the lion and the lioness walked1 the lion's whelp1 and none made them afraid8 ,wo to the bloody city2 it is all full of lies and rapine2 the prey departeth not4 ,the noise of the whip1 and the noise of the rattling of wheels1 and prancing horses1 and bounding chariots1 the horsemen mounting1 and the flashing sword1 and the glittering spear1 and a multitude of slain1 and a great heap of corpses1 and there is no end of the bodies4 ,there is no assuaging of the hurt2 thy wound is grievous2 all that hear the report of thee clap their hands over thee3 for upon whom hath not thy wickedness passed continually8 ,and another prophet had uttered the curse3 ,the pelican and the porcupine shall lodge in the capitals thereof2 their voice shall sound in the windows2 desolation shall be in the thresholds2 for he hath laid bare the cedar-work4 ,this is the joyous city that dwelt carelessly1 that said in her heart1 ',i am1 and there is none besides me6' ,how is she become a desolation1 a place for beasts to lie down in6 ,every one that passeth by her shall hiss1 and wag his hand4 ,thus fell ,nineveh1 amid the universal rejoicing of the nations1 and thus1 seventy years later1 fell ,babylon also1 which1 in the short interval1 ,nebuchadnezzar had made more magnificent than even ,nineveh had been1 beautified for its capture by ,cyrus4 ,but before ,babylon was the capital of ,chaldea1 or ,nineveh the capital of ,assyria1 the city of ,calah had been the seat of its kings1 and a mighty mound--they call it ,nimroud now--as high as ,st4 ,paul's steeple1 old travellers loved to say--marks the place on the east bank of the ,tigris1 twenty miles south of ,nineveh2 and1 before ,calah1 ,assyria had an earlier capital forty miles still nearer the ,babylonian border1 at ,asshur1 now ,kalah-,shergat1 on the west of the ,tigris2 and each capital had its palaces and records1 and all are now equally buried in clay and utter oblivion4 ,and before the ,babylon of ,nebuchadnezzar1 and long centuries before ,nineveh or ,calah or ,asshur1 there had been mighty kingdoms in ,babylonia1 of which the world had quite forgot the names1 only vague rumors remaining in song or legend of ,nimrod and ,chedorlaomer and ,ur of the ,chaldees1--only what was preserved in the dimmest records of the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,empires were lost1 buried in chiliads of forgetfulness2 would they ever be recovered8 ,and how much else was lost1 what kingdoms1 what empires buried before ,hebrew or ,greek history began to take notice of the world outside and put them in books1 no one knew1 no one knows even yet1 although so much has been found4 ,the fame of ,egypt was never quite forgotten1 nor all its history1 for ,egypt was the world's granary1 and closely accessible to the ships of ,corinth and ,rome2 and ,egypt never lost her civilization in all her long succession of enslavement4 ,but what memory had been kept of the ,ionia and ,greece of the days before ,homer8 ,what of the early civilization of ,cyprus and ,crete8 ,only the name of ,minos1 a judge in ,hell4 ,what of ,persia and ,elam8 ,were they uninhabited before the times of ,xerxes and ,cyrus8 ,and who were these kings1 ,cyrus and ,xerxes1 whose names burst upon us with dim light out of a black antiquity8 ,even they were but shadows on a screen1 just seen and disappearing4 ,what kings and kingdoms came before them and passed away8 ,has history no record8 ,not a word4 ,only black vacuity has been left behind them4 ,and there was that other empire of the ,east1 that of the ,hittites1 which we now know ruled ,asia ,minor and ,syria and contested the rule of the world with ,assyria and ,egypt centuries before ,agamemnon and ,achilles1 but so utterly buried and forgotten that not a line of its history was left1 not even enough to let the sharpest scholar ask a question or suspect that it ever built capitals and fought victories and produced a civilization the harvest of which we still enjoy4 ,nothing was left of them but their names in a ,hebrew list of tribes1--,amorites and ,jebusites and ,hivites and ,hittites4 ,yet all these lost tribes1 nay1 lost nations1 had left their records behind them1 only they were buried under ground and out of sight4 ,what a travesty it is on history and civilization1 what an impeachment of the glory of these later ,christian centuries1 that the lands which these old empires crowded with a busy population should now be among the most desolate and inaccessible on the face of the earth6 ,there we see the curse of the ,moslem religion1 and still more of the ,turkish government4 ,wherever the ,turk has carried the sword and the ,koran1 there is blight and death4 ,only as soldiers and scholars of ,europe have forced their way into these seats of ancient empires has it been possible to ask and learn what is buried beneath their gray desolation4 ,the man who did more than any other to awaken the interest of the world in the search for forgotten empires was ,sir ,henry ,layard1 the excavator of ,nineveh4 ,but before his day another man had startled the world with what we may call the discovery of ,egypt4 ,that man was ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 the man whose sword was a ploughshare turning up the fallow fields of ,europe1 and sowing strange crops of tyranny and liberty1 and whose ambition it was to set up a new throne in the land of the ,pharaohs and ,ptolemies4 ,the mighty ruins of ,karnak and the imperishable pyramids filled him with amazement1 and he set the scholars of ,france at work to publish in massive folios the wonders of that most ancient land4 ,then was found the ,rosetta ,stone1 with its inscription in two languages1--,greek1 which any scholar could read1 and the ,egyptian hieroglyphics1 which no living man could read4 ,but here was the key4 ,the words ,ptolemy and ,cleopatra were in the ,greek text1 and it was not hard to find what were the combinations of characters that stood for these words in the ,egyptian4 ,the letters p1 t1 and l were in both names4 ,the hieroglyphic signs found in both names must be these three letters4 ,that beginning gave all the other signs in both words1 and the rest of the alphabet soon followed4 ,justly great is the fame of the ,frenchman ,champollion1 who has the honor of having first deciphered and read this lost language1 and opened to us the secret treasures of its history and religion4 ,but with the exploration of ,egypt the scholarship of the world was satisfied for fifty years4 ,no one seemed to think to ask what might be hid under the soil of nearer ,palestine and ,syria and ,asia ,minor2 much less did they seek to uncover the buried capitals of ,assyria and ,babylonia4 ,scholarship was devoted to books1 to old manuscripts in convent libraries1 to recovering what the wise men of ,greece and ,rome had written1 and trying to wrest new facts out of their blundering old compilations of ancient history4 ,it did not occur to them that a hundred kings and ten thousand merchants and priests might have left the stories of their conquests or contracts or liturgies1 unrotted in the wet soil1 imperishably preserved to be the record of commerce and empires as old and as great as those of ,egypt1 but far deeper covered with oblivion4 ,but there they were1 kept safe for twenty1 thirty1 fifty centuries1 until the man should come whose mission it was to find them4 ,more than one such man came in the middle of the last century1 but one man is pre-eminent1 and typical of all the rest1 ,sir ,austen ,henry ,layard4 ,before him one ,frenchman1 ,m4 ,paul mile ,botta1 had made a fine dash on a palace city a dozen miles north of ,nineveh1 and had opened wonders such as the world had never seen before4 ,but the man whose energy was fullest of impulse1 whose enthusiasm compelled ,british ,ambassadors and ,ministers and ,parliaments to do his bidding1 who aroused the world to the importance of the exploration and disinterment of the monuments of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 was the ,englishman ,layard4 ,he had a youthful passion for adventure1 and slender means to gratify it4 ,i wish you could see him as he is pictured in the volume which gives the story of his early adventures1 before he had settled on his life-work of exploration4 ,there he stands clad in his ,bakhtiyari costume1 the dress of a mountain tribe in ,persia which asserted its independence of ,teheran4 ,it is a well-knit frame1 fit to endure hardships4 ,he stands holding the tall matchlock1 the curved scimetar by his side1 and the long pistol and the dagger in his belt4 ,above the yellow shoes and parti-woven stockings a red silk robe falls to his ankles1 and over that a green silk garment reaches to his knees1 and yet over that a shorter and richly embroidered coat1 with open sleeves1 is held close about the body by a wide silken sash woven in the brightest of red and gold1 and holding the weapons attached to his waist4 ,on his head is a low flat cap1 visorless in front1 but with a broad bow in place of a feather1 all striped with the richest embroidery1 and with a wide tassel of the same material falling far down his back4 ,but the face1 with its short beard dyed dark with henna1 and its blue eyes1 is not that of a warrior1 but of a serious scholar or diplomatist4 ,and he needed all the force of courage and all the arts of diplomacy for the work he had to do4 ,layard's early training was in the line of preparation for his life's work4 ,much of his boyhood was spent in ,italy1 where he acquired a taste for the fine arts1 and as much knowledge of them as a child could obtain who was constantly in the society of artists and connoisseurs4 ,at about the age of sixteen he was sent to ,england to study the law1 for which he was destined by his parents4 ,after six years in the office of a solicitor1 and in the chambers of an eminent conveyancer1--for that is the way that lawyers were educated then1--he determined to leave ,england and seek a career elsewhere4 ,he had a relative in ,ceylon1 who gave him hopes of securing a position there1 and for ,ceylon he started4 ,a friend of his1 ten years older1 was bound for the same destination1 both fond of adventure1 and they agreed to go together1 and to go as far as they could by land instead of taking the long sea journey around the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,across ,europe they passed to ,constantinople1 through ,austria1 ,dalmatia1 ,montenegro1 ,albania1 and ,bulgaria2 thence across ,asia ,minor to ,syria and ,palestine2 thence to ,aleppo and down the ,tigris to ,baghdad4 ,it was an extraordinary and adventurous journey1 often dangerous2 but greater danger was to follow4 ,layard had learned some ,turkish1 and now he spent the long weeks in ,baghdad in the study of ,persian2 his companion was quite familiar with ,arabic4 ,before they left ,england they had received good advice from ,sir ,john ,mac,neill1 the ,british representative at the court of the ,shah3 ,you must either travel as important personages1 with a retinue of servants and an adequate escort1 or alone1 as poor men1 with nothing to excite the cupidity of the people amongst whom you will have to mix4 ,if you cannot afford to adopt the first course1 you must take the latter4 ,the latter they were forced to take4 ,many a young man has the gift to acquire languages--almost any ,oriental can talk three or four--and the ability to rough it and live on the fare of the people1 though barbarous2 and many a man has the spirit of adventure2 but this young man had one peculiar and unusual qualification that directed him to his future career4 ,as a child1 he had read the ,arabian ,nights with intense delight1 with their stories centred about ,baghdad4 ,then every book of ,eastern adventure1 every bit of travel in ,syria1 ,arabia1 or ,persia that he could find he had eagerly devoured4 ,it was his day and night's longing that he might visit strange lands of history and make explorations and discoveries4 ,so wherever he was1 he visited every ruin and tried to copy every inscription4 ,if his companion would not turn aside to visit some region of renown and danger1 he would go alone and join him later4 ,as they came down the river ,tigris in their boat1 they passed the immense mound of ,nimroud1 and so impressed was ,layard by it that he then1 scarce twenty-three years old1 resolved that some day he would search and learn what was hidden under it2 but little did he imagine what wonderful monuments he was to find there only a few years later4 ,without a servant1 as poor men1 in a caravan of fanatical and hostile ,persian pilgrims returning from the shrines1 just travellers trying to go by land through ,persia and ,afghanistan to ,india and ,ceylon1 they left ,baghdad4 ,it was a time of unusual danger1 for the ,british ,minister had been recalled from the ,persian ,court1 and war with ,england was threatened4 ,they were taken for spies1 and sent to the presence of the ,shah1 and forbidden to follow the route they had chosen and which had been marked out for them by the ,council of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 to report on rivers and mountains and ruins not yet explored4 ,they were insulted and robbed1 and their lives were often in danger2 but at last they received from the ,shah their firmans4 ,now they separated4 ,his companion felt that he must go by the quickest route to his destination2 but ,layard had no definite date before him1 and he was anxious to perform the commissions of the ,geographical ,society1 and so he plunged alone into fresh dangers4 ,but there is no space to tell the rest of the story of his adventures among the ,bakhtiyari1 of his copying of inscriptions1 of his return to ,baghdad and his decision to give up the plans of life in ,ceylon1 and of his return from ,baghdad again to ,shuster and ,persepolis and other ancient cities of ,persia1 and his exploration of the ,karun ,river and his geographical paper on the subject1 his opening of ,british trade1 and his return to ,constantinople4 ,at ,mosul he found that ,m4 ,botta was planning to explore the mounds across the ,tigris that covered ancient ,nineveh1 and he warmly encouraged his plans4 ,at ,constantinople he visited ,sir ,stratford ,canning and delivered to him despatches that had been confided to his care1 in view of a threatened war between ,persia and ,turkey4 ,here he was kept in the service of the ,british ,embassy1 and intrusted with important and delicate negotiations and investigations which were so highly appreciated by ,sir ,stratford that he kept him as his attach4 ,meanwhile ,m4 ,botta had begun his excavations of a palace of ,king ,sargon at ,khorsabad and was sending his reports and drawings to ,paris4 ,they were all sent by way of ,constantinople1 and1 by ,m4 ,botta's generosity1 were all seen by ,mr4 ,layard4 ,so deeply was he interested in them1 and so intense was his desire to carry on excavations himself1 that he secured his release from the ,embassy1 and also a grant of three hundred dollars from ,sir ,stratford's own purse1 which1 with what he could spare from his own money1 would1 he hoped1 suffice to begin the work1 when1 if anything of value appeared1 it was trusted that funds would be secured from ,english friends of ,oriental learning4 ,thus1 six years after leaving ,england1 ,mr4 ,layard1 well equipped in knowledge of the people and in diplomatic experience1 was ready to launch on his great career1 which brought him fame and earned him the post in later years of ,british ,ambassador at the ,porte1 which ,sir ,stratford had held1 and--what is far greater--gave to the world the larger part of its knowledge of the lost empires of ,assyria and ,babylonia4 ,with these few hundred dollars1 and contributing every penny of his own income1 in ,october of #ahde1 he left ,constantinople without companion or servant1 went by steamer to ,samsoun1 and then as fast as post-horses could climb or gallop over mountains and plains1 he reached ,mosul in twelve days4 ,here at last he was fitted for his task1 supplied for the accomplishment of his passion4 ,the ,arabs say3 ,i had a horse1 but no desert2 ,i had a desert1 but no horse2 now ,i have a desert and a horse1 and shall ,i not ride8 ,his boyhood1 with the artists of ,italy1 and learning the languages of the continent1 had fitted him for his task2 then his study of all the books of ,eastern travel1 then half a year wandering with a trained companion through ,asia ,minor and ,syria1 scarcely leaving untrod one spot hallowed by tradition1 or unvisited one ruin consecrated by history1 with no protection but his arms1 living with the people and learning their prejudices and customs4 ,then an irresistible desire had brought him to the regions beyond the ,euphrates1 and the mystery of ,assyria1 ,babylonia1 and ,chaldea had fascinated him1 so that he had visited the land of ,nimrod1 seen the site of their old buried capitals1 had been the guest in the tents of ,shammar and ,aneyzah ,arabs1 and even passed on to see the famous forty columns of ,chilminar1 old ,persian ,persepolis1 and to penetrate the mountain fastnesses where the ,bakhtiyari maintained a perilous freedom4 ,never was man better trained by enthusiasm and experience for his task1 and the late discoveries of ,m4 ,botta had inflamed his desire to surpass what his ,french friend had done4 ,his plan was not to begin excavations at ,nineveh1 opposite ,mosul1 but twenty miles south1 at the great mound of ,nimroud1 which bore the name of the mighty hunter ,nimrod4 ,xenophon and his ,ten ,thousand had seen and wondered at its pyramid4 ,there he would be free from the army of mischievous spectators that would swarm from ,mosul1 had he selected the site of ,nineveh1 and from the constant interference of the ,turkish governor4 ,the ,pasha at ,mosul was a cruel scoundrel1 who was robbing and killing the people as his whim or greed prompted1 and had reduced the tribes of the neighborhood to a state of terror4 ,accordingly1 ,mr4 ,layard1 who was armed with protecting letters from the ,british ,ambassador and the ,porte1 thought it wise to conceal his purpose1 let it be reported that he was going on a hunting expedition2 and with a few tools and a supply of guns and spears1 on the #hth of ,november1 #ahde1 accompanied only by his cawass1 the soldier attendant detailed for the protection of travellers1 a servant1 and one laborer1 he floated down the ,tigris1 and in four hours reached the bourne of his long hopes4 ,he had the mound1 he had the money1 and now he would dig4 ,the ,arabs have strange stories of this ruin4 ,the palace1 they say1 was built by ,athur1 the vizier of ,nimrod4 ,there ,abraham brake in pieces the idols worshipped by the unbelievers4 ,nimrod was angry and waged war on the holy patriarch4 ,abraham prayed to ,god3 ,deliver me1 ,o ,god1 from this man who worships stones1 and boasts himself to be lord of all kings2 and ,god said to him1 ,how shall ,i punish him8 and the prophet answered1 ,to thee armies are as nothing1 and the strength and power of men likewise4 ,before the smallest of thy creatures will they perish4 ,and ,god was pleased at the faith of his servant1 and he sent a gnat that vexed ,nimrod day and night1 so that he built himself a room of glass in that palace that he might dwell therein and shut out the insect4 ,but the gnat entered also1 and passed by his ear into his brain1 upon which it fed1 and increased day by day1 so that the servants of ,nimrod beat his head continually with a mallet that he might have some ease from his pain2 but he died after suffering these torments four hundred years4 ,and after him the mound was named ,nimroud4 ,it was dark when ,layard and his little company reached the place4 ,they found near by a few huts occupied by poor ,arabs1 who had been harried by the ,turkish ,pasha4 ,there they slept1 or tried to sleep4 ,but the explorer could not sleep4 ,hear him3-- ,hopes1 long cherished1 were now to be realized1 or were to end in disappointment4 ,visions of palaces under ground1 of gigantic monsters1 of sculptured figures1 and endless inscriptions1 floated before me4 ,after forming plan after plan for removing the earth and extricating these treasures1 ,i fancied myself wandering in a maze of chambers from which ,i could find no outlet4 ,then1 again1 all was reburied1 and ,i was standing on the grass-covered mound4 ,exhausted1 ,i was at length sinking into sleep1 when1 hearing the voice of ,awad1 ,i rose from my carpet and joined him outside the tent4 ,the day already dawned4 ,the lofty cone and broad mound of ,nimroud broke like a distant mountain on the morning sky4 ,awad1 his host1 was a little chief among the ,arabs1 and was engaged to take charge of the diggers4 ,the first morning he had six ,arabs at work1 and found alabaster slabs with cuneiform inscriptions4 ,he was now sure he would succeed4 ,it is not necessary to give the diary of his work4 ,to be sure1 the villanous ,pasha forbade him to continue1 and recalled him to ,mosul1 but a new governor was sent from ,constantinople1 under whom he had no difficulty4 ,a great palace had been found1 and chamber after chamber was excavated1 the walls covered with bas-reliefs and inscriptions4 ,then came strange1 gigantic lions with human heads1 that had been placed by the old ,assyrian king to guard the entrances to his court4 ,what was the amazement of the ,arabs and ,turks cannot be told4 ,first1 the head was uncovered4 ,it stood out from the earth1 placid and vast4 ,hear ,layard tell the story4 ,he had been away to visit a neighboring chief3-- ,i was returning to the mound1 when ,i saw two ,arabs urging their mares to the top of their speed4 ',hasten1 ,o ,bey1' exclaimed one of them1 'hasten to the diggers1 for they have found ,nimrod himself4 ,by ,allah6 it is wonderful1 but it is true6 ,we have seen him with our eyes6 ,there is no ,god but ,god6' ,and both joining in this pious exclamation1 they galloped back to the tent4 ,layard hastened to the trench1 and there saw what he knew to be the head of a gigantic lion or bull1 such as ,botta had uncovered at ,khorsabad4 ,it was in admirable preservation4 ,the expression was calm1 yet majestic1 and the outline of the features showed a freedom and knowledge of art that was scarcely to be looked for at so early a period4 ,says the explorer3-- ,i was not surprised that the ,arabs had been amazed and terrified at this apparition4 ,it required no stretch of imagination to conjure up the most strange fancies4 ,this gigantic head1 blanched with age1 thus rising from the bowels of the earth1 might well have belonged to one of those fearful beings which are pictured in the traditions of the country as appearing to mortals1 slowly ascending from the regions below4 ',this is not the work of men's hands1' exclaimed ,sheikh ,abdurrahman1 who had galloped to the mound on the first