,transcriber's ,note3 ,figures #afb-afg 
have been renumbered4 ,in the original1 
,figure #afb was labeled as #afa2 #afc  
as #afb2 etc4     ,a ,practical         
,physiology  ,a ,text-,book for ,higher 
,schools  ,by  ,albert ,f4 ,blaisdell1  
,m4,d4  ,author of ,child's ,book of    
,health1 ,how to ,keep ,well1 ,our      
,bodies and ,how ,we ,live1 ,etc41 ,etc4
     ,preface4    ,the author has aimed 
to prepare a text-book on human         
physiology for use in higher schools4   
,the design of the book is to furnish a 
practical manual of the more important  
facts and principles of physiology and  
hygiene1 which will be adapted to the   
needs of students in high schools1      
normal schools1 and academies4          
,teachers know1 and students soon learn 
to recognize the fact1 that it is       
impossible to obtain a clear            
understanding of the functions of the   
various parts of the body without first 
mastering a few elementary facts about  
their structure4 ,the course adopted1   

therefore1 in this book1 is to devote a 
certain amount of space to the anatomy  
of the several organs before describing 
their functions4  ,a mere knowledge of  
the facts which can be gained in        
secondary schools1 concerning the       
anatomy and physiology of the human     
body1 is of little real value or        
interest in itself4 ,such facts are     
important and of practical worth to     
young students only so far as to enable 
them to understand the relation of these
 facts to the great laws of health and  
to apply them to daily living4 ,hence1  
it has been the earnest effort of the   
author in this book1 as in his other    
physiologies for schools1 to lay special
 emphasis upon such points as bear upon 
personal health4  ,physiology cannot be 
learned as it should be by mere book    
study4 ,the result will be meagre in    
comparison with the capabilities of the 
subject4 ,the study of the text should  
always be supplemented by a series of   
practical experiments4 ,actual          

observations and actual experiments are 
as necessary to illuminate the text and 
to illustrate important principles in   
physiology as they are in botany1       
chemistry1 or physics4 ,hence1 as       
supplementary to the text proper1 and   
throughout the several chapters1 a      
series of carefully arranged and        
practical experiments has been added4   
,for the most part1 they are simple and 
can be performed with inexpensive and   
easily obtained apparatus4 ,they are so 
arranged that some may be omitted and   
others added as circumstances may allow4
  ,if it becomes necessary to shorten   
the course in physiology1 the various   
sections printed in smaller type may be 
omitted or used for home study4  ,the   
laws of most of the states now require  
in our public schools the study of the  
effects of alcoholic drinks1 tobacco1   
and other narcotics upon the bodily     
life4 ,this book will be found to comply
 fully with all such laws4  ,the author 
has aimed to embody in simple and       

concise language the latest and most    
trustworthy information which can be    
obtained from the standard authorities  
on modern physiology1 in regard to the  
several topics4  ,in the preparation of 
this text-book the author has had the   
editorial help of his esteemed friend1  
,dr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,sanborn1 of ,melrose1     
,mass41 and is also indebted to the     
courtesy of ,thomas ,e4 ,major1 of      
,boston1 for assistance in revising the 
proofs4  ,albert ,f4 ,blaisdell4        
,boston1 ,august1 #ahig4     ,contents4 
,chapter ,i4    ,introduction ,chapter  
,,ii4   ,the ,bones ,chapter ,,iii4     
,the ,muscles ,chapter ,,iv4   ,physical
 ,exercise ,chapter ,v4    ,food and    
,drink ,chapter ,,vi4   ,digestion      
,chapter ,,vii4  ,the ,blood and ,its   
,circulation ,chapter ,,viii4           
,respiration ,chapter ,,ix4   ,the ,skin
 and the ,kidneys ,chapter ,x4    ,the  
,nervous ,system ,chapter ,,xi4   ,the  
,special ,sense ,chapter ,,xii4  ,the   
,throat and the ,voice ,chapter ,,xiii4 

,accidents and ,emergencies ,chapter    
,,xiv4  ,in ,sickness and in ,health    
,care of the ,sick-,room2 ,poisons and  
their ,antidotes2 ,bacteria2            
,disinfectants2 ,management of          
,contagious ,diseases4 ,chapter ,,xv4   
,experimental ,work in ,physiology      
,practical ,experiments2 ,use of the    
,microscope2 ,additional ,experiments2  
,surface ,anatomy and ,landmarks4       
,glossary  ,index     ,chapter ,i4      
,introduction4    #a4 ,the ,study of    
,physiology4 ,we are now to take up a   
new study1 and in a field quite         
different from any we have thus far     
entered4 ,of all our other              
studies1--mathematics1 physics1 history1
 language1--not one comes home to us    
with such peculiar interest as does     
physiology1 because this is the study of
 ourselves4  ,every thoughtful young    
person must have asked himself a hundred
 questions about the problems of human  
life3 how it can be that the few        
articles of our daily food--milk1 bread1

 meats1 and similar things--build up our
 complex bodies1 and by what strange    
magic they are transformed into hair1   
skin1 teeth1 bones1 muscles1 and blood4 
,how is it that we can lift these       
curtains of our eyes and behold all the 
wonders of the world around us1 then    
drop the lids1 and though at noonday1   
are instantly in total darkness8 ,how   
does the minute structure of the ear    
report to us with equal accuracy the    
thunder of the tempest1 and the hum of  
the passing bee8 ,why is breathing so   
essential to our life1 and why cannot we
 stop breathing when we try8 ,where     
within us1 and how1 burns the mysterious
 fire whose subtle heat warms us from   
the first breath of infancy till the    
last hour of life8  ,these and scores of
 similar questions it is the province of
 this deeply interesting study of       
physiology to answer4  #b4 ,what        
,physiology should ,teach us4 ,the study
 of physiology is not only interesting1 
but it is also extremely useful4 ,every 

reasonable person should not only wish  
to acquire the knowledge how best to    
protect and preserve his body1 but      
should feel a certain profound respect  
for an organism so wonderful and so     
perfect as his physical frame4 ,for our 
bodies are indeed not ourselves1 but the
 frames that contain us1--the ships in  
which we1 the real selves1 are borne    
over the sea of life4 ,he must be indeed
 a poor navigator who is not zealous to 
adorn and strengthen his ship1 that it  
may escape the rocks of disease and     
premature decay1 and that the voyage of 
his life may be long1 pleasant1 and     
successful4  ,but above these thoughts  
there rises another1--that in studying  
physiology we are tracing the myriad    
lines of marvelous ingenuity and        
forethought1 as they appear at every    
glimpse of the work of the ,divine      
,builder4 ,however closely we study our 
bodily structure1 we are1 at our best1  
but imperfect observers of the handiwork
 of ,him who made us as we are4  #c4    

,distinctive ,characters of ,living     
,bodies4 ,even a