news1 'but of those infidel giants of whom the ,prophet1 peace be with him6 has said that they were higher than the tallest date-tree2 this is one of the idols which ,noah1 peace be with him6 cursed before the flood6' ,in this opinion all the bystanders concurred4 ,the ,arabs have a ready explanation for every fresh discovery4 ,when some years later ,mr4 ,layard's assistant and successor in the work of excavation1 ,mr4 ,rassam1 uncovered1 at ,abu-habba1 a remarkable bas-relief with the figure of the seated ,sun-god and three approaching worshippers1 the ,arab diggers rushed to him1 declaring that they had found ,noah and his three sons1 ,shem1 ,ham1 and ,japhet1 and demanded a sheep to make a feast4 ,the report of the wonderful discovery of a royal palace1 evidently older than those of ,nineveh1 with magnificent decorations in alabaster and cuneiform inscriptions1 reached beyond ,mosul to ,constantinople4 ,sir ,stratford ,canning was delighted with the result of his expedition4 ,he had a passion for discovery as well as diplomacy1 and it is to him that the ,british ,museum is indebted for the priceless marbles of ,halicarnassus4 ,he now obtained for ,mr4 ,layard a firman1 permitting him to make what excavations he wished4 ,then the news reached ,london1 and the ,british ,museum made a grant to support the work4 ,all difficulties were now removed4 ,conditions were even more favorable for him than they are now4 ,there was then no ,imperial ,museum in ,constantinople to which all objects found must be taken1 but those that dug had the right to carry off their prizes to ,london or ,paris4 ,to tell the story of the further excavations is unnecessary4 ,it is all given in ,layard's two splendid volumes1 ,nineveh and its ,remains1 and ,babylon and ,nineveh2 and the bas-reliefs1 statues1 bronzes1 ivories1 and inscriptions are magnificently reproduced in great folio volumes4 ,from ,nimroud he went back to ,mosul1 and there opened the two mounds opposite of ,kuyunjik and ,neby-,yunus1 the site of old ,nineveh4 ,there more palaces and friezes were found of other kings4 ,then he went back to ,london1 closing his successful campaign1 more profitable if not more glorious than those of war1 and published the story of his work4 ,its effect was marvellous4 ,no such popular book of travels had ever appeared2 for it was a story of adventure1 and also of strange discovery4 ,mr4 ,layard had not suspected that he had the literary gift1 but he had it in rare measure4 ,he had gained an inner view of the heart of tribes1 ,moslem and ,christian and semi-pagan1 by his sympathy with them and his knowledge of their tongues4 ,he had lived in their tents and huts4 ,he had saved them from persecution by ,turkish governors4 ,their gratitude to him was beyond words1 and he told their story with affection and enthusiasm4 ,then his discoveries were in the lands made historic not only by the campaigns of ,xenophon and ,alexander1 but made almost sacred by the ,bible history4 ,these were the lands whence came the armies that fought with ,israel4 ,these were the kings whose wars are told in the ,jewish records2 and the annals of these kings were found in their palaces1 and they gave full accounts of wars of which the ,bible had given the outline4 ,piety and learning joined to give extraordinary interest to these discoveries and to this report of them4 ,mr4 ,layard found himself famous1 and the monuments he was bringing to the ,british ,museum were1 and still are1 the most extraordinary and fascinating in all its corridors4 ,of course1 a new grant was made in behalf of the ,british ,museum1 and of course he went back to continue and extend his researches4 ,now he wished to go further south1 beyond ,nimroud to ,kalah ,shergat1 the yet earlier capital of ,assyria2 and yet further to ,babylon1 that he might see and test the multitude of mounds of ancient ,chaldea1 the real land of ,nimrod1 the seat of ,eden1 and the ,tower of ,babel1 far more ancient than any one of the three capitals of ,assyria4 ,while he did scarce more than to visit and report on the ,babylonian mounds1 his diggings in ,nineveh itself were of vast importance1 for there he found the library of ,asshurbanabal1 on clay tablets1 which has given us our chief knowledge of the literature and learning of the ancient ,east4 ,in #aheb he returned to ,england to publish his ,monuments of ,nineveh1 and left the further exploration to his able lieutenant1 ,mr4 ,rassam1 and to a noble succession of explorers who should follow1 and to a no less noble line of scholars who should interpret the inscriptions and recover the history of the nations2 so that we now know more exactly the history of ,babylonian and ,assyrian kings1 and from more authentic records1 and more completely the social condition and business life of the countries1 than we do the history of ,greece1 or the life of the ,greeks even of the time of ,pericles1 and that1 too1 for a period of three thousand years4 ,to illustrate this fact1 let us take the black obelisk of ,shalmaneser ,,ii41 found by ,layard at ,nimroud4 ,it is a column of basalt seven feet high and about two feet wide at the base1 from which it narrows slightly1 until near the top it is reduced by three steps4 ,on the four sides is engraved in five rows of bas-reliefs1 twenty in all1 the pictured history of the royal conquests1 the submission of kings1 and the presentation of tribute4 ,above and below1 and between1 in two hundred and ten lines1 was cut an inscription which explained the figures1 and gave a full historical and1 of course1 contemporary and official account of the glorious events of the royal reign4 ,not a line was defaced2 at the ,british ,museum it can be seen to-day as perfect as when engraved twenty-seven centuries ago4 ,other monuments of ,shalmaneser have been found4 ,one is a great monolith with a portrait of the king in all his fine array1 and with one hundred and fifty-six lines of text4 ,another is a series of splendid bronze plates that covered great wooden gates1 on which1 in repouss work1 were pictures of the royal victories1 and inscriptions explaining them4 ,the ,bible tells us of the rivalries and jealousies of ,ahab and ,jehu1 kings of ,israel1 and ,benhadad and ,hazael1 kings of ,damascus4 ,how surprising it is to find here not only the story of the successive campaigns of ,shalmaneser against these same kings1 the number of their chariots and soldiers1 but to see pictured before us the tribute sent by ,jehu4 ,we learn that ,shalmaneser reigned from #hei to #hbe ,b4,c41 and we have the record of all his successive campaigns1 the first twenty-six of which he led in person4 ,there is not another country of which1 before the invention of printing1 we have so minute a history2 and all had been lost1 except the mention of a name or two1 whether historical or legendary we hardly knew1 until ,layard and his fellow-explorers opened the mounds of ,assyria4 ,but enough for ,layard4 ,he is only one1 though the principal one1 of all the explorers of the buried records of the empires of the ,tigris and ,euphrates4 ,and ,babylonia and ,assyria are not the only countries that history required us to explore4 ,greece and its neighboring states and islands have not even yet been fairly investigated4 ,much of ,asia ,minor is still a virgin field4 ,syria and ,palestine have hardly been scratched with the spade4 ,more has been done in ,egypt1 but more yet is to be done4 ,and when we go into the further east of ,persia and ,old ,elam1 not to speak of the yet farther east of ,central ,asia1 now just beginning to yield strange treasures to daring travellers1 and ancient ,india and ,china1--how ancient we know not at all1--there is field for centuries of further research4 ,for we must go back past empires and kingdoms and tribal conditions to the very beginning of the human race on the earth1 even if so it be1 to the first ,pithecanthropus which men of science tell us was the link which connected ,homo sapiens with the race of primitive simians4 ,and all this1 it may well be1 is preserved in undecaying records just a few feet under the ground1 if one only knew where to dig for it2 nay1 we now know where to dig for the most and best of it1 and we only await the ,stratford ,cannings1 who will give the money1 and the ,austen ,layards1 who have the enthusiasm for the work4 ,after ,layard and ,rassam1 after ,rawlinson and ,botta1 ,george ,smith took flying trips to the site of ,nineveh twice that he might gather the remaining fragments of the great library of ,asshurbanabal1 and he died in the field far from home4 ,it was he that found among ,layard's tablets the ,babylonian account of the ,deluge1 so much like that in the ,bible4 ,he was the first of a second generation who1 following ,rawlinson and ,oppert1 decipherers as well as explorers1 were able to read as they found4 ,i can only mention the names of the ,englishmen ,taylor and ,loftus2 of the ,frenchmen1 ,place and ,de ,sarzec2 and1 later1 the ,americans1 ,peters1 ,hilprecht1 and ,haynes1 who have so faithfully explored the extremely archaic mound of ,niffer1 which ,i had the honor to recommend for excavation after ,i had visited the mounds of ,southern ,babylonia in the winter of #ahhd-he4 ,and now the ,germans1 with scientific as well as commercial and political purpose1 with their railroad to pass down the valley through ,baghdad to the ,persian ,gulf1 which gives them predominant influence1 have sent expeditions well equipped with scholars and engineers to the choicest sites in ,babylonia1 to ,warka1 the ancient ,erech1 and to ,babylon itself2 and with ,teuton thoroughness they are excavating the most famous of ancient ruins and gathering fresh treasures of archaeological research4 ,nor have they left the land of the ,hittites unexplored1 for ,germany claims the first rights1 politically1 in all ,anatolia1 the right of succession and possession when the ,turk is expelled1 and ,german archaeological science is bound to be first on that field4 ,and now what have we found as the fruit of all this labor of exploration8 ,is it worth the labor and the expense8 ,let us look first--it can be only a glance--at ,egypt1 for ,egypt was the land first and most persistently explored4 ,the ,french ,government for scores of years has been at work there4 ,germans and ,italians have explored the ruins2 two ,english societies have for years kept expeditions in the field2 and just now a ,californian university sends an ,american ,egyptologist to uncover the tombs and read the hieroglyphs of the kings4 ,not only are the figured monuments of ,egypt published in princely folios1 but its records have been translated and its lost history recovered to the world's knowledge4 ,instead of the bare ,pharaoh of the ,bible1 a common designation for all the kings1 and in place of a bare list of names and dynasties copied from ,manetho1 and so altered and corrupted in the copying as to be neither ,greek nor ,egyptian1 we have1 on scarab1 or gravestone1 or pyramid1 or rock-sepulchre wall1 in his own spelling1 the name of almost every king from the latest time of the ,ptolemies back to the first king of the first dynasty1 five thousand--or was it six thousand8--years before ,christ4 ,and not their names only1 but the very pictures of their wars4 ,we see how they went up the ,nile and fought the blacks of ,abyssinia1 and brought back the spoils of ,punt ,we see them sending their squadrons into ,syrian ,asia1 and waging a dubious battle with the ,hittites before the walls of ,hamath1 where ,rameses in his lion-guarded chariot performs prodigies of valor1 and from which he returns not only to paint on sacred walls the picture of his victory1 but also to inscribe a copy of the treaty of peace with the ,hittite king1 the earliest treaty in the preserved annals of diplomacy4 ,well wrought that ,rameses the ,great for eternal fame in the sixty years of his reign1 fifteen centuries before the birth of our ,lord4 ,but what fame had been his1 had not explorers and excavators and scholars dug and found and copied and translated what the sands had covered for centuries8 ,and to-day the curious traveller stops in sight of the pyramids on the banks of the ,nile1 and enters the ,bulaq ,museum1 and there he sees set up before him the very mummy of ,rameses himself and of a dozen other royal personages1 rifled from their tombs and displayed for your amazement and mine4 ,there is the very ,pharaoh--you can see his features1 you can touch his coffin--who chased the ,children of ,israel out of ,egypt4 ,there are the household implements1 the furniture of their homes1 the jewelry their queens wore1--queens who were also sisters of the kings1 as ,sarah was the sister of ,abraham4 ,or would you know of some great revolution in ,egypt8 ,these decipherers of the inscriptions will tell you how the ,shepherd ,kings overthrew the native dynasty1 coming with their armies from ,asia long before ,rameses1 and changed religion and customs2 under whom ,jacob and his sons found hospitable welcome1 until their hated race was expelled by a stronger native dynasty that knew not ,joseph4 ,or they will tell you of the royal reformer ,khuenaten1 son of a famous ,eastern mother1 a queen from the banks of the ,euphrates4 ,taught by her1 perhaps1 a purer religion1 he attempted to replace the worship of ,egypt's bestial gods by the worship of the one only great ,god1 whose symbol was the sun4 ,but the priestly clan was too strong for him1 and the succeeding ,pharaohs destroyed his records and chiselled out his name where it had been cut in stone that no memory of his sacrilege might be preserved4 ,a royal ,moses there could not be4 ,the worshipper of one ,god1 whether king or son of ,pharaoh's daughter1 could bring no reformation to ,egypt4 ,or would you learn how ,egypt ruled its subject territory8 ,you can read the correspondence of a dozen local ,egyptian governors in ,palestine and ,syria in the century before ,moses led the ,hebrew slaves out of ,egypt4 ,there is the letter of the ,king of ,jerusalem1 where ,melchizedek reigned in the times of ,abraham2 and they tell of rebellions against the fading power of ,egypt1 and of the fear of the advancing ,hittites4 ,the earliest kings1 those that built the pyramids1 appear before us real in their personality1 emerging out of misty legend or myth1 and1 earlier still1 even the prehistoric races that antedated the very beginning of civilization4 ,whence came that first dynasty8 ,who invented writing8 ,were they autochthons8 ,hardly4 ,these are questions left for further explorers to answer4 ,probably those first messengers of civilization came from the ,east1 perhaps from ,arabia1 perhaps from ,babylonia1 or perhaps the first ,babylonians and ,egyptians formed a common stock somewhere near the mouth of the ,euphrates4 ,perhaps the ,bible is right in saying that the first seat of civilized man was in ,eden1 and that the ,euphrates was the chief river of ,paradise4 ,or was it from ,arabia1 the immemorial home of the ,semitic tribes1 that land of sand and mountain and fertile valley1 land of changeless culture and tradition1 so near the centres of civilization1 and yet still the most inaccessible1 the least known portion of the inhabited earth1--was it from ,arabia that the wiser1 stronger multitude came that first overran the valleys of both the ,nile and the ,euphrates1 bringing to ,egypt and ,chaldea arts and letters8 ,we do not know4 ,some future explorer must teach us4 ,but the ,german ,glaser has within these few years brought back from hazardous journeys a multitude of inscriptions that tell of kingdoms that fringed its southern coast and extended we know not how far into the interior in those early days when one of the queens of ,sheba brought presents to ,solomon1 and when1 earlier still1 we are told there were dukes of ,edom before there was any king in ,israel4 ,they say that a railroad is to be built to ,mecca2 ,arabia is not to be always a closed land1 neighbor as it is to ,egypt4 ,we shall know one of these days whether1 as scholars suspect1 out of ,arabia and across the ,straits of ,bab-el-,mandeb1 where1 at the southern end of the ,red ,sea1 ,africa almost touches ,asia1 there came that mighty flood of more forceful men1 bred in the deserts and hills1 who1 passing down the ,nile1 first brought history to ,egypt2 and whether it was this same ,semitic people1 as scholars suspect again1 that spread resistlessly eastward to the ,euphrates valley1 and did an equal service in conquering and assimilating the black aborigines of these swamps and lagoons4 ,the spade will tell us4 ,or was it still further east1 in the highlands of ,persia1 that men first learned how to write and record history8 ,we cannot go back so far in the history of ,babylonia--,professor ,hilprecht dares to carry us seven thousand years before ,christ--that we do not find its kings fighting against ,elam4 ,and only in the last decade of the ,nineteenth century the ,frenchman ,de ,morgan has made marvellous discoveries in the ,elamite lands4 ,what a noble passion those ,frenchmen have for discovery6 ,for ,egypt did not ,napoleon provide the most elephantine books of monuments and records that printing-presses have yet issued8 ,and from that time to this have not ,frenchmen held the primacy in excavations until1 even while ,england holds and rules ,egypt1 she leaves1 by special convention1 the care of its monuments and their exploration to ,french savants8 ,and before ,layard removed a basketful of the earth that covered the palace of ,shalmaneser at ,nimroud1 had not the ,frenchman ,botta disclosed the friezes and sphinxes of ,sargon at ,khorsabad2 and in these late years is it not the ,frenchman ,de ,sarzec who has brought from ,telloh to the ,louvre the statues of ,chaldean kings that lived almost five thousand years ago8 ,and so to ,france was given the right1 for the honor and enrichment of the ,louvre1 to explore ,persia2 and ,de ,morgan went to ,susa1 to ,shushan1 the palace of ,xerxes and ,darius1 of ,ahasuerus and ,esther1 in search of what was far earlier than they1 for another ,frenchman and his wife1 ,m4 and ,mme4 ,dieulafoy1 had already excavated the noble palace of these ,persian kings4 ,far below the palace of ,xerxes he has found vastly earlier remains4 ,there is the column set up1 if we can believe the ,assyriologists who trust the chronology of ,nabonidus1 the last king of ,babylon1--and it is not incredible1--three thousand eight hundred years before ,christ1 by ,naram-,sin1 a ,babylonian king1 to commemorate one of his raids into the land of what were perhaps his stronger enemies4 ,it is a noble composition1 with archaic writing1 and a stately figure of the king climbing the mountains and slaying his enemies2 it shows an art that might well have developed into the best that ,greece has produced4 ,but ,de ,morgan has only begun to scratch the surface of the mounds of ,elam1 and a multitude of scholars believe that out of ,elam came the first civilization of ,chaldea4 ,we shall find out yet2 for the record is in the earth1 and only waits the man who will dig it out1 and then the man who will read it4 ,we are tempted to go further east and recall that in ,india1 the land where ,alexander made his most distant conquests1 a multitude of ,english scholars have been searching the ruins of old temples for the earliest memorials of the worship of ,buddha4 ,just now they have found his birthplace and precious relics4 ,but that takes us too far afield1 and would tempt us to further excursions in ,burmah and ,china4 ,we must come back to ,western ,asia and the shores of ,europe4 ,as has been indicated1 the greatest puzzle of ancient history is that of the ,hittite empire1 which seems to have ruled all ,asia ,minor at some uncertain time1 and to have extended over ,syria and ,palestine4 ,no sooner had the greatest ,egyptian kings1 ,thothmes and ,rameses1 ventured their armies into ,asia1 perhaps in vengeance on the incursions of ,ionian pirates1 perhaps in requital of the tyrannies of the hated ,shepherd ,kings1 than they learned of the ,hittites on the shores of the ,euphrates4 ,then1 a century or two later1 a mass of official correspondence sent by the ,kings of ,palestine and ,syria1 dug up in ,egypt1 reports that the ,hittites had appeared as invaders from the north and beseeches military aid4 ,but the power of ,egypt had waned1 and the ,hittites were supreme until the ,assyrians began and carried on for five centuries the uncertain war which ended in the utter overthrow of the ,hittites and all their allies in a great battle at ,carchemish4 ,that great mound of ,carchemish needs to be thoroughly explored4 ,already an ,english expedition has very carelessly just opened the hill and exposed1 but not fairly published1 some few as fine friezes as are to be found in the ,assyrian capitals1 with unread ,hittite inscriptions1 and a fine statue of the ,hittite ,venus2 but much remains to reward the student of ,oriental history and art4 ,at ,senjirli a ,german expedition under ,von ,luschan has done more and better work1 handsomely published1 but this was a smaller ,syrian town1 and less was to be expected2 and yet here1 and near by1 were found what was not expected1 steles 7upright slabs or pillars7 with the portraits of kings in high relief1 covered over with long inscriptions in ,aramaic1 the oldest and longest as yet discovered anywhere in that language4 ,it was a magnificent result of very moderate labor1--,hittite friezes1 ,assyrian and ,aramean inscriptions all in one little mound4 ,but for the most part we know the art and writing of the ,hittites from what we have found above ground1 in their towns and fortresses in the hills1 for little digging has been done4 ,at ,pterium was a principal sacred capital1 and there1 on a natural corridor of rock1 they carved a procession of gods and kings and soldiers that excites the wonder of scholars4 ,as ,i write1 the announcement comes that ,professor ,sayce has at last discovered the secret of the ,hittite hieroglyphs1 and we may hope that very soon it will be possible to read them4 ,but there is vastly more of their records yet to be disinterred4 ,and there remain the two lands most sacred and beloved in poetry and history1--the land of ,israel and the land of ,homer4 ,it is amazing that so little search has been made to find out what is hidden under the soil of ,palestine4 ,scholars in plenty have walked over the top of it1 and have told all that is on the surface1 but almost nothing has been done underground1 no such excavations as in ,egypt or ,assyria4 ,i do not forget that the ,english ,palestine ,exploration ,fund has followed out1 with trenches and tunnels1 the walls of ,jerusalem1 nor that one or two old mounds have been partly explored4 ,but what is this to the great work that needs to be done8 ,there has been found on the surface the ,moabite ,stone1 at the old capital of ,dibon1 a wonderful record of early kings mentioned in the ,bible4 ,and there is the short account in the rock-cut conduit of ,siloam1 of the success of the workmen in the time of ,hezekiah1 who1 beginning at the two ends1 did the fine engineering feat of having their tunnels meet correctly in the solid rock4 ,but when ,jerusalem is fully explored1 and the northern capitals of ,bethel and ,tirzah and ,samaria1 and a hundred other mounds that mark the site of ,jewish1 ,israelite1 ,philistine1 and ,amorite cities1 we may expect marvellous discoveries that will illumine our ,holy ,scriptures4 ,and one region yet remains to be considered1 the scattered coasts and islands that owned the ,greek speech1 and that created the ,greek civilization4 ,it is not the ,greece of the ,parthenon and ,pericles that we wish to discover1 for that we fairly know2 but the arts and the history of those earlier ,greeks and ,trojans that ,homer tells of1 the age of ,agamemnon and ,ulysses1 of ,helen and ,hector and ,priam1 and of the yet earlier tribes that sailed the ,aegean1 and settled the ,mediterranean islands1 and sent their ships to the ,egyptian coasts1 and sought golden fleeces on the ,euxine ,sea4 ,all about the coast of ,asia ,minor they lived1 while that ,hittite power was ruling the interior2 and1 intermixed with ,phoenician trading-posts1 they held the great islands of ,crete and ,cyprus and the shores of ,sicily and ,italy4 ,what shall we call them8 ,were they ,dorians1 or ,heraclidae1 ,achaeans or ,pelasgi8 ,were they of the same race as the mysterious ,etruscans1 or shall we name them simply ,mycenaeans1 as we call the art ,mycenaean that ruled the islands and coasts down to the ,homeric age1 and we know not how many centuries earlier1 but certainly as far back as the conquering period of the ,eighteenth ,egyptian ,dynasty of ,thothmes8 ,their soldiers and merchants and their fine vases are pictured on the walls of ,egypt1 and their pottery has long been studied2 but we knew little of them until ,dr4 ,schliemann1 the ,greek merchant who achieved wealth in the ,united ,states1 bravely opened the great ruins of ,troy1 in the full patriotism of his assurance that ,homer's story of the ,trojan war was history as well as poetry4 ,as he found one burnt and buried city under another1--for many times was ,troy destroyed1--and extended his investigations to ,tiryns and other ancient cities1 one volume of splendid research followed another1 until the trader had compelled the unwilling scholar to confess that he must dig for both history and art4 ,to be sure1 his interpretations were quite too literal at first1 but the whole world of classical scholarship has learned from him the new method of research4 ,splendid have been the results4 ,if we are not sure which stratum represents the city of ,priam1 we do learn how the people lived1 and how fine was their work in silver and gold1 and how slight their knowledge of letters4 ,dr4 ,schliemann has now a multitude of imitators4 ,france and ,germany and ,england and the ,united ,states each maintain a school of archaeology in ,athens1 and each conducts careful explorations4 ,our ,american ,school lost to the ,french1 for lack of money at the right time1 the chance to explore ,delphi1 but it has carried on careful explorations at ,corinth and other places4 ,how wonderful was the discovery1 not long ago1 of a shipload of bronze and marble statues wrecked while being transported as spoil of war from ,corinth to ,rome6 ,but the most surprising discoveries in the realm of old ,greek history and art are those that have been made in these last two or three years in ,crete4 ,crete was a famous centre of ancient ,greek legend4 ,jupiter was born and reared on ,mount ,ida4 ,from another mountain summit in ,crete the gods watched the battle on the plains of ,troy4 ,there ruled ,minos1 who first gave laws to men1 and who at his death was sent by the gods to judge the shades as they entered the lower world4 ,there was the famous ,labyrinth1 and there the ,minotaur devoured his annual tale of maidens until he was slain by ,theseus4 ,was there such a real palace of ,minos as the ,greek poets sung8 ,the magnificent palace of the ,cretan kings at ,cnossus has been found1 by ,mr4 ,evans1 with its friezes1 its spiral ornaments1 its flounce-petticoated women1 its treasuries1 and its tablets written in a script so old that it cannot yet be read1 but which will be read as surely as scholarship leaves none of its riddles unsolved4 ,the childhood of ,greece1 its mighty infancy1 out of which it grew to be the creator and the example of all the world's culture1 is even now being exposed to our view1 safely kept to be recovered by the scholars of our generation4 ,of interest rather to the student of the curiosities of history are the mounds and pyramids and temples built by the aborigines of ,america2 for these tribes have had absolutely no part in creating our dominant civilization or developing its art4 ,china and ,japan are1 at this late day1 giving something to the world's store of beauty and utility2 but the mound-builders and cliff-dwellers1 the ,mayas and ,toltecs and ,incas1 have given absolutely nothing which the world cared to accept4 ,but this does not argue that it is not worth while to learn what we can of the rude civilization of the races whom we have displaced4 ,their arrowheads and hatchets are in every little museum4 ,their mounds1 sometimes shaped like serpents or tortoises or lizards1 are scattered over all the central ,states1 and many of them have been carefully explored with scanty results4 ,the cliff-dwellers have left somewhat richer remains1 more baskets and parched corn1 yet nothing of artistic value4 ,we have to go to ,mexico and ,yucatan and further south to ,peru1 to find the majestic capitals of the ,mayas and ,incas1 who had really reached a fair degree of such civilization as stone and copper1 without iron1 and the beginnings of picture symbols1 without letters1 could provide4 ,humboldt and ,stephens1 and ,lord ,kingsborough1 and ,squier1 and ,tchudi1 and ,charnay have made explorations and found vast and wonderful cities1 some of them deserted and overgrown before ,cortez and ,pizarro took possession of the lands for ,spain and enslaved the people4 ,where the city of ,mexico now stands was a famous capital1 from whose ruins were taken the great ,calendar stone and the double statue of the god of war and the god of death4 ,in ,palenque and ,uxmal1 capitals of ,yucatan1 were immense palaces and temples1 with the weird ornamentation of ,mayan imagination2 and equal wonders exist in the high uplands where the ,incas ruled ,peru4 ,even their barbaric art and their unrecorded history must be recovered1 to satisfy the curiosity of the more fortunate races whose boasted ,christianity visited on them nothing better than cruel slaughter4 ,at least we can give them museums and publish magnificent pictures of their ruins4 ,so we may bless the ashes and sand that seemed to destroy and bury the monuments of the mighty empires of the ancient world1 but which have kindly covered and preserved them1 just as we put our treasures away in some safety-vault while absent on a long journey4 ,the fire burned the upper wooden walls of the city1 and it fell in ruins1 but under those ruins1 covered by that ashes1 were preserved for two thousand1 three thousand1 five thousand years uninjured1 the choicest sculpture and the most precious records of ancient nations1--retained beyond the reach of vandal hands1 until scholarship had grown wise enough to ask questions of forgotten history1 and had sent ,layard and ,schliemann and ,de ,sarzec and ,evans and a hundred other men to dig with their competitive spades4 ,but in all the long list of enthusiasts not one deserves a higher honor or has reaped a richer harvest than ,sir ,henry ,layard4 ,,authorities4 ,layard3 ,early ,adventures2 ,nineveh and its ,remains2 ,nineveh and ,babylon2 ,monuments of ,nineveh4 ,botta3 ,monument de ,ninive4 ,loftus3 ,chaldea and ,susiana4 ,y4 ,place3 ,ninive et ,assyrie4 ,hilprecht3 ,babylonian ,expedition of the ,university of ,pennsylvania2 ,recent ,research in ,bible ,lands4 ,perrot and ,chipiez3 ,history of ,art in ,antiquity4 ,j4,p4 ,peters3 ,nippur4 ,r4,w4 ,rogers3 ,history of ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,f4 ,lenormant3 ,students' ,manual of the ,ancient ,history of the ,east2 ,the ,beginnings of ,history4 ,maspero3 ,dawn of ,civilization2 ,struggle of the ,nations2 ,passing of the ,empires2 ,egyptian ,archaeology2 ,life in ,ancient ,egypt and ,assyria4 ,c4,j4 ,ball3 ,light from the ,east4 ,egypt ,exploration ,fund's ,publications4 ,f4,j4 ,bliss3 ,exploration in ,jerusalem2 ,a ,mound of ,many ,cities4 ,schliemann3 ,troy and its ,remains2 ,ilios2 ,mycenae2 ,tiryns2 ,troja4 ,a4,j4 ,evans3 ,cnossus2 ,cretan ,pictographs4 ,tsountas and ,manatt3 ,the ,mycenaean ,age4 ,,michael ,,faraday4 #agia-ahfg4 ,,electricity ,,and ,,magnetism4 ,,by ,,edwin ,j4 ,,houston1 ,,ph4,d4 ,no man is born into the world whose work ,is not born with him4 ,there is always work1 ,and tools to work withal1 for those who will4 ,,lowell ,a man was born into the world1 on the #bb;d of ,september1 #agia1 whose work was born with him1 and who did this work so well that he became one of its greatest benefactors4 ,indeed1 much of the marvellous advance made in the electric arts and sciences1 during the last half-century1 can be directly traced to this work4 ,it was in ,newington ,butts1 in ,london1 ,england1 that the man-child first opened his eyes on the wonders of the physical world around him4 ,to those eyes1 in after years1 were given a far deeper insight into the mysteries of nature than often falls to the lot of man4 ,this man-child was ,michael ,faraday1 who has been justly styled1 by those best capable of judging him1 ,the ,prince of ,experimental ,philosophers4 ,the precocity so common in the childhood of men of genius was apparently absent in the case of young ,faraday4 ,the growing boy played marbles1 and worried through a scant education in reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1 unnoticed1 and most probably1 for the greater part1 severely left alone1 as commonly falls to the lot of nearly all boys1 whether ordinary or extraordinary4 ,at the early age of thirteen1 he was taken from school and placed on trial as errand-boy in the book-shop of ,george ,ribeau1 in ,london4 ,after a year at this work1 he was taken as an apprentice to the book-binding trade1 by the same employer1 who1 on account of his faithful services1 remitted the customary premium4 ,at this work he spent some eight years of his life4 ,but far be it from us even to hint at the absence of genius in the young child4 ,genius is not an acquired gift4 ,it is born in the individual4 ,apart from the marvellous achievements of the man1 a mere glance at the magnificent head1 with its high intellectual forehead1 the firm lips1 the intelligent inquiring eyes1 and the bright face1 as seen in existing pictures1 assures us that they portray an unusual individuality1 incompatible with even a suspicion of belonging to an ordinary man4 ,doubtless the growing child did give early promise of his future greatness4 ,doubtless he was a formidable member of that terrible class of inquiring youngsters who demand the why and the wherefore of all around them1 and refuse to accept the unsatisfactory belief of their fathers that things are because they are4 ,in its self-complacency1 the busy world is too apt to fail to notice unusual abilities in children1--abilities that perhaps too often remain undeveloped from lack of opportunities4 ,but whether young ,faraday did or did not1 at an early age1 display any unusual promise of his life-work1 all his biographers appear to agree that he could not be regarded as a precocious child4 ,faraday disclaimed the idea that his childhood was distinguished by any precocity4 ,do not suppose that ,i was a very deep thinker1 or was marked as a precocious person1 says ,faraday1 when alluding to his early life4 ,i was a very lively1 imaginative person1 and could believe in the ',arabian ,nights' as easily as the ',encyclopaedia1' but facts were important to me1 and saved me4 ,i could trust a fact and always cross-examined an assertion4 ,so when ,i questioned ,mrs4 ,marcet's book he is alluding to her ',conversations on ,chemistry'1 by such little experiments as ,i could find means to perform1 and found it true to the facts as ,i could understand them1 ,i felt that ,i had got hold of an anchor in chemical knowledge1 and clung fast to it4 ,but while there may be a question as to the existence of precocity in the young lad1 there does not appear to be any reason for believing that his unusual abilities were the result of direct heredity4 ,his father1 an ordinary journeyman blacksmith1 never exhibited any special intellectual ability1 though possibly poverty and poor health may have been responsible for this failure4 ,his mother1 too1 it appears1 was of but ordinary mentality4 ,the environment of those early years--that is1 from #ahjd to #ahac1 while in the book-binding business--was far from calculated to develop any marked abilities inherent in our young philosopher4 ,what would seem less calculated to inspire a wish to obtain a deeper insight into the mysteries of the physical world than the trade of book-binding1 especially in the case of a boy whose scholastic education ceased at fourteen years and was limited to the mere rudiments of learning8 ,but1 fortunately for the world1 the inquiring spirit of the lad led him to examine the inside of the books he bound1 and thus1 by familiarizing himself with their contents1 he received the inspiration that good writing is always ready to bestow on those who properly read it4 ,two books1 he afterwards informs us1 proved of especial benefit2 namely1 ,marcet's ,conversations on ,chemistry1 already referred to1 and the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica4 ,to the former he attributes his grounding in chemistry1 and to the latter his first ideas in electricity1 in both of which studies he excelled in after years4 ,as we have seen1 even at this early age he followed the true plan for the physical investigator1 cross-questioned all statements1 only admitting those to the dignity of facts whose truth he had established by careful experimentation4 ,but our future experimental philosopher has not as yet fairly started on the beginnings of his life-work4 ,the possibilities of the book-binding trade were too limited to permit much real progress4 ,a circumstance occurred in the spring of #ahab that shaped his entire after-life4 ,this was the opportunity then afforded him to attend four of the last lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution1 by the great ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,faraday took copious notes of these lectures1 carefully wrote them out1 and bound them in a small quarto volume4 ,it was this volume1 which he afterwards sent to ,davy1 that resulted in his receiving1 on ,march #a1 #ahac1 the appointment of laboratory assistant in the ,royal ,institution4 ,his pay for this work was twenty-five shillings a week1 with a lodging on the top floor of the ,institute1 a very fair compensation for the times4 ,very congenial were the duties of the young assistant4 ,they were to keep clean the beloved apparatus of the lecturers1 and to assist them in their demonstrations4 ,the new world thus opened was full of bright promise4 ,he keenly felt the deficiencies of his early education1 and did his best to extend his learning1 so that he might be able to make the most of his opportunities4 ,but what he perhaps appreciated the most was the inspiration he received from the great teacher ,davy1 who was then ,professor of ,chemistry and ,director of the ,laboratory of the ,royal ,institution2 for ,faraday assisted at ,davy's lectures1 and in an humble way even aided his investigations1 sharing the dangers arising from the explosion of the unstable substance1 chloride of nitrogen1 that ,davy was then investigating4 ,faraday has repeatedly acknowledged the debt owed to the inspiration of this teacher4 ,davy also1 in later life generously recognized1 in his former assistant1 a philosopher greater than himself4 ,as the renowned astronomer1 ,tycho ,brahe1 discovered in one of his pupils1 ,john ,kepler1 an astronomer greater than the master1 and as ,bergman1 the ,swedish chemist1 in a similar manner1 discovered the greater chemist ,scheele1 so when ,davy1 in after years1 was asked what he regarded as his greatest discovery1 he briefly replied1 ,michael ,faraday4 ,the task of the scientific historian1 who endeavors honestly to record the progress of research1 and to trace the influence of the work of some individual on the times in which he lived1 is by no means an easy one2 for1 in scientific work one discovery frequently passes so insensibly into another that it is often difficult to know just where one stops and the other begins1 and much difficulty constantly arises as to whom the credit should be given1 when1 as is too often the case1 these discoveries are made by different individuals4 ,it is only when some great discovery stands alone1 like a giant mountain peak against the clear sky1 that it is comparatively easy to determine the extent and character of its influence on other discoveries1 and justly to give the credit to whom the credit is due4 ,such discoveries form ready points of reference in the intellectual horizon1 and mark distinct eras in the world's progress4 ,this is true of all work in the domain of physical science1 but it is especially true in that of electricity and magnetism1 in which ,faraday was pre-eminent4 ,the scope of each of these sciences is so extended1 the number of workers so great1 and the applications to the practical arts so nearly innumerable1 that it is often by no means an easy task correctly to trace their proper growth and development4 ,faraday's investigations covered vast fields in the domain of chemistry1 electricity1 and magnetism4 ,it is to the last two only that reference will here be made4 ,faraday's life-work in electricity and magnetism began practically in #ahca1 when he made his immortal discovery of the direct production of electricity from magnetism4 ,his best work in electricity and magnetism was accomplished between #ahca and #ahef1 extending1 therefore1 over a period of some twenty-five years1 although it is not denied that good work was done since #ahef4 ,consequently1 it was at so comparatively recent a date that most of ,faraday's work was done that some of the world's distinguished electricians yet live who began their studies during the latter years of ,faraday's life4 ,the difficulties of tracing1 at least to some extent1 the influence that ,faraday's masterly investigations have had on the present condition of the electrical arts and sciences will1 therefore1 be considerably lessened4 ,the extent of ,faraday's researches and discoveries in magnetism and electricity was so great that it will be impossible1 in the necessarily limited space of a brief biographical sketch1 to notice any but the more prominent4 ,nor will any attempt be made1 except where the nature of the research or discovery appears to render it advisable1 to follow any strict chronological order2 for1 our inquiry here is not so much directed to a mere matter of history as to the influence which the investigation or discovery exerted on the life and civilization of the age in which we live4 ,there is a single discovery of ,faraday that stands out sharply amidst all his other discoveries1 great as they were1 and is so important in its far-reaching results that it alone would have stamped him as a philosophical investigator of the highest merits1 had he never done anything else4 ,this was his discovery of the means for developing electricity directly from magnetism4 ,it was made on the #bith of ,august1 #ahca1 and should be regarded as inspired by the great discovery made by ,oersted in #ahbj1 of the relations existing between the voltaic pile and electro-magnetism4 ,it was in the same year that ,ampere had conducted that memorable investigation as to the mutual attractions and repulsions between circuits through which electric currents are flowing1 which resulted in a theory of electro-magnetism1 and finally led to the production of the electro-magnet itself4 ,ampere had shown that a coil of wire1 or helix1 through which an electric current is passing1 acted practically as a magnet1 and ,arago had magnetized an iron bar by placing it within such a helix4 ,in common with the other scientific men of his time1 ,faraday believed that since the flow of an electric current invariably produced magnetism1 so magnetism should1 in its turn1 be capable of producing electricity4 ,many investigators before ,faraday's time had endeavored to solve this problem1 but it was reserved to ,faraday alone to be successful4 ,since success in this investigation resulted from some experiments he made while endeavoring to obtain inductive action on a quiescent circuit from a neighboring circuit through which an electric current was flowing1 we will first briefly examine this experiment4 ,all his experiments in this direction were at first unsuccessful4 ,he passed an electric current through a circuit1 which was located close to another circuit containing a galvanometer1--a device for showing the presence of an electric current and measuring its strength1--but failed to obtain any result4 ,he looked for such results only when the current had been fully established in the active circuit4 ,undismayed by failure1 he reasoned that probably effects were present1 but that they were too small to be observed owing to the feeble inducing current employed4 ,he therefore increased the strength of the current in the active wire2 but still with no results4 ,again and again he interrogates nature1 but unsuccessfully4 ,at last he notices that there is a slight movement of the galvanometer needle at the moment of making and breaking the circuit4 ,carefully repeating his experiments in the light of this observation1 he discovers the important fact that it is only at the moment a current is increasing or decreasing in strength--at the moment of making or breaking a circuit--that the active circuit is capable of producing a current in a neighboring inactive circuit by induction4 ,this was an important discovery1 and in the light of his after-knowledge was correctly regarded as a solution of the production of electricity from magnetism4 ,observing that the galvanometer needle momentarily swings in one direction on making the circuit1 and in the opposite direction on breaking it1 he establishes the fact that the current induced on making flows in the opposite direction to the inducing current1 and that induced on breaking flows in the same direction as the inducing current4 ,having thus established the fact of current induction1 he makes the step of substituting magnets for active circuits2 a simple step in the light of our present knowledge1 but a giant stride at that time4 ,remembering that current induction1 or1 as he called it1 voltaic current induction1 takes place only while some effect produced by the current is either increasing or decreasing1 he moves coils of insulated wire towards or from magnet poles1 or magnet poles towards or from coils of wire1 and shows that electric currents are generated in the coils while either the coils or the magnets are in motion1 but cease to be produced as soon as the motion ceases4 ,moreover1 these magnetically induced currents differ in no respects from other currents1--for example1 those produced by the voltaic pile1--since1 like the latter1 they produce sparks1 magnetize bars of steel1 or deflect the needle of a galvanometer4 ,in this manner ,faraday solved the great problem4 ,he had produced electricity directly from magnetism6 ,with1 perhaps1 the single exception of the discovery by ,oersted1 in #ahbj1 of the invariable relation existing between an electric current and magnetism1 this discovery of ,faraday may be justly regarded as the greatest in this domain of physical science4 ,these two master minds in scientific research wonderfully complemented each other4 ,oersted showed that an electric current is invariably attended by magnetic effects2 ,faraday showed that magnetic changes are invariably attended by electric currents4 ,before these discoveries1 electricity and magnetism were necessarily regarded as separate branches of physical science1 and were studied apart as separate phenomena4 ,now1 however1 they must be regarded as co-existing phenomena4 ,the ignorance of the scientific world had unwittingly divorced what nature had joined together4 ,in view of the great importance of ,faraday's discovery1 we shall be justified in inquiring1 though somewhat briefly1 into some of the apparatus employed in this historic research4 ,note its extreme simplicity4 ,in one of his first successful experiments he wraps a coil of insulated wire around the soft iron bar that forms the armature or keeper of a permanent magnet of the horse-shoe type1 and connects the ends of this coil to a galvanometer4 ,he discovers that whenever the armature is placed against the magnet poles1 and is therefore being rendered magnetic by contact therewith1 the deflection of the needle of the galvanometer shows that the coiled wire on the armature is traversed by a current of electricity2 that whenever the armature is removed from the magnet poles1 and is therefore losing its magnetism1 the needle of the galvanometer is again deflected1 but now in the opposite direction1 showing that an electric current is again flowing through the coiled wire on the armature1 but reversed in direction4 ,he notices1 too1 that these effects take place only while changes are going on in the strength of the magnetism in the armature1 or when magnetic flux is passing through the coils2 for1 the galvanometer needle comes to rest1 and remains at rest as long as the contact between the armature and the poles remains unbroken4 ,in another experiment he employs a simple hollow coil1 or helix1 of insulated wire whose ends are connected with a galvanometer4 ,on suddenly thrusting one end of a straight cylindrical magnet into the axis of the helix1 the deflection of the galvanometer needle showed the presence of an electric current in the helix4 ,the magnet being left in the helix1 the galvanometer needle came to rest1 thus showing the absence of current4 ,when the bar magnet was suddenly withdrawn from the helix1 the galvanometer needle was again deflected1 but now in the opposite direction1 showing that the direction of the current in the helix had been reversed4 ,the preceding are but some of the results that ,faraday obtained by means of his experimental researches in the direct production of electricity from magnetism4 ,let us now briefly examine just what he was doing1 and the means whereby he obtained electric currents from magnetism4 ,we will consider this question from the views of the present time1 rather than from those of ,faraday1 although the difference between the two are in most respects immaterial4 ,faraday knew that the space or region around a magnet is permeated or traversed by what he called magnetic curves1 or lines of magnetic force4 ,these lines are still called lines of magnetic force1 or by some magnetic streamings magnetic flux1 or simply magnetism4 ,they are invisible1 though their presence is readily manifested by means of iron filings4 ,they are present in every magnet1 and although we do not know in what direction they move1 yet in order to speak definitely about them1 it is agreed to assume that they pass out of every magnet at its north-seeking pole 7or the pole which would point to the magnetic north1 were the magnet free to move as a needle71 and1 after having traversed the space surrounding the magnet1 reenter at its south-seeking pole1 thus completing what is called the magnetic circuit4 ,any space traversed by lines of magnetic force is called a magnetic field4 ,but it is not only a magnet that is thus surrounded by lines of magnetic force1 or by ether streamings4 ,the same is true of any conductor through which an electric current is flowing1 and their presence may be shown by means of iron filings4 ,if an active conductor--a conductor conveying an electric current1 as1 for example1 a copper wire--be passed vertically through a piece of card-board1 or a glass plate1 iron filings dusted on the card or plate will arrange themselves in concentric circles around the axis of the wire4 ,it requires an expenditure of energy both to set up and to maintain these lines of force4 ,it is the interaction of their lines of force that causes the attractions and repulsions in active movable conductors4 ,these lines of magnetic force act on magnetic needles like other lines of magnetic force and tend to set movable magnetic needles at right angles to the conducting wire4 ,the setting up of an electric current in a conducting wire is1 therefore1 equivalent to the setting up of concentric magnetic whirls around the axis of the wire1 and anything that can do this will produce an electric current4 ,for example1 if an inactive conducting wire is moved through a magnetic field2 it will have concentric circular whirls set up around it2 or1 in other words1 it will have a current generated in it as a result of such motion4 ,but to set up these whirls it is not enough that the conducting wire be moved along the lines of force in the field4 ,in such a case no whirls are produced around the conductor4 ,the conductor must be moved so as to cut or pass through the lines of magnetic force4 ,just what the mechanism is by means of which the cutting of the lines of force by the conductor produces the circular magnetic whirls around it1 no man knows any more than he knows just what electricity is2 but this much we do know1--that to produce the circular whirls or currents in a previously inactive conductor1 the lines of force of some already existing magnetic field must be caused to pass through the conductor1 and that the strength of the current so produced is proportional to the number of lines of magnetic force cut in a given time1 say1 per second2 or1 in other words1 is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field1 and to the velocity and length of the moving conductor4 ,or1 briefly recapitulating3 ,oersted showed that an electric current1 passed through a conducting circuit1 sets up concentric circular whirls around its axis2 that is1 an electric current invariably produces magnetism2 ,faraday showed1 that if the lines of magnetic force1 or magnetism1 be caused to cut or pass through an inactive conductor1 concentric circular whirls will be set up around the conductor2 that is1 lines of magnetic force passed across a conductor invariably set up an electric current in that conductor4 ,the wonderful completeness of ,faraday's researches into the production of electricity from magnetism may be inferred from the fact that all the forms of magneto-electric induction known to-day--namely1 self-induction1 or the induction of an active circuit on itself2 mutual induction1 or the induction of an active circuit on a neighboring circuit2 and electro-magnetic induction1 and magneto-electric induction1 or the induction produced in conductors through which the magnetic flux from electro and permanent magnets respectively is caused to pass--were discovered and investigated by him4 ,nor were these investigations carried on in the haphazard1 blundering1 groping manner that unfortunately too often characterizes the explorer in a strange country2 on the contrary1 they were singularly clear and direct1 showing how complete the mastery the great investigator had over the subject he was studying4 ,it is true that repeated failures frequently met him1 but despite discouragements and disappointments he continued until he had entirely traversed the length and breadth of the unknown region he was the first to explore4 ,let us now briefly examine ,faraday's many remaining discoveries and inventions4 ,though none of these were equal to his great discovery1 yet many were exceedingly valuable4 ,some were almost immediately utilized2 some waited many years for utilization2 and some have never yet been utilized4 ,we must avoid1 however1 falling into the common mistake of holding in little esteem those parts of ,faraday's work that did not immediately result either in the production of practical apparatus1 or in valuable applications in the arts and sciences1 or those which have not even yet proved fruitful4 ,some discoveries and devices are so far ahead of the times in which they are produced that several lifetimes often pass before the world is ready to utilize them4 ,like immature or unripe fruit1 they are apt to die an untimely death1 and it sometimes curiously happens that1 several generations after their birth1 a subsequent inventor or discoverer1 in honest ignorance of their prior existence1 offers them to the world as absolutely new4 ,the times being ripe1 they pass into immediate and extended public use1 so that the later inventor is given all the credit of an original discovery1 and the true first and original inventor remains unrecognized4 ,we will first examine ,faraday's discovery of the relations existing between light and magnetism4 ,though the discovery has not as yet borne fruit in any direct practical application1 yet it has proved of immense value from a theoretical standpoint4 ,in this investigation ,faraday proved that light-vibrations are rotated by the action of a magnetic field4 ,he employed the light of an ordinary ,argand lamp1 and polarized it by reflection from a glass surface4 ,he caused this polarized light to pass through a plate of heavy glass made from a boro-silicate of lead4 ,under ordinary circumstances this substance exerted no unusual action on light1 but when it was placed between the poles of a powerful electro-magnet1 and the light was passed through it in the same direction as the magnetic flux1 the plane of polarization of the light was rotated in a certain direction4 ,faraday discovered that other solid substances besides glass exert a similar action on a beam of polarized light4 ,even opaque solids like iron possess this property4 ,kerr has proved that a beam of light passed through an extremely thin plate of highly magnetic iron has its plane of polarization slightly rotated4 ,faraday showed that the power of rotating a beam of polarized light is also possessed by some liquids4 ,but what is most interesting1 in both solids and liquids1 is that the direction of the rotation of the light depends on the direction in which the magnetism is passing1 and can1 therefore1 be changed by changing the polarity of the electro-magnet4 ,faraday did not seem to thoroughly understand this phenomenon4 ,he spoke as if he thought the lines of magnetic force had been rendered luminous by the light rays2 for1 he announced his discovery in a paper entitled1 ,magnetization of ,light and the ,illumination of the ,lines of ,magnetic ,force4 ,indeed1 this discovery was so far ahead of the times that it was not until a later date that the results were more fully developed1 first by ,kelvin1 and subsequently by ,clerk ,maxwell4 ,in #ahfe1 two years before ,faraday's death1 ,maxwell proposed the electro-magnetic theory of light1 showing that light is an electro-magnetic disturbance4 ,he pointed out that optical as well as electro-magnetic phenomena required a medium for their propagation1 and that the properties of this medium appeared to be the same for both4 ,moreover1 the rate at which light travels is known by actual measurement2 the rate at which electro-magnetic waves are propagated can be calculated from electrical measurements1 and these two velocities exactly agree4 ,faraday's original experiment as to the relation between light and magnetism is thus again experimentally demonstrated2 and1 ,maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light now resting on experimental fact1 optics becomes a branch of electricity4 ,a curious consequence was pointed out by ,maxwell as a result of his theory2 namely1 that a necessary relation exists between opacity and conductivity1 since1 as he showed1 electro-magnetic disturbances could not be propagated in substances which are conductors of electricity4 ,in other words1 if light is an electro-magnetic disturbance1 all conducting substances must be opaque1 and all good insulators transparent4 ,this we know to be the fact3 metallic substances1 the best of conductors1 are opaque1 while glass and crystals are transparent4 ,even such apparent exceptions as vulcanite1 an excellent insulator1 fall into the law1 since1 as ,graham ,bell has recently shown1 this substance is remarkably transparent to certain kinds of radiant energy4 ,in #aggh1 ,brugmans of ,leyden noticed that if a piece of bismuth was held near either pole of a strong magnet1 repulsion occurred4 ,other observers noticed the same effect in the case of antimony4 ,these facts appear to have been unknown to ,faraday1 who1 in #ahde1 by employing powerful electro-magnets rediscovered them1 and in addition showed that practically all substances possess the power of being attracted or repelled1 when placed between the poles of sufficiently powerful magnets4 ,by placing slender needles of the substances experimented on between the poles of powerful horse-shoe magnets1 he found that they were all either attracted like iron1 coming to rest with their greatest length extending between the poles2 or1 like bismuth1 were apparently repelled by the poles1 coming to rest at right angles to the position assumed by iron4 ,he regarded the first class of substances as attracted1 and the second class as repelled1 and called them respectively paramagnetic and diamagnetic substances4 ,in other words1 paramagnetic substances1 like iron1 came to rest axially 7extending from pole to pole71 and diamagnetic substances1 like bismuth1 equatorially 7extending transversely between the poles74 ,he reserved the term magnetic substances to cover the phenomena of both para and dia-magnetism4 ,he communicated the results of this investigation to the ,royal ,society in a paper on the ,magnetic ,condition of ,all ,matter1 on ,dec4 #ah1 #ahde4 ,the properties of paramagnetism and diamagnetism are not possessed by solids only1 but exist also in liquids and gases4 ,when experimenting with liquids1 they were placed in suitable glass vessels1 such as watch crystals1 supported on pole pieces properly shaped to receive them4 ,under these circumstances paramagnetic liquids1 such as salts of iron or cobalt dissolved in water1 underwent curious contortions in shape1 the tendency being to arrange the greater part of their mass in the direction in which the flux passed2 namely1 directly between the poles4 ,diamagnetic liquids1 such as solutions of salts of bismuth and antimony1 in a similar manner1 arranged the greater part of their mass in positions at right angles to this direction1 or equatorially4 ,at first ,faraday attributed the repulsion of diamagnetic substances to a polarity1 separate and distinct from ordinary magnetic polarity1 for which he proposed the name1 diamagnetic polarity4 ,he believed that when a diamagnetic substance is brought near to the north pole of a magnet1 a north pole was developed in its approached end1 and that therefore repulsion occurred4 ,he afterwards rejected this view1 though it has been subsequently adopted by ,weber and ,tyndall1 the latter of whom conducted an extended series of experiments on the subject4 ,the majority of physicists1 however1 at the present time1 do not believe in the existence of a diamagnetic polarity4 ,they point out that the apparent repulsion of diamagnetic substances is due to the fact that they are less paramagnetic than the oxygen of the air in which they are suspended4 ,during this investigation ,faraday observed some phenomena that led him to a belief in the existence of another form of force1 distinct from either paramagnetic or diamagnetic force1 which he called the magne-crystallic force4 ,he had been experimenting with some slender needles of bismuth1 suspending them horizontally between the poles of an electro-magnet4 ,taking a few of these cylinders at random from a greater number1 he was much perplexed to find that they did not all come to rest equatorially1 as well-behaved bars of diamagnetic bismuth should do1 though1 if subjected to the action of a single magnetic pole1 they did show this diamagnetic character by their marked repulsion4 ,after much experimentation1 he ascribed this phenomenon to the crystalline condition of the cylinder4 ,by experimenting with carefully selected groups of crystals of bismuth1 he believed he could trace the cause of the phenomenon to the action of a force which he called the magne-crystallic force4 ,extended experiments carried on by ,plcker on the influence of magnetism on crystalline substances led him to believe that a close relation exists between the ultimate forms of the particles of matter and their magnetic behavior4 ,this subject is as yet far from being fully understood4 ,there was another series of investigations made by ,faraday between the years #ahca and #ahdj1 that has been wonderfully utilized1 and may properly be ranked among his great discoveries4 ,we allude to his researches on the laws which govern the chemical decomposition of compound substances by electricity4 ,the fact that the electric current possesses the power of decomposing compound substances was known as early as #ahjj1 when ,carlisle and ,nicholson separated water into its constituent elements1 by the passage of a voltaic current4 ,davy1 too1 in #ahjf1 had delivered his celebrated discourse ,on ,some ,chemical ,agencies of ,electricity1 and in #ahjg1 had announced his great discovery of the decomposition of the fixed alkalies4 ,faraday showed that the amount of chemical action produced by electricity is fixed and definite4 ,in order to be able to measure the amount of this action1 he invented an instrument which he called a voltameter1 or a volta-electrometer4 ,it consisted of a simple device for measuring the amount of hydrogen and oxygen gases liberated by the passage of an electric current through water acidulated with sulphuric acid4 ,he showed1 by numerous experiments1 that the decomposition effected is invariably proportional to the amount of electricity passing2 that variations in the size of the electrodes1 in the pressure1 or in the degree of dilution of the electrolyte1 had nothing to do with the result1 and that therefore a voltameter could be employed to determine the amount of electricity passing in a given circuit4 ,he also demonstrated that when a current is passed through different electrolytes 7compound substances decomposed by the passage of electricity71 the amount of the decompositions are chemically equivalent to each other4 ,the extent of ,faraday's work in the electro-chemical field may be judged by considering some of the terms he proposed for its phenomena1 most of which1 with some trifling exceptions1 are still in use4 ,it was he who gave the name electrolysis to decomposition by the electric current2 he also proposed to call the wires1 or conductors connected with the battery1 or other electric source1 the electrodes1 naming that one which was connected with the positive terminal1 the anode1 and that one connected with the negative terminal1 the cathode4 ,he called the separate atoms or groups of atoms into which bodies undergoing electrolysis are separated1 the radicals1 or ions1 and named the electro-positive ions1 which appear at the cathode1 the kathions1 and the electro-negative radicals which appear at the anode1 the anions4 ,there were many other researches made by ,faraday1 such as his experiments on disruptive electric discharges1 his investigations on the electric eel1 his many researches on the phenomena both of frictional electricity and of the voltaic pile1 his investigations on the contact and chemical theories of the voltaic pile1 and those on chemical decomposition by frictional electricity2 these are but some of the mere important of them4 ,those we have already discussed will1 however1 amply suffice to show the value of his work4 ,rather than take up any others1 let us inquire what influence1 if any1 the various groups of discoveries we have already discussed have exerted on the electric arts and sciences in our present time4 ,what practical results have attended these discoveries8 ,what actual1 useful1 commercial machines have been based on them8 ,what useful processes or industries have grown out of them8 ,and1 first1 as to actual commercial machines4 ,these researches not only led to the production of dynamo-electric machines1 but1 in point of fact1 ,faraday actually produced the first dynamo4 ,a dynamo-electric machine1 as is well known1 is a machine by means of which mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy1 by causing conductors to cut through1 or be cut through by1 lines of magnetic force2 or1 briefly1 it is a machine by means of which electricity is readily obtained from magnetism4 ,faraday's invention of the first dynamo is interesting because at the same time he made the invention he solved a problem which up to his time had been the despair of the ablest physicists and mathematicians4 ,this was the phenomenon of ,arago's rotating disc4 ,it was briefly as follows3 ,if a copper disc be rotated above a magnet1 the needle tends to follow the plate in its rotation2 or1 if a copper plate be placed at rest above or below an oscillating magnet1 it tends to check its oscillations and bring the needle quickly to rest4 ,faraday investigated these phenomena and soon discovered that a copper disc rotated below two magnet poles had electric currents generated in it1 which flowed radially through the disc between its circumference and centre4 ,by placing one end of a conducting circuit on the axis of the disc1 and the other end on its circumference1 he succeeded in drawing off a continuous electric current generated from magnetism1 and thus produced the first dynamo4 ,this was in #ahca4 ,faraday produced many other dynamos besides this simple disc machine4 ,although the disc dynamo in its original form was impracticable as a commercial machine1 yet it was not only the forerunner of the dynamo1 but was1 in point of fact1 the first machine ever produced that is entitled to be called a dynamo4 ,he generously left to those who might come after him the opportunity to avail themselves of his wonderful discovery4 ,i have rather1 however1 he says1 been desirous of discovering new facts and new relations dependent on magneto-electric induction than of exalting the force of those already obtained1 being assured that the latter would find their development hereafter4 ,how profoundly prophetic6 ,could the illustrious investigator see the hundreds of thousands of dynamos that are to-day in all parts of the world engaged in converting millions of horse-power of mechanical energy into electric energy1 he would appreciate how marvellously his successors have exalted the force of some of the effects he had so ably shown the world how to obtain4 ,faraday lived to see his infant dynamo1 the first of its kind1 developed into a machine not only sufficiently powerful to maintain electric arc lights1 but also into a form sufficiently practicable to be continuously engaged in producing such light1 in one of the lighthouses on the ,english coast4 ,holmes produced such a machine in #ahfb1 or some years before ,faraday's death4 ,it was installed under the care of the ,trinity ,house1 at the ,dungeness ,lighthouse1 in ,june1 #ahfb1 and continued in use for about ten years4 ,when this machine was shown to ,faraday by its inventor1 the veteran philosopher remarked1 ,i gave you a baby1 and you bring me a giant4 ,the alternating-current transformer is another gift of ,faraday to the commercial world4 ,as is well known1 this instrument is a device for raising or lowering electric pressure4 ,the name is derived from the fact that the instrument is capable of taking in at one pressure the electric energy supplied to it1 and giving it out at another pressure1 thus transforming it4 ,faraday produced the first transformer during his investigations on voltaic-current induction4 ,the modern alternating-current transformer1 though differing markedly in minor details from ,faraday's primitive instrument1 yet in general details is essentially identical with it4 ,the enormous use of both step-up and step-down transformers--transformers which respectively induce currents of higher and of lower electromotive forces in their secondary coils than are passed through their primaries--shows the great practical value of this invention4 ,the wonderful growth of the commercial applications of alternating currents during the past few decades would have been impossible without the use of the alternating-current transformer4 ,it is an interesting fact that it was not in the form of the step-down alternating-current transformer that ,faraday's discovery of voltaic-current induction was first utilized1 but in the form of a step-up transformer1 or what was then ordinarily called an induction coil4 ,as early as #ahdb1 ,masson and ,brguet constructed an induction coil by means of which minute sparks could be obtained from the secondary1 in vacuo4 ,in #ahea1 ,ruhmkorff constructed an induction coil so greatly improved1 by the careful insulation of its secondary circuit1 that he could obtain from it torrents of long sparks in ordinary air4 ,the ,ruhmkorff induction coil has in late years been greatly improved both by ,tesla and ,elihu ,thomson1 who1 separately and independently of each other1 have produced excellent forms of high-frequency induction coils4 ,induction coils have long been in use for purposes of research1 and in later years have been employed in the production both of the ,rntgen rays used in the photography of the invisible1 and the electro-magnetic waves used in wireless telegraphy4 ,rntgen's discovery was published in #ahie4 ,it was rendered possible by the prior work of ,geissler and ,crookes on the luminous phenomena produced by the passage of electric discharges through high vacua in glass tubes4 ,rntgen discovered that the invisible rays1 or radiation1 emitted from certain parts of a high-vacuum tube1 when high-tension discharges from induction coils were passing1 possessed the curious property of traversing certain opaque substances as readily as light does glass or water4 ,he also discovered that these rays were capable of exciting fluorescence in some substances1--that is1 of causing them to emit light and become luminous1--and that these rays1 like the rays of light1 were capable of affecting a photographic plate4 ,from these properties two curious possibilities arose2 namely1 to see through opaque bodies1 and to photograph the invisible4 ,rntgen called these rays ,x1 or unknown rays4 ,they are now almost invariably called by the name of their distinguished discoverer4 ,let us briefly investigate how it is possible both to see and to photograph the invisible4 ,shortly after ,rntgen's discovery1 ,edison1 with that wonderful power of finding practical applications for nearly all discoveries1 had invented the fluoroscope1--a screen covered with a peculiar chemical substance that becomes luminous when exposed to the ,rntgen rays4 ,suppose1 now1 between the rays and such a screen be interposed a substance opaque to ordinary light1 as1 for example1 the human hand4 ,the tissues of the hand1 such as the flesh and the blood1 permit the rays to readily pass through them1 but the bones are opaque to the rays1 and1 therefore1 oppose their passage2 consequently1 the screen2 instead of being uniformly illumined1 will show shadows of the bones1 so that1 to an eye examining the screen1 it will seem as though it were looking through the flesh and blood directly at the bones4 ,in a similar manner1 if a photographic plate be employed instead of the screen1 a distinct photographic picture will be obtained4 ,both the fluoroscope and the photographic camera have proved an invaluable aid to the surgeon1 who can now look directly through the human body and examine its internal organs1 and so be able to locate such foreign bodies as bullets and needles in its various parts1 or make correct diagnoses of fractures or dislocations of the bones1 or even examine the action of such organs as the liver and heart4 ,about #ahhf1 ,hertz discovered that if a small ,leyden jar is discharged through a short and simple circuit1 provided with a spark-gap of suitable length1 a series of electro-magnetic waves are set up1 which1 moving through space in all directions1 are capable of exciting in a similar circuit effects that can be readily recognized1 although the two circuits are at fairly considerable distances apart4 ,here we have a simple basic experiment in wireless telegraphy1 which1 briefly considered1 consists of means whereby oscillations or waves1 set up in free space by means of disruptive discharges1 are caused to traverse space and produce various effects in suitably constructed receptive devices that are operated by the waves as they impinge on them4 ,at first a doubt was expressed by eminent scientific men as to the practicability of successfully transmitting wireless messages through long distances1 since these waves1 travelling in all directions1 would soon become too attenuated to produce intelligible signals2 but when it was shown1 from theoretical considerations1 that these waves when traversing great distances are practically confined to the space between the earth's surface and the upper rarified strata of the atmosphere1 the possibility of long-distance wireless telegraphic transmission was recognized4 ,to increase the distance1 it was only necessary either to increase the energy of the waves at the transmitting station1 or to increase the delicacy of the receiving instruments1 or both4 ,it has been but a short time since both the scientific and the financial worlds were astounded by the actual transmission of intelligible wireless signals across the ,atlantic1 and the name of ,marconi will go down to posterity as the one who first accomplished this great feat4 ,the principal limit to the distance of transmission lies in the delicacy of the receiving instruments4 ,the most sensitive are those in which a telephone receiver forms a part of the receiving apparatus4 ,the almost incredibly small amount of electric energy required to produce intelligible speech in an ordinary ,bell telephone receiver nearly passes belief4 ,the work done in lifting such an instrument from its hook to the ear of the listener1 would1 if converted into electric energy1 be sufficient to maintain an audible sound in a telephone for #bdj1jjj years6 ,even extremely attenuated waves may therefore produce audible signals in such a receiver4 ,the electric motor was another gift of ,faraday to commercial science1 although in this case there are others who can1 perhaps1 justly claim to share the honor with him4 ,faraday's early electric motor consisted essentially in a device whereby a movable conductor1 suspended so as to be capable of rotation around a magnet pole1 was caused to rotate by the mutual interaction of the magnetic fields of the active conductor and the magnet4 ,the magnet1 which consisted of a bar of hardened steel1 was fixed in a cork stopper1 which completely closed the end of an upright glass tube4 ,a small quantity of mercury was placed in the lower end of the tube1 so as to form a liquid contact for the lower end of a movable wire1 suspended so as to be capable of rotating at its lower extremity about the axis of the tube4 ,on the passage of an electric current through the wire1 a continuous rotary motion was produced in it1 the direction of which depends both on the direction of the current1 and on the polarity of the end of the magnet around which the rotation occurs4 ,the great value of the electric motor to the world is too evident to need any proof4 ,the number of purposes for which electric motors are now employed is so great that the actual number of motors in daily use is almost incredible1 and every year sees this number rapidly increasing4 ,the above are the more important machines or devices that have been directly derived from ,faraday's great investigation as to the production of electricity from magnetism4 ,let us now inquire briefly as to what useful processes or industries have been rendered possible by the existence of these machines4 ,apparently one of the most marked requirements of our twentieth-century civilization is that man shall be readily able to extend the day far into the night4 ,he can no longer go to sleep when the sun sets1 and keep abreast with his competitors4 ,of all artificial illuminants yet employed1 the arc and the incandescent electric lights are unquestionably the best1 whether from a sanitary1 aesthetic1 or truest economical standpoint4 ,now1 while it is a well-known matter of record that both arc and incandescent lights were invented long before ,faraday's time1 yet it was not until a source of electricity was invented1 superior both in economy and convenience to the voltaic battery1 that either of these lights became commercial possibilities4 ,such an electric source was given to the world by ,faraday through his invention of the dynamo-electric machine1 and it was not until this machine was sufficiently developed and improved that commercial electric lighting became possible4 ,the energy of burning coal1 through the steam-engine1 working the dynamo1 is far cheaper and more efficient for producing electricity than the consumption of metals through the voltaic pile4 ,it is characteristic of the modesty of ,faraday that when1 in after-life1 he heard inventors speaking of their electric lights1 he refrained from claiming the electric light as his own1 although1 without the machine he taught the world how to construct1 commercial lighting would have been an impossibility4 ,the marvellous activity in the electric arts and sciences1 which followed as a natural result of ,faraday giving to the world in the dynamo-electric machine a cheap electric source1 naturally leads to the inquiry as to whether at a somewhat later day a yet greater revolution may not follow the production of a still cheaper electric source4 ,in point of fact such a discovery is by no means an impossibility4 ,when a dynamo-electric machine is caused to produce an electric current by the intervention of a steam-engine1 the transformation of energy which takes place from the energy of the coal to electric energy is an extremely wasteful one4 ,could some practical method be discovered by means of which the burning of coal liberates electric energy1 instead of heat energy1 an electric source would be discovered that would far exceed in economy the best dynamo in existence4 ,with such a discovery what the results would be no one can say2 this much is certain1 that it would1 among other things1 relegate the steam-engine to the scrap-heap1 and solve the problem of aerial navigation4 ,what is justly regarded as one of the greatest achievements of modern times is the electrical transmission of power over comparatively great distances4 ,at some cheap source of energy1 say1 at a waterfall1 a water-wheel is employed to drive a dynamo or generator1 thus converting mechanical energy into electrical energy4 ,this electricity is passed over a conducting line to a distant station1 where it is either directly utilized for the purpose of lighting1 heating1 chemical decomposition1 etc41 or indirectly utilized for the purpose of obtaining mechanical power for driving machinery1 by passing it through an electric motor4 ,the electric transmission of power has been successfully made in ,california over a distance of some #bbj miles1 at a pressure on transmission lines of #ej1jjj volts4 ,the high pressures required for the economical use of transmission lines necessitates the employment of transformers at each end of the line2 namely1 step-up transformers at the transmitting end1 to raise the voltage delivered by the generators1 and step-down transformers1 at the receiving end1 to lower it for use in the various translating devices4 ,these transformers are employed in connection with alternating-current dynamos4 ,faraday not only gave to the world the first electric generator1 but also the first transformer1 and one of the first electric motors1 and without these gifts the electric transmission of power over long distances1 which has justly been regarded as one of the most marvellous achievements of our age1 would have been an impossibility4 ,in high-tension circuits over which such pressures as #ej1jjj volts is transmitted1 no little difficulty is experienced from leakage and consequent loss of energy4 ,this leakage occurs both between the line conductors and at the insulators placed on the pole lines forming the line circuit4 ,the insulators are made either of glass or porcelain1 and are of a peculiar form known as triple petticoat pattern4 ,the loss on such lines1 due to leakage between wires1 is greater than that which takes place at the pole insulators1 and is diminished by keeping the circuit wires as far apart as possible4 ,in the early history of the art1 electric transmission of power was effected by means of direct-current generators and motors1--generators and motors through which the current always passed in the same direction4 ,such generators and motors1 however1 possessed inconveniences that prevented extensive commercial transmission of power1 since1 as we have seen1 high pressure was necessary for efficiency in such transmission1 and the collecting-brushes and commutators employed in all direct-current generators and motors to carry the current from the machine or to the motor1 were a constant source of trouble and danger4 ,when the alternating-current motor first same into general use1 it was employed1 in connection with the alternating-current generator1 in electric transmission systems2 but such motors also possess the inconvenience of not readily starting from a state of rest1 with their full turning power1 or torque1 and of therefore being unsuitable where the motor requires to be frequently stopped or started4 ,had these difficulties remained unsolved1 long-distance electric transmission of power1 so successful in operation to-day1 and which bids fair to be still more successful in the near future1 would have been impossible4 ,fortunately1 these difficulties were overcome by the genius of ,nikola ,tesla1 in the invention of the multiphase alternating-current motor1 or the induction motor1 as it is now generally called4 ,although ,baily1 ,deprez1 and ,ferraris had accomplished much before ,tesla's time1 yet it was practically to the investigations and discoveries made by ,tesla1 between #ahhg and #ahia1 that the induction motor of to-day is due4 ,another requirement of our twentieth-century civilization is rapid transit1 either urban or inter-urban1 and this is afforded by various systems of electric street railways or electric traction generally1 including electric locomotives and electric automobiles4 ,the wonderful growth in this direction which has been witnessed in the last few decades would have been impossible without the electric generator and motor1 both gifts of ,faraday to the world4 ,their application in this direction must1 therefore1 go to swell the debt our civilization owes to the labors of this great investigator4 ,in the system of electric street-car propulsion very generally employed to-day1 a single trolley wheel is employed for taking the driving current from an overhead conductor1 suspended above the street4 ,the trolley wheel is supported by a trolley pole1 and is maintained in good electric contact with the trolley wire1 or overhead conductor4 ,by this means the current passes from the wire down the conductor connected with the trolley pole1 thence through the motors placed below the body of the car1 and from them1 through the track or ground-return1 back to the power station4 ,a small portion of the current is employed for lighting the electric lamps in the car4 ,in some systems an underground trolley is employed4 ,an important device1 called the series-parallel controller1 is employed in all systems of electric street-car propulsion4 ,it consists of means by which the starting and stopping of the car1 and changes1 both in its speed and direction1 are placed under the control of the motorman4 ,a separate controller is placed on both platforms of the car4 ,the series-parallel controller consists essentially of a switch by means of which the several motors1 that are employed in all street cars1 can be variously connected with each other1 or with different electric resistances1 or can be successively cut out or introduced into the circuit1 so that the speed of the car can be regulated at will1 as the handle of the controller is moved by the motorman to the various notches on the top of the controller box4 ,as generally arranged1 the speed increases from the first notch or starting position to the last notch1 movements in the opposite direction changing connections in the opposite order of succession1 and1 therefore1 slowing the car4 ,there is1 however1 no definite speed corresponding to each notch1 for this will vary with the load on each car1 and with the gradient upon which it may be running4 ,but there is another valuable gift received by the world as a result of this great discovery of ,faraday2 namely1 that most marvellous instrument of modern times1 the speaking telephone4 ,this instrument was invented in #ahfa1 by ,philip ,ries1 and subsequently independently reinvented in #ahgf1 by ,elisha ,gray and ,alexander ,graham ,bell4 ,as is well known1 it is electric currents and not sound-waves that are transmitted over a telephone circuit4 ,the magneto-electric telephone in its simplest form consists of a pair of instruments called respectively the transmitter and the receiver4 ,we talk into the transmitter and listen at the receiver4 ,both transmitter and receiver consist of a permanent magnet of hardened steel around one end of which is placed a coil of insulated wire4 ,in front of this coil a diaphragm1 or thin plate1 of soft iron1 is so supported as to be capable of freely vibrating towards and from the magnet pole4 ,the operation of the transmitting instrument is readily understood in the light of ,faraday's discovery4 ,it is simply a dynamo-electric machine driven by the voice of the speaker4 ,as the sound-waves from the speaker's voice strike against the diaphragm1 which has become magnetic from its nearness to the magnet pole1 electric currents are generated in the coil of wire surrounding such pole1 since the to-and-fro motions cause the lines of electro-magnetic force to pass through the wire on the moving coil4 ,the operation of the receiving instrument is also readily understood4 ,it acts as an electric motor driven by the to-and-fro currents generated by the transmitter4 ,as these currents are transmitted over the wire1 they pass through the coil of wire on the receiving instrument1 and reproduce therein the exact movements of the transmitting diaphragm1 since1 as they strengthen or weaken the magnetism of the pole1 they cause similar motions in the diaphragm placed before it4 ,consequently1 one listening at the receiving diaphragm will hear all that is uttered into the transmitting diaphragm4 ,it was thus1 by the combination of the dynamo and motor1 both of which were given by ,faraday to the world1 that we have received this priceless instrument1 which has been so potent in its effects on the civilization of the ,twentieth century4 ,the electric telegraph had its beginnings long before ,faraday's time4 ,as early as #ahdg1 ,watson had erected a line some two miles in length1 extending over the housetops in ,london1 and operated it by means of discharges from an ordinary frictional electric machine4 ,in #aggd1 ,lesage had erected in ,geneva an electric telegraph consisting of a number of metallic wires1 one for each letter of the alphabet4 ,these wires were carefully insulated from each other4 ,when a message was to be sent over this early telegraphic line an electric discharge was passed through the particular wire representing the letter of the alphabet to be sent2 this discharge1 reaching the other end1 caused a pithball to be repelled and thus laboriously1 letter by letter1 the message was transmitted4 ,how ludicrously cumbersome was such an instrument when contrasted with the ,morse electro-magnetic telegraph of to-day1 which requires but a single wire2 or with the harmonic telegraph of ,gray1 which permits the simultaneous transmission of eight or more separate messages over a single wire2 or with the wonderful quadruplex telegraphic system of ,edison which permits the simultaneous transmission of four separate and distinct messages over a single wire1 two in one direction1 and two in the opposite direction at the same time2 or with the still more wonderful multiplex telegraph of ,delaney1 which is able to simultaneously transmit as many as seventy-two separate messages over a single wire1 thirty-six in one direction and thirty-six in the opposite direction4 ,these achievements have been possible only through the researches and discoveries of ,oersted1 ,faraday1 and hosts of other eminent workers2 for1 it was the electro-magnet1 rendered possible by ,oersted1 together with the magnificent discoveries of ,faraday1 and others since his time1 that these marvellous advances in electro-telegraphic transmission of intelligence have become possibilities4 ,before completing this brief sketch of some of the effects that ,faraday's work has had on the practical arts and sciences1 let us briefly examine the generating plants that are either in operation or construction at ,niagara ,falls4 ,some idea of the size of the ,niagara ,falls generating plant on the ,american side may be gained from the fact that there have already been installed eleven of the separate #e1jjj horse-power generators4 ,the remaining capacity of the tunnel will permit of the installation of #ej1jjj additional horse-power1 or #aje1jjj horse-power in all4 ,on the ,canadian side of the ,falls another great plant is about to be erected with an ultimate capacity of several hundred thousand horse-power4 ,here1 however1 the size of the generating unit will be double that on the ,american side1 or #aj1jjj horse-power4 ,these generators will be wound to produce an electric pressure of #ab1jjj volts1 raised by means of step-up transformers to #bb1jjj1 #dj1jjj1 and #fj1jjj volts1 according to the distance of transmission4 ,each of the revolving parts of these machines will weigh #ada1jjj pounds4 ,to what gigantic proportions has the little infant dynamo of ,faraday grown in this short time since its birth6 ,the low rates at which electric power can be sold in the immediate neighborhood of the ,niagara generating plant have naturally resulted in an enormous growth of the electro-chemical industries1 for these industries could never otherwise develop into extended commercial applications4 ,of the total output of1 say1 #ee1jjj horse-power at the ,niagara ,falls generating plant1 no less than #bc1bjj horse-power is used in various electrolytic and electro-thermal processes in the immediate neighborhood4 ,some of the more important consumers of the electric power1 named in the order of consumption1 are for the manufacture of the following products3 calcium carbide1 aluminium1 caustic soda and bleaching salt1 carborundum1 and graphite4 ,calcium carbide1 employed in the production of acetylene gas1 either for the purposes of artificial illumination1 or for the manufacture of ethyl alcohol1 is produced by subjecting a mixture of carbon and lime to the prolonged action of heat in an electric furnace4 ,aluminium1 the now well-known valuable metal1 present in clay1 bauxite1 and a variety of other mineral substances1 is electrolytically deposited from a bath of alumina obtained by dissolving bauxite either in potassium fluoride or in cryolite4 ,aluminium is now coming into extended use in the construction of long-distance electric power transmission lines4 ,caustic soda and bleaching salt are produced by the electrolytic decomposition of brine 7chloride of sodium74 ,the chlorine liberated at the anode is employed in the manufacture of bleaching-salt1 and the sodium is liberated at a mercury cathode1 with which it at once enters into combination as an alloy4 ,on throwing this alloy into water the sodium is liberated as caustic soda4 ,carborundum1 a silicide of carbon1 is a valuable substance produced by the action of the heat of an electric furnace on an intimate mixture of carbon and sand4 ,it has an extensive use as an abrasive for grinding and polishing4 ,artificial graphite is another product produced by the long-continued action of the heat of the electric furnace on carbon under certain conditions4 ,according to reports from the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 the graphite works at ,niagara ,falls produced in #aija1 #b1ejj1jjj lbs4 of artificial graphite1 valued at #aai1jjj4 ,this was an increase from #hfj1bgj lbs41 valued at #fi1hfj for #aijj1 and from #afb1chb lbs41 valued at #aj1adj1 in #ahig1 the first year of its commercial production4 ,in #aija1 more than half of the output was in the form of graphitized electrodes employed in the production of caustic soda and bleaching salt1 and in other electrolytic processes4 ,the ,niagara ,falls power transmission system stands to-day as a magnificent testimonial to the genius of ,faraday1 and as a living monument of the varied and valuable gifts his researches have bestowed upon mankind4 ,for here we have not only the dynamo1 motors1 and transformers that he gave freely to the world1 not only the alternating-current transformer1 and the system of transmission of power1 but we even find that the principal consumers of the enormous electric power produced are employing it in carrying on some of the many processes in electro-chemistry1 a science that he had done so much to advance4 ,among some of the surprises electro-chemistry may have in store for the world in the comparatively near future1 may be a nearer approach to a mastery of the laws which govern the combination of elementary substances when under the influence of plant-life4 ,if these laws ever become so well known that man is able to form hi his laboratory the various food products that are now formed naturally in plant organisms1 such a revolution would be wrought that the work of the agriculturist would be largely transferred to the electro-chemist4 ,some little has already been done in the direct formation of some vegetable substances1 such as camphor1 the peculiar flavoring substance present in the vanilla bean1 and in many other substances4 ,should such discoveries ever reach to the direct formation of some food staple1 the wide-reaching importance and significance of the discovery would be almost beyond comprehension4 ,but1 while the direct electro-synthetic formation of food products is yet to be accomplished on a practical scale1 the problem appears to be nearing actual solution in an indirect manner4 ,it has been known since the time of ,cavendish1 in #aghe1 that small quantities of nitric acid could be formed directly from the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphere by the passage of electric sparks2 but heretofore1 the quantity so found has been too small to be of any commercial value4 ,quite recently1 however1 one of the electro-chemical companies at ,niagara ,falls has succeeded in commercially solving the important problem of the fixation of the nitrogen of the atmosphere2 it being claimed that the cost of thus producing one ton of commercial nitric acid1 of a market value of over eighty dollars1 does not greatly exceed twenty dollars4 ,since sodium nitrate can readily be produced by the process1 and its value as a fertilizer of wheat-fields is too well known to need comment1 there would thus1 to a limited extent1 be indirectly solved the electro-chemical production of food staples4 ,faraday's high rank as an investigator in the domain of natural science was fully recognized by the learned societies of his time1 by admission into their fellowships4 ,as early as #ahbd1 he was honored by the ,royal ,society of ,london by election as one of its ,fellows1 and in #ahbe he had become a member of the ,royal ,institution4 ,it is recorded of the great philosopher that the membership in the ,royal ,institution was the only one which he personally sought2 all others came unsought1 but they came so rapidly from all portions of the globe that in #ahdd he was a member of no less than seventy of the leading learned societies of the world4 ,ries1 the ,german electrician1 so well known in connection with his invention of the speaking telephone1 addressed ,faraday as ,professor ,michael ,faraday1 ,member of all the ,academies4 ,besides his membership in the learned societies1 ,faraday received numerous degrees from the colleges and universities of his time4 ,among some of these are the following3 ,the ,university of ,prague1 the degree of ,ph4,d42 ,oxford1 the degree of ,d4,c4,l42 and ,cambridge1 the degree of ,,ll4,d4 ,he also received numerous medals of honor1 and was offered the ,presidency of the ,royal ,society1 which1 however1 he declined1 as he did also a knighthood proffered by the government of ,england4 ,faraday died on the #beth of ,august1 #ahfg1 after a long1 well-spent1 useful life4 ,we have thus briefly traced some of the more important discoveries of ,michael ,faraday4 ,many have necessarily been passed by1 but what we have given are more than sufficient to stamp him as a great philosopher and investigator4 ,speaking of ,faraday in this connection1 ,professor ,tyndall says3 ,take him for all in all1 ,i think it will be conceded that ,michael ,faraday is the greatest experimental philosopher the world has ever seen2 and ,i will add the opinion that the progress of future research will tend not to diminish or decrease1 but to enhance and glorify1 the labors of this mighty investigator4 ,,authorities4 ,experimental ,researches in ,electricity4 ,by ,michael ,faraday4 ,from the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,abstracts of the ,philosophical ,transactions from #ahjj to #ahcg4 ,faraday's ,experimental ,researches in ,electricity and ,magnetism4 #c vols4 ,life and ,letters of ,faraday4 ,by ,dr4 ,bence ,jones4 ,michael ,faraday4 ,by ,j4,h4 ,gladstone4 ,students' ,text-,book of ,electricity4 ,by ,henry ,m4 ,noad4 ,revised by ,w4,h4 ,preece4 ,michael ,faraday4 ,by ,john ,tyndall4 ,pioneers of ,electricity4 ,by ,j4 ,munro4 ,dynamo-,electric ,machinery4 ,by ,silvanus ,p4 ,thompson4 ,a ,dictionary of ,electrical ,words1 ,terms1 and ,phrases4 ,by ,edwin ,j4 ,houston4 ,electricity and ,magnetism4 ,by ,edwin ,j4 ,houston4 ,electricity ,one ,hundred ,years ,ago and ,to-,day4 ,by ,edwin ,j4 ,houston4 ,magnetism2 ,electro-,technical ,series4 ,by ,edwin ,j4 ,houston and ,arthur ,e4 ,kennelly4 ,electro-,dynamic ,machinery4 ,by ,edwin ,j4 ,houston and ,a4 ,e4 ,kennelly4 ,,rudolf ,,virchow4 #ahba-aijb4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,surgery4 ,,by ,,frank ,p4 ,,foster1 ,m4,d4 ,stagnation was the state of medicine when the ,nineteenth ,century opened4 ,it was only three years before that ,jenner had announced and demonstrated the protective efficacy of vaccination against small-pox4 ,his teaching1 in spite of the vehement cavillings of the antis of his day1 gained credence readily1 and vaccination speedily became recognized and was constantly resorted to1 but hardly any attempt at perfecting the practice was made until after more than fifty years had elapsed4 ,his discovery--or1 rather1 his proof of the truth of a rustic tradition--fell like a pebble into the doldrums2 the ripple soon subsided1 and nobody was encouraged to start another4 ,at the present time such an announcement would be promptly followed by investigations leading up to such doctrines as that of the attenuation of viruses and that of antitoxines4 ,but the times were not ripe for anything of that sort2 medicine reposed on tradition1 or at best gave itself only to such plausibilities in the way of innovation as were cleverly advocated4 ,physicians strove not to advance the healing art2 as individuals1 they were content to rely on their manners1 their tact1 and their assumption of wisdom4 ,in short1 the body medical was in a state of suspended animation1 possessed of a mere vegetative existence4 ,the ,humoral pathology1 or that doctrine of the nature of disease which ascribed all ailments to excess1 deficiency1 or ill concoction of some one of the four humors 7yellow and black bile1 blood1 and phlegm71 had not yet lost its hold on men's convictions1 or at least not further than to make them look upon exposure to cold and errors of diet as amply explanatory of all diseases not plainly infectious4 ,the medical writers who were most revered were those who busied themselves with nosology2 that is to say1 the naming and classifying of diseases4 ,wonderful were the onomatological feats performed by some of these men1 and most diverse and grotesque were the data on which they founded their classifications4 ,to label a disease was high art2 to cure it was something that ,providence might or might not allow4 ,in the treatment of sthenic acute diseases 7meaning those accompanied by excitement and high fever71 blood-letting1 mercury given to the point of salivation1 antimony1 and opium1 together with starvation 7all included under the euphemism of lowering measures71 were the means universally resorted to and reputed sheet anchors4 ,some advance had been made from the times when disease had been looked upon as an entity to be exorcised1 but it was still so far regarded as a material thing that it was to be starved out4 ,but the century was not out of its second decade when signs of an awakening from this lethargy began to show themselves4 ,the first steps1 naturally1 were along preparatory lines1 and for those we are largely indebted to the physicists1 the chemists1 and the botanists4 ,gross anatomy became better known1 owing for the most part to more enlightened legislation on the subject of the dissection of the human body2 minute anatomy 7histology7 sprang into existence as the result of improvements of the compound microscope4 ,physiology took on something of the experimental2 and medication was rendered far less gross and repulsive by the isolation of the active principles of medicinal plants4 ,but it was long after all this that the telling strides were taken4 ,up to within the memory of many men who are now living1 peritonitis tortured its victims to death1 said peritonitis being often interpreted as a manifestation of rheumatism1 for example1 and no well-directed interposition was attempted against it1 whereas we now know perfectly well that the vast majority of cases of peritonitis are due to local septic poisoning and for the most part quite readily remediable by the removal 7with a minimum of danger7 of the organ from which such poisoning arises--almost always the vermiform appendix4 ,appendicitis1 of which we hear so much nowadays1 is no new disease2 it is simply the peritonitis that killed so many people in former times4 ,but while no well-informed person would now maintain that this disease was a new one1 there are many1 and those1 too1 among the best instructed1 who find it difficult to avoid the conclusion that1 if not new1 it must at least be of far more frequent occurrence than formerly4 ,it must be borne in mind1 however1 that in the great majority of instances in past years it ended spontaneously in recovery and was forgotten4 ,two features of the progress in medicine in the ,nineteenth ,century1 negative as they may seem to have been1 were undoubtedly potent in the promotion of advance4 ,they were the recognition of the fact that many dangerous diseases are self-limited1 and the experiment of the so-called expectant treatment4 ,the result of the first of them was to teach men to desist from futile attempts to cure the self-limited diseases1 in the sense of cutting them short in their course1 and the expectant treatment followed as a natural consequence4 ,it was a method of managing disease rather than attempting to cure it4 ,there was no interference save to promote the patient's comfort1 to nourish him as thoroughly as might be without unduly taxing his powers1 and to meet complications as they arose4 ,it was stooping to conquer1 perhaps1 but it was a policy that conduced greatly to the well-being of the sick1 improved their chances of recovery1 and enabled physicians to study disease more accurately by reason of its course not being rendered irregular by meddlesome medication4 ,it has never been dropped1 and it never will be1 save as such directly curative agents as the antitoxines are made available4 ,in the early part of the century1 except for gross anatomy and operative surgery1 medicine was taught almost wholly1 so far as the schools were concerned1 by means of didactic lectures4 ,the drawing capacity of a professor was proportionate rather to his rhetorical powers and to the persuasiveness with which he inculcated the views peculiar to himself than to the amount of real information that he conveyed to the students4 ,although the apprentice system--for that was what the practice of students' attaching themselves to individual practitioners1 whom they called their preceptors1 virtually amounted to--in many instances made up more or less completely for the lack of systematic clinical teaching1 yet in the great majority of cases it amounted to little more than the preceptor's allowing the student the use of his library and occasionally examining into the latter's diligence and intelligence1 in return for which he1 the preceptor1 required an annual fee and exacted from the student such minor services as his proficiency enabled him to render4 ,it is true the students walked the hospitals1 drinking in some great man's utterances1 but they did it in droves1 not a moiety of them being able to get a good look at a patient1 unless it was such a passing glance as might tell them that the patient was jaundiced4 ,by clinical teaching we understand teaching1 not in glittering generalities1 but in the concrete1 either at the bedside1 as the word clinical originally implied1 or at least with the patient actually present to illustrate in his person the professor's descriptions and the success or failure of the treatment employed4 ,the clinic is now firmly established1 and has been for years1 but it was long before this grand result was attained4 ,experimental methods of study gradually came into vogue1 particularly in the domain of physiology4 ,in this sphere ,dr4 ,william ,beaumont1 of the ,united ,states ,army1 was a pioneer4 ,his historic experiments on ,alexis ,st4 ,martin1 a soldier who had been wounded in the stomach and recovered with a permanent opening into that organ1 will ever rank among the most important of the early experimental studies of digestion4 ,it was not long before ,claude ,bernard extended similar inquiries to the other functions of the body1 notably those of the nervous system2 and since his time there has been a long array of brilliant investigators of physiology and of other branches of science tributary to medicine4 ,experiments on living animals were almost the only means of carrying on these researches4 ,in the early days the animals employed were doubtless put to a great deal of pain--perhaps in many instances to unnecessary suffering--and an altogether laudable feeling of humanity has led good people to band themselves together for the purpose of putting a stop to vivisection1 or at least of greatly restricting the practice and of freeing it from all avoidable infliction of pain4 ,these praiseworthy efforts have in some instances been carried so far1 unfortunately1 as to seriously hamper scientific investigation--investigation which has for its object the alleviation of human suffering and the saving of human life4 ,we may earnestly deprecate and strive to prevent wanton reiteration of painful experiments for purposes of demonstrating anew that which is unquestioned1 and we may resort to all possible means to render necessary experiments free from actual pain 7from the anguish of trepidation we can seldom relieve the poor animals71 but let us not block the wheels of scientific progress4 ,at the dawn of the ,nineteenth ,century1 to examine a sick person's pulse1 to inspect his tongue1 to observe his breathing1 to interrogate his skin by our sense of touch1 and to try to make his statements and those of his friends fit in with some tenable theory of the nature of his ailment1 were about all we could do4 ,possibly it was because he realized to an uncommon degree the tremendous impediment of this narrow limitation that ,samuel ,hahnemann1 the founder of ,homoeopathy1 cut the ,gordian knot in sheer rebelliousness1 and proclaimed1 as he virtually did1 that a diagnosis was not necessary to the successful treatment of disease1 but that one only needed to know empirically how to subdue symptoms1 meaning mainly1 if not solely1 what we term subjective symptoms--those of which the patient complains1 as opposed to those that we ourselves discover4 ,but the physical examination of the sick1 before extremely meagre in its sphere and restricted in its possibilities1 was destined to expand before many years into the minute and positive physical diagnosis of the present day4 ,in the year #ahaf a ,french physician1 ,rn ,thophile ,hyacinthe ,laennec1 achieved undying fame by publishing to the world an account of his labors in the application of mediate auscultation and of percussion to the diagnosis of the diseases of the chest4 ,it is true that no less a personage than the ,father of ,medicine1 ,hippocrates1 is reputed to have practised succussion as a means of diagnosis2 that is1 the shaking of a patient1 as one would shake a cask1 to ascertain by the occurrence or non-occurrence of a splashing sound if the person's pleural cavity was distended partly with water and partly with air4 ,it is probable that ,hippocrates and many others after him carried the physical examination of the chest still further1 for it is difficult to imagine1 for example1 that so simple a device as that of thumping a partition to make out the situation of a joist by the sound evoked should not early have been applied to the human chest4 ,but1 be this as it may1 to ,laennec belongs the great credit of having laid a substantial foundation for the physical diagnosis of the present time1 and1 more than for laying a foundation1 for constructing a fairly complete edifice4 ,he who should now undertake to practise general medicine without having first made himself proficient in the detection and interpretation of the sounds elicited by auscultation and percussion in diseases of the heart and lungs would foredoom himself to failure4 ,it was not until many years later1 early in the second half of the century1 that the clinical thermometer came into general use1 but it soon showed most strikingly the superiority of the instrument of precision to the unaided senses of man4 ,who would think now of trying to estimate the height of a fever by laying his hand on the patient's skin1 or who1 even among the laity1 would be satisfied with such a procedure8 ,doubtless1 said the present writer in a former publication 7,new ,york ,medical ,journal1 ,dec4 #bi1 #aijj71 the use of the thermometer has occasionally given rise to needless alarm1 but almost invariably it may be interpreted with great certainty4 ,often it dispels unnecessary anxiety as in a twinkling by its negative indication1 and surely it is to be credited with being distinctly diagnostic in those diseases of which it has itself established the 'curve4' ,by the thermometric curve of a disease is understood the general visual impression made by the graphic chart of a temperature record--the course of a zigzag line connecting the points indicated by the various individual observations4 ,numerous other instruments of precision are now in constant use1 among the most wonderful of which perhaps is the ophthalmoscope1 whereby we are enabled to subject the retina and the intervening media of the eye to minute visual examination4 ,there is not an organ of the body that is not now interrogated daily in the way of physical diagnosis1 and we even examine separately the secretion of each of the two kidneys4 ,in addition1 there are multitudinous specific signs of which we were not long ago in complete ignorance4 ,to cite only one of these1 there is ,widal's agglutination test1 by which the bacteriologist can usually make a diagnosis of typhoid fever far in advance of the time at which it could otherwise be distinguished4 ,the use of the ,rntgen rays in diagnosis was one of the crowning achievements of the century1 and now we seem about to enter upon a course of their successful employment in the treatment of disease--even some forms of cancer--as well as in its detection4 ,beyond the vermin that infest the skin and the hair1 tapeworm1 and a few other intestinal worms1 little if anything was known of morbific parasites before the ,nineteenth ,century2 but the labors of ,van ,beneden1 ,kchenmeister1 ,cobbold1 ,manson1 ,laveran1 and others have now established the causal relationship between great numbers of animal parasites--gross and microscopic--and certain definite morbid states4 ,this has led to a great increase in our knowledge of the connection between the parasites of the lower animals and grave disease in human beings1 and on this knowledge rest many of the precautions that we are now able to take against the spread of such disease4 ,from the consideration of animal parasites as the direct causes of disease1 we naturally come to the contemplation of the subject of insects as the carriers of disease4 ,the later years of the century have witnessed the demonstration of the fly's agency in the transmission of malignant pustule and typhoid fever1 and that of certain mosquitoes in the conveyance of yellow fever and malarial disease4 ,we now know that bad air 7the original meaning of the word malaria7 has nothing to do with fever and ague1 and that swamps are not unwholesome if they are free from infected mosquitoes4 ,the mosquito does not originate the malarial infection2 it simply serves as the temporary host of the micro-organism 7,plasmodium malarioe7 which is the cause of the disease1 having obtained its transient guest from some human being4 ,consequently1 marshy districts that are full of mosquitoes are not malarious unless the mosquitoes are of the kinds capable of lodging the plasmodium1 and unless there is or has recently been present in the neighborhood some person affected with malarial disease4 ,moreover1 the most virulently malarious region is a safe place of residence for human beings1 provided they protect themselves absolutely against the bite of the mosquito4 ,this has been strikingly demonstrated in the case of the ,roman ,campagna4 ,from the disease-producing animal parasites we come now to those that are believed to be of vegetable nature4 ,under the general name of bacteria1 there are multitudes of micro-organisms having pathogenic powers1 each giving rise to some definite specific disease1 and certain associations of different bacteria causing particular morbid conditions4 ,generations ago physicians had a glimmering of what we now term the germ theory of disease1 as was shown by their use of such expressions as materies morbi and morbid poisons4 ,even the definite relationship of special microscopic organisms to individual diseases was foreshadowed by ,salisbury nearly fifty years ago4 ,but it was not until years after those conceptions1 and in no wise descended from or led up to by them1 that an intelligible and satisfactory germ theory of disease was formulated4 ,it is to ,pasteur1 the immortal chemist1 that we owe this theory1 as well as that of the attenuation of viruses--both of more than theoretical import1 since they have given us aseptic surgery1 the power of frequently preventing hydrophobia1 the antitoxine treatment of diphtheria1 and the ability to stay the hand of ,death in the form of many a stalking pestilence4 ,every infectious disease is now held to be due to its own particular micro-organism1 and many diseases that were not until recently thought to be infectious are now classed as such because they have been proved to be caused by living germs4 ,conspicuous among these diseases is pulmonary consumption4 ,in the case of almost every one of these diseases we have discovered the specific germ and are able to demonstrate its presence1 either by its microscopical appearance1 by its behavior on contact with certain stains1 or by the forms that cultures of it assume4 ,the micro-organism of small-pox and that of cancer 7the existence of which is assumed7 have not yet been isolated4 ,some of these germs1 like that of tetanus 7lockjaw71 gain entrance to the system only through a wound2 others1 like those of typhoid fever and cholera1 are swallowed2 others1 like that of pneumonia1 are inhaled2 still others1 like that of tuberculous disease1 are either swallowed or inhaled4 ,some are believed to be transmissible to the unborn child2 and a few are ordinarily harmless parasites1 becoming pathogenic only when they accidentally gain access to other parts of the system than those which constitute their natural habitat4 ,these microscopic organisms do not by their mere presence set up disease1 unless indeed they are in such overwhelming numbers as to block the capillary blood vessels mechanically4 ,some of them are carried broadcast in the blood current1 while others remain at the point of entrance2 in either case they elaborate certain products1 termed toxines1 which act1 either locally or through the circulation1 to cause the disease4 ,these toxines eventually kill the micro-organisms that produced them1 quite as an animal may be smothered in its own exhalations2 or at least they would do so if the host survived long enough for the completion of the process4 ,meantime1 they have either killed the host or been defeated by certain very interesting natural processes4 ,but before either of these occurrences has had time to take place1 fortunately1 in the great majority of instances1 save those of exposure to the most deadly of infections1 the vital power of the invaded individual has coped successfully with the invaders at the very point of attack--has repulsed the attacking party without appreciable impairment of its own force--and no illness results4 ,for example1 practically all of us inhale the germ of consumption repeatedly1 but most of us suffer no harm from it simply because the fluids which bathe the surface on which the germ effects a lodgment are endowed with properties which either kill the germ or rob it of its power for harm2 but these properties suffice only when the general health is unimpaired4 ,in case the attack is not successfully repelled at the outset1 what happens8 ,there begins a struggle between the invaders and what may be called the reserves of the organism1 consisting of the white blood corpuscles1 which undergo a great augmentation in number4 ,these corpuscles are endowed with the faculty of amoeboid movement2 that is to say1 they may shoot out projections from their substance1 and even convert themselves for the time being into traps1 seizing upon the pathogenic bacteria1 incarcerating them within their own mass1 and carrying them away to be thrust out of the system by organs whose function it is to eliminate extraneous matter4 ,these corpuscles are1 indeed1 said figuratively to eat the malign micro-organisms1 whence they have been termed phagocytes 7from ,greek3 phagein1 to eat1 and ,greek3 kutos1 a cell72 also because they carry away refuse and noxious material1 they have been called the scavengers of the system4 ,by means of their amoeboid movement they are enabled to worm themselves through inconceivably minute apertures in the blood vessels1 and attack and devour peccant matter wherever it may have effected a lodgment4 ,these white corpuscles are also known as leucocytes1 and their increase in number when they are called upon to resist bacterial invasion is spoken of as hyperleucocytosis4 ,the discovery of their protective function is to be credited to ,metchnikoff1 a ,russian physician now teaching in ,paris4 ,when they migrate from the blood vessels in great numbers they finally1 after having fulfilled their office as phagocytes1 degenerate into the corpuscular elements of pus1 which is the creamy liquid contained in an abscess4 ,their migratory power was discovered by ,cohnheim4 ,but as a general thing the phagocytes do not succeed in making away with all the pathogenic germs1 or even with enough of them to prevent the illness which they tend to produce4 ,the further combat is between the poisonous products1 termed toxines1 engendered by the bacteria and certain antidotal substances1 called antitoxines1 newly created in the watery portion of the blood by some wonderful provision of ,nature that is not yet well understood4 ,each infective disease has its special toxine1 and for the destruction of each the blood prepares its particular antitoxine2 possibly1 however1 some of the antitoxines may be efficacious against more than one kind of toxine1 for there are physicians who are convinced that vaccination is a temporary preventive of whooping-cough4 ,but the elaboration of an antitoxine takes time1 and the result in any given case1 whether in recovery or in death1 seems to be settled by the ability or inability of the vital powers of the individual to hold out until they are relieved by the evolution of the necessary amount of antitoxine4 ,in the long run1 provided the sick person survives1 more antitoxine is generated than is required to save life4 ,the excess remains in the system for a greater or lesser length of time1 and this fact explains the individual's subsequent immunity to the disease from which he has recovered2 any fresh invading force of the microbes of that disease finds that defensive preparations have been made in advance4 ,in the case of some diseases this acquired immunity is usually lifelong1 as in that of small-pox2 in others1 of which influenza is a notable example1 it is as a rule very transitory2 and there are all gradations between the two4 ,it is thought that this acquired immunity to some diseases may be transmitted to the offspring1 for it is quite certain that there are many people who are from birth insusceptible to scarlet fever1 no matter what may be the extent of their exposure to that disease4 ,the recognition of ,nature's elaboration of protective antitoxines has led to their artificial cultivation in the lower animals1 and1 thus produced1 they have been used with brilliant results in the prevention and cure of at least one formidable disease1 diphtheria4 ,the immense reduction of the mortality from this disease that has followed the introduction of the treatment with the artificial antitoxine we owe to ,behring1 of ,germany1 and ,roux1 of ,france4 ,omitting unnecessary details1 we may describe the process of obtaining diphtheria antitoxine as follows3 ,a certain amount of diphtheritic poison 7of the bacteriological sort1 prepared by cultivating the diphtheria microbe7 is injected into the circulation of a horse--sufficient to make the horse sick1 but not enough to endanger his life4 ,the horse's system straightway begins to elaborate the protective antitoxine1 and there results from this one injection a sufficient amount of it to save the horse1 although far too little to make the serum of his blood potent enough for medicinal use4 ,hence1 after the lapse of a suitable interval1 he is again injected with diphtheritic poison1 and for the second time his blood begins to generate the antitoxine4 ,and the process is repeated again and again1 the virulence of the poison being increased each time1 until the horse's blood is fairly reeking with antitoxine4 ,then blood is drawn freely from the horse1 and it is allowed to separate into clot and serum1 the latter alone being the part destined for use4 ,this serum is tested on a small animal that has been inoculated with a deadly dose of the diphtheritic poison2 if it saves the little creature from death1 it is assumed to be potent enough for use on human beings1 and1 handled with all possible precautions against putrefaction or any contamination with pathogenic bacteria1 it is furnished to physicians1 its degree of potency being designated in units4 ,if in this brief article1 which does not purport to be more than a sketch of the tremendous strides made by medicine in the ,nineteenth ,century1 so much space has been given to the germ theory of disease1 it is because the demonstration of the truth of that theory has been absolute1 and has constituted the very marrow of almost all the medical progress of the century that has been the outcome of continuous thought and study as opposed to chance discovery4 ,such results as the germ theory has now led to in the treatment of diphtheria it had already accomplished in the field of surgery as a consequence of that strict asepticism which1 originating with ,joseph ,lister 7now ,lord ,lister71 and rapidly carried by him to a condition verging on technical completeness1 was soon taken up by surgeons all over the world and brought wellnigh to perfection1 so that the mortality of wounds of all sorts has been tremendously reduced1 and many surgical operations are now practised frequently--indeed1 whenever the occasion for them arises--that before the days of ,listerism would have been looked upon as almost tantamount to the patient's death-warrant4 ,more particularly is this the case as to operations which involve opening into the abdomen1 the chest1 or the cranium4 ,so little risk now attaches to such operations1 properly performed1 that the opening of the abdominal cavity for the mere purpose of ascertaining the condition of its contents--exploratory laparotomy1 as it is called--is a matter of constant occurrence4 ,curiously enough1 in some way not yet satisfactorily explained1 that procedure in itself1 without anything further being done1 has in many instances resulted in decided amelioration of a morbid condition1 if not in its cure4 ,a striking example of this is seen in the benefit that often results in cases of one form of consumption of the bowels1 namely1 tuberculous disease of the membrane that lines the abdominal wall and invests the abdominal organs4 ,this is not the only operation that does good mysteriously2 that of cutting out a bit of the iris in a form of deep-seated eye disease1 glaucoma1 that tends toward complete blindness1 is hardly more explicable2 neither is an incision of the capsule of the kidney for certain forms of ,bright's disease1 each of which stays the progress of the trouble in a goodly proportion of instances4 ,another of the great divisions of the healing art1 that of midwifery1 has been enhanced quite as much as general surgery by the employment of ,listerism4 ,the process of childbirth1 although a perfectly natural one1 almost necessarily carries with it a certain amount of laceration1 and1 through the wound surfaces thus produced1 absorption of poisonous material was formerly so frequent that puerperal fever figured prominently in mortality reports4 ,it was ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes--a graduate in medicine and a professor in the ,harvard ,medical ,school1 though we are accustomed to think of him only as a delightful writer--who first declared that puerperal fever was the product of infection from without the body1 and ,semmelweis demonstrated the truth of the proposition4 ,holmes was a teacher of physiology1 and his study of that branch of medical science was in itself enough to convince him of the doctrine which he inculcated4 ,listerism must be credited1 not only with having added immensely to the safety of the major operations of surgery1 but also with having led to great improvement of their technics by reason of the greatly increased frequency with which it has come to be thought justifiable to practise them2 what we do again and again we are apt in the end to do well1 whereas that which we turn to only in despair and as rarely as possible1 we do clumsily and imperfectly4 ,listerism has been unjustly alleged by a few to be unworthy of the appreciation in which it is held by the great majority of medical men of all countries2 simple cleanliness1 it has been urged1 is quite as efficient as the full ,listerian precautions4 ,this is begging the question1 for simple cleanliness1 chemical cleanliness1 is all that ,listerism purports to accomplish4 ,the use of antiseptics has been decried in the interest of asepticism1 as if the whole purpose of antisepticism were not to secure asepsis4 ,lord ,lister is entitled to the full credit of establishing the aseptic surgery of the present day1 in spite of the facts that his doctrine followed rather than preceded his early improvements1 that aseptic procedures have been brought nearer perfection elsewhere than in his own country1 and that the whole system rests on foundations laid by ,pasteur4 ,while it is quite true that to the ,listerian theory and practice are almost wholly to be ascribed the favorable results of the major surgery of the present day1 we must not forget the immeasurable benefits to the diseased1 the injured1 and the crippled that have arisen from patient efforts and occasional brilliant intuition that have had no connection with the germ theory of infection4 ,take the case of a broken leg1 for example1 an injury that formerly condemned the victim to weeks and weeks of confinement to bed1 together with the suffering and danger almost inseparable from the old methods of the long straight splint and tight bandaging4 ,at the present time he who has met with such a misfortune is commonly able to be about on crutches within a few days1 and his broken bone mends while he is cultivating his appetite and indulging in pleasant intercourse with his fellow-men4 ,this great change has been made possible by one device after another1 invented by different men4 ,josiah ,crosby introduced the use of sticking-plaster for extension1 instead of the chafing bands previously employed2 ,gurdon ,buck substituted elastic extension by means of a weight and pulley for the rude and arbitrary traction in vogue before2 ,james ,l4 ,little devised the plaster-of-,paris splint1 whereby broken bones were immobilized with hardly appreciable discomfort2 and ,henry ,b4 ,sands established the safety and practicability of applying the plaster-of-,paris splint almost immediately after the reduction 7setting7 of the fracture4 ,in the meantime ,nathan ,r4 ,smith and ,john ,t4 ,hodgen had demonstrated the advantages of suspending a fractured limb from above4 ,all these men were ,americans2 surely our country has contributed powerfully to the well-being of the subjects of fracture4 ,other ,americans1 notably ,lewis ,a4 ,sayre1 have enabled sufferers with joint disease1 including the dreaded hip disease1 to run about and gain health and strength1 instead of languishing in bed4 ,sayre1 too1 by his suspension treatment and the plaster-of-,paris jacket1 set the hunchback on his feet at a stage in his disease in which before he had been forced to prolonged and painful recumbency4 ,although men professing special skill in certain operations1 and doubtless possessing it1 flourished in old times1 and left more or less of their impress on the surgery of the present day1 for that matter1 it was not until the second half of the ,nineteenth ,century that regional surgery 7which is what specialism virtually amounts to7 was systematically cultivated4 ,now there is hardly a portion of the body to which practitioners who make its ailments a specialty do not direct their searching methods of examination or on which they do not practise their ingenious devices in the way of treatment4 ,specialism has always been decried by a large section of the medical profession4 ,on the other hand1 it has been and is still overrated by the laity4 ,the true estimate lies between the two4 ,the specialists have advanced surgery immensely1 but1 with many honorable exceptions1 they have laid too much stress on their several specialties1 making too wide a range of ailments fall within them4 ,as for the community at large1 their shortcoming lies in the fact that most of them would seek for a specialist in mumps in case that painful but transitory infliction were to come upon them1 and in their underrating of the family physician4 ,to change for a moment to a topic akin to the germ theory of disease1 the reader may be reminded that the antitoxine treatment of infectious disease involves in almost every instance the use of some product contained in the serum 7that is to say1 the watery part of the blood74 ,this leads to the subject of the use of natural and artificial serum in the treatment of disease4 ,to quote again from the article entitled1 ,the ,nineteenth ,century in ,medicine 7,new ,york ,medical ,journal1 ,dec4 #bi1aijj73 ,it has been observed that the normal serum of certain animals that are insusceptible to particular infectious diseases1 if injected into the human blood current or even into the subcutaneous tissue1 confers more or less of immunity against those diseases4444 ,artificial serum seems to have been first employed by ,edmund ,r4 ,peaslee as a benign application to the peritonaeum in the operation of ovariotomy4 ,his conception of its mode of action is not very clear1 but he was a very successful ovariotomist1 and we can only conjecture that he builded better than he knew1 like many another man4 ,a few years ago much was expected from transfusion of blood1 but gradually the conviction has forced itself upon us that it is wellnigh useless1 and indeed that1 on the whole1 it is worse than useless4 ,it has virtually been abandoned4444 ,but experiments in transfusion have not been fruitless2 they have culminated in demonstrating the inestimable value of infusions of 'normal1' or 'physiological1' solutions of sodium chloride1 and not only of infusions1 but also of peritoneal irrigation with such solutions4 ,many a life has been saved by resorting to this measure1 even in apparently desperate cases4 ,within about a decade of the close of the century1 ,robert ,koch1 whose discoveries and ingenious studies in bacteriology had brought him world-wide renown1 announced that he had produced a derivative of the tubercle bacillus1 which he termed tuberculin1 that he thought might prove curative of tuberculous disease4 ,it was to be injected beneath the skin4 ,if the subject was really tuberculous1 he would react by manifesting a certain degree of fever1 and repeated injections would bring about elimination of the tuberculous deposits and thus effect a cure4 ,the world was carried away with such an announcement coming from such a man1 and it was thoroughly believed that at last the great white plague1 consumption1 was to be conquered4 ,tuberculin did1 indeed1 cure certain minor forms of tuberculous disease1 such as the skin affection known as lupus1 but it soon became evident that it was almost impotent in the treatment of pulmonary consumption4 ,it has1 however1 served to enable the veterinarian to make out the existence of tuberculous disease in cattle at an early stage of its course1 and it is probable that by the slaughter of cattle thus found to be tuberculous much infection of human beings has been prevented4 ,tuberculin failed of its prime purpose1 but it does seem to have marked the initiative of a campaign against consumption which has already proved of incalculable benefit1 and bids fair to put that omnipresent disease toward the foot of the list of causes of death4 ,we have made substantial advances in our knowledge of the disease1 and we no longer regard it as incurable4 ,we have learned that it is communicable from one person to another1 but also that its communication can easily be prevented1 so that there is no reason to shrink from association with tuberculous persons4 ,we have learned1 too1 that consumption in one's progenitors1 immediate or remote1 hardly makes it even probable that he himself is doomed to suffer with it2 the only tuberculous heredity that we now recognize is that of defective ability to withstand the infection1 and even this we regard as in most instances readily surmountable4 ,we have learned1 furthermore1 that pulmonary tuberculous disease is by no means so fatal as it was formerly esteemed1 for men whose business it is to make great numbers of post-mortem examinations1 such as coroners' physicians and hospital pathologists1 assure us that in a very large percentage of cases of death from other causes they find indubitable signs of past tuberculous disease of the lungs which had ceased its activity--been1 in fact1 cured1 either spontaneously or by medical intervention4 ,such intervention1 it has been abundantly proved1 is altogether likely to be successful if it is of the right sort and employed early4 ,there is1 to be sure1 no cure-all4 ,powerful as the climatic treatment is1 it must be supplemented by measures accurately adapted to the individual case1 and failure to comprehend this fact still leads many a phthisical person to his grave4 ,but information is rapidly being diffused1 sanatoria for such of the tuberculous as can take advantage of them are multiplying1 and those who are shut off from their aid are growing more and more cognizant of how they should live in order to give themselves the best chance of recovery and save their associates from infection4 ,the era of consumption-cures--meaning drugs--is past2 but the disease is cured in an ever-increasing proportion of instances1 and that1 too1 by medical though not medicinal measures4 ,at almost every turn medicine has been powerfully assisted by the sciences which should rather be termed correlative than subsidiary4 ,notable among them is chemistry4 ,the isolation of the active principles of medicinal plants--such as morphine1 quinine1 strychnine1 and cocaine--has been a remarkable service rendered by chemistry to medicine4 ,how should we be handicapped if we still had to fight malarial disease with the crude ,peruvian bark instead of its chief alkaloid1 quinine6 ,and how impracticable if not impossible would it be to render the eye insensitive to pain with any extract of coca leaves1 no matter how concentrated--a purpose that we accomplish almost instantly with cocaine6 ,of minor importance1 perhaps1 but not to be despised1 is the resulting liberation from the old slavery to bulky and nauseous drugs4 ,the isolation of active principles long antedated the synthetical preparations1 but the latter came at last--the marvellous array of hypnotics1 anodynes1 and fever-quellers that are now at our command1 largely coal-tar products4 ,but it is not to pure chemistry alone that we are indebted for the elegant dosing of the present day2 progressive pharmacy1 with its tablets1 its coated pills1 and its capsules1 has put to shame the old-time purveyor of galenicals4 ,right jauntily do we now take our soda mint in case of slight derangement of the stomach1 happily oblivious of its vile prototype1 the old rhubarb and soda mixture4 ,even castor oil has been stripped of its repulsiveness by the combinations which the soda water fountain affords4 ,it was but a step1 we can now realize1 from the employment of isolated vegetable principles to that of preparations of certain glandular organs of the animal economy1 but the doctrine of internal secretions had to intervene1 and its evolution took time2 not till toward the close of the century did the venerable ,brown-,squard lead up to it4 ,we have not yet come to eye of newt and toe of frog1 but what we have incorporated into modern therapeutics in the way of animal products lends at least some theoretical justification to the ancient use of the dried organs of various animals4 ,it is but a few years since the ductless glands--such organs1 as1 for example1 the thyreoid gland 7an organ situated in the front of the neck1 a small affair in its normal state1 but prominent and even pendulous when by its permanent enlargement it comes to constitute a gotre7--were looked upon as puzzles1 as structures destitute of any known function4 ,some observers even affirmed that they had no function1 though the constancy of gotre in cretins ought to have shown the fallacy of this allegation in the case of the thyreoid4 ,we do not now need to be told that the thyreoid gland plays a very important part in the economy1 for we know that its surgical removal gives rise to a special disease known as myxoedema1 which1 in addition to its physical manifestations1 is characterized by impairment of the mental powers4 ,consequently1 this ductless gland--a gland1 that is to say1 which has no obvious canal by which it throws off any product of its activity--must elaborate some material that is necessary to the health of the organism and is imparted to the blood4 ,that material1 whatever it may be1 is termed an internal secretion4 ,some of the internal secretions have turned out to be of singular value medicinally4 ,it is apparently not the ductless glands alone that furnish internal secretions2 the glands that are provided with ducts and yield a definite and observable product secrete also a substance 7perhaps more than one7 which they give up to the blood4 ,prominent among the therapeutic advances of the century is the direct reduction of the high temperature of sunstroke and certain fevers by the use of cold4 ,although foreshadowed by ,currie early in the century by his use of cold affusion in the treatment of scarlet fever1 it did not come into general use until the closing decades4 ,it is employed principally in typhoid fever1 on the theory that a condition of high fever is in itself a source of danger quite distinct from the other injurious effects of a febrile disease4 ,on the other hand1 the employment of high degrees of heat has of late been shown to be a potent agency in the treatment of certain forms of disease1 notably in various affections classed as rheumatic4 ,applications of very hot air1 provided it is thoroughly dry1 are borne without serious discomfort1 and their employment promises to be of greater service in the conditions in which it is resorted to than that of any other agent4 ,a revelation in the treatment of heart disease has been effected by the ,bad ,nauheim system of effervescent baths and resisted exercises4 ,it is not only functional disorders of the heart that are relieved1 but grave organic diseases also4 ,somewhat elaborate explanations of the way in which the treatment proves beneficial have been given1 but they are not altogether satisfactory4 ,thus far we have dealt chiefly with those developments of medicine that seem to have been the outgrowth of much thought and experiment1 but there was one that can hardly be viewed as other than a happy discovery1 yet it was one that was fraught with unspeakable mitigation of human suffering1 and that wrought a boundless extension of the field of surgery4 ,it was that of anaesthesia4 ,the first to discover an efficient surgical anaesthetic was ,crawford ,w4 ,long1 of ,georgia4 ,it has been established that he performed several minor operations with the patient anaesthetized with sulphuric ether1 but he did not proclaim his discovery1 and so it was reserved for ,william ,t4 ,g4 ,morton1 of ,boston 7then a dentist1 but subsequently a physician71 to make the first public demonstration of the efficiency of ether as an anaesthetic1 which he did in the operating theatre of the ,massachusetts ,general ,hospital1 in ,boston1 in the year #ahdf4 ,the news of ,morton's achievement spread broadcast1 and it was at once realized that it was destined to revolutionize surgery4 ,it certainly has done that1 and in no less degree than was afterward accomplished by ,listerism4 ,ether did not long remain the only anaesthetic known2 ,simpson1 of ,edinburgh1 soon discovered that chloroform was possessed of even more decided anaesthetic properties4 ,the inhalation of ether is disagreeable1 and it is slow in producing the desired effect1 whereas that of chloroform is not unpleasant1 and it acts more rapidly4 ,consequently chloroform soon came to be generally preferred2 but abundant experience has finally shown that ether is much the safer agent of the two1 and improved methods of administration have almost entirely done away with the objections to its use1 so that now it is looked upon as the preferable general anaesthetic4 ,but general anaesthesia--meaning the suspension of sensibility in the whole organism1 including unconsciousness--is not always necessary1 and sometimes it is undesirable4 ,we have now trustworthy local anaesthetics1 the chief of which is cocaine1 wherewith we are able to anaesthetize the part to be operated on without rendering the patient unconscious1 and the co-operation that a conscious patient may be able to render is sometimes valuable4 ,it was not alone in the direct saving of human suffering that anaesthetics proved a boon to the world2 they have made possible an amount of experimental work on animals in the way of vivisection that humane investigators would otherwise have shrunk from1 necessary as it has been and still is for the advancement of the healing art4 ,the operation of ovariotomy1 first performed by ,ephraim ,mc,dowell1 of ,kentucky1 can hardly be classed with the happy accidents2 but so little had been said about it or thought concerning it that when the news of it reached ,europe from the wilds of ,america the editor of a ponderous ,english quarterly journal of medicine recorded his incredulity in the words ,credat ,judoeus1 non ego ,an ovarian tumor inevitably proves fatal in the long run if it is not removed4 ,in a certain percentage of cases it is malignant and will kill whether it is removed or not1 but the general result of ovariotomy has been the saving of thousands of women from untimely death4 ,bell1 of ,edinburgh1 had imagined the operation and had mentioned it in his lectures1 but none the less to ,mc,dowell is due the credit of demonstrating its feasibility4 ,medicine bore quite its full share in the mitigation of the horrors and hardships of war that marked the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,its work was shown in the great reduction of pestilential disease incident to camp life1 in prompt aid to the wounded1 in the establishment of salubrious field and general hospitals1 and in improved methods of transportation of the sick and wounded4 ,certainly the soldier on the sick list never before had such a fair prospect of rejoining his comrades safe and sound as he has now4 ,in the care of the insane1 too--care not only in the sense of humane treatment1 but in the systematic employment of measures for their restoration to mental soundness--the century has been marked by notable progress4 ,this has been chiefly in the direction of preventing insanity1 and although mental disease is said to be on the increase1 it may undoubtedly be said with entire truth that its growing prevalence is not in proportion to the heightened frequency of the strenuous life4 ,we may confidently expect that a more pronounced mastery over diseases of the mind will come when physicians in general are taught psychiatry clinically1 so that the beginnings of mental alienation may be intelligently met by the family practitioner4 ,the supreme achievement of the medicine of the ,nineteenth ,century undoubtedly has been the development of its preventive feature4 ,when we recall the fact that but a few years ago an attack of infectious disease was interpreted as a visitation of ,providence1 by a perversity that even the triumphs of vaccination did not serve to do away with2 when we contemplate the well-ordered and well-understood measures that are now resorted to in an ever-increasing number of communities 7and resorted to not solely on the outbreak of an epidemic1 but at all times71 to purify the air we breathe1 the food we eat1 and the water we drink2 and when we reflect upon the greatly reduced morbidity as well as mortality of most infectious diseases--we must realize the immense service that has been rendered by preventive medicine4 ,no doubt we must all die some time1 and the day is yet far remote when the only causes of death will be old age and injury2 but a decided prolongation of the average lifetime1 such as the life-insurance companies recognize1 is an unquestionable gain to the human race4 ,a great blessing that has been brought about in great measure by medical men has been the establishment of the profession of nursing4 ,the work of caring for the sick between the physician's visits is no longer1 at least in large communities and in cases of severe illness1 left to over-sympathetic and uninstructed relatives or to outsiders who traded on mystery4 ,an intelligent and intelligible record is now kept of all important happenings in the sick room1 remedies are administered as they were ordered1 needless alarm at something deemed by the patient to be of ill omen is quelled1 and in case of real emergency1 overlooked as it might otherwise have been1 the physician is summoned to meet it4 ,the advent of the trained nurse marked an era in medicine4 ,the literature of medicine has fully kept pace in volume with the progress of the art itself1 and its quality has steadily improved4 ,to this the great tomes of that gigantic work1 the ,index-,catalogue of the ,library of the ,surgeon-,general's ,office1 ,united ,states ,army1 bear solid testimony4 ,it is a consolidated catalogue1 by subjects and by authors' names1 of practically every medical book published throughout the world and of every article in the periodical literature of medicine4 ,for its existence the world is indebted to ,dr4 ,john ,s4 ,billings1 formerly a surgeon of high rank in the army and now the director of the ,new ,york ,public ,library1 and for its continued existence to the ,united ,states ,government1 and it is to be hoped that ,congress will never cease to provide adequately for its continued publication4 ,its completeness and its accuracy long ago led to its being prized everywhere4 ,there are some problems of which medicine has hardly yet entered upon the solution4 ,prominent among them is that of cancer4 ,little as we now know of the real nature of that disease1 we know quite as much of it as we knew but a few years ago concerning other diseases equally destructive and far more prevalent1 which1 however1 we have now practically mastered4 ,who can say that we shall not triumph over cancer while the ,twentieth ,century is still young8 ,our final triumph is indubitable4 ,the strongest individuality in the medicine of the ,nineteenth ,century was without doubt that of ,rudolf ,ludwig ,karl ,virchow 7commonly written by him simply ,rudolf ,virchow74 ,although he took no direct part in any of the striking advances in practice that appeal to the laity1 yet he was recognized the world over1 among all classes of educated and well-informed persons1 as the one beacon light of ,nineteenth-,century medicine whose glow had been the steadiest and the most enduring4 ,this is because of the wide range of his learning in matters not pertaining closely to his profession4 ,his professional brethren hold the same view1 and this is because he so well controlled himself--checked himself at every turn by the severest application of system--that he continued for more than half a century an anchor to hold medical thought strictly down to fact4 ,this was from no natural lack of volatility1 for he was an ,acht-und-vierziger 7,forty-eighter74 ,in #ahdf1 as a prosector in the ,university of ,berlin1 ,virchow entered with ,reinhardt upon a series of pathological investigations which at once received wide attention4 ,in conjunction with ,reinhardt1 he founded the ,archiv fr pathologische ,anatomie und ,physiologie und fr klinische ,medicin#f 7a periodical familiarly called ,virchow's ,archiv71 the publication of which was begun in the year #ahdg4 ,reinhardt died in #aheb1 leaving the editorship in the hands of ,virchow alone1 and he was still its editor up to the time of his death1 on ,september #e1 #aijb4 ,footnote #f3 ,archives of ,pathological ,anatomy and ,physiology and of ,clinical ,medicine4 ,in consequence of his having openly proclaimed himself a ,democrat in #ahdh1 ,virchow was forced to retire from the ,university of ,berlin in the following year4 ,he was at once made a professor in the ,university of ,wrzburg1 whence seven years later1 in #ahef1 as the result of the strenuous interposition of various medical organizations1 he was recalled to ,berlin1 where he was made a professor and director of the ,pathological ,institute4 ,he was appointed medical privy councillor in #ahgd1 having several years before that entered upon an active political career and been one of the founders of the ,progressive party1 which he ably represented in the ,landtag and the ,reichstag4 ,in #ahfi he took part in founding the ,german and the ,berlin ,anthropological ,societies1 of each of which he was several times president4 ,virchow investigated the most diverse subjects1 as his profound studies of ,schliemann's discoveries1 as well as his other archaeological researches1 show1 and he was a rather prolific writer4 ,the most important of his early works was ,die ,cellularpathologie1 the first edition of which was published in #aheh4 ,chance's ,english translation appeared in #ahfj1 and ,picard's ,french version came out in #ahfa4 ,it is safe to say that no book of the century exerted a profounder influence on medical thought than ,virchow's exposition of the cellular pathology4 ,his next notable publication was a collection of thirty lectures on ,tumors 7,die krankhaften ,geschwlste1#g ,berlin1 #ahfc-fg74 ,that he was not too absorbed in these lectures to bring his great powers to bear upon topics of the day is shown by the fact that before their publication was completed he brought out his work on ,trichinae 7,darstellung der ,lehre von den ,trichinen1 #ahfd74 ,old age found him with industry and versatility unabated1 for it was in #ahib that his ,crania ethnica americana appeared1 and after that time he wrote a vigorous protest against the new-fangled spelling of the ,german language which he accused the schoolmasters of trying to foist on the people4 ,this was published in his ,archiv4 ,it may well be that his arguments have not been unavailing1 since it is observable that several ,german publications that had adopted the new spelling have now dropped it4 ,footnote #g3 ,morbid ,tumors4 ,it must not be supposed that it was by his literary work alone1 founded though it was manifestly on his profound study1 that ,virchow impressed his personality upon medicine2 it was in his lectures and in his laboratory teaching1 too1 that he made himself felt4 ,in all civilized countries there are many devoted workers in medical science who caught their first real inspiration from ,virchow4 ,the writer once saw ,virchow--only once1 but it was a sight never to be forgotten4 ,it was at a banquet given as one of the festivities incident to the annual meeting of the ,british ,medical ,association in ,london in #ahgc4 ,the company was not a large one1 but it included such celebrities as ,professor ,j4 ,burdon ,sanderson1 ,sir ,william ,jenner1 ,professor ,chauveau1 and ,professor ,marey4 ,virchow was conspicuously the man toward whom the eyes of all others were oftenest directed4 ,virchow met with the love as well as the admiration of his contemporaries1 and both sentiments will descend to their successors1 for his impress on the records of medicine is indelible1 both as an instructor and as a friend of all real truth-seekers4 ,,authorities4 ,there is no full and connected account of the progress of medicine during the ,nineteenth ,century1 but the reader may consult with profit the various medical biographies1 also the following works3 ,silliman's ,a ,century of ,medicine and ,chemistry2 ,jenner's ,the ,practical ,medicine of ,to-day2 ,buck's ,reference ,handbook of the ,medical ,sciences2 ,eulenburg's ,real-,encyclopdie der gesammten ,heilkunde2 the ,annus ,medicus1 published in the ,lancet at the close of each year2 and ,tinker's ,america's ,contributions to ,surgery 7,bulletin of the ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital1 ,aug4-,sept41 #aijb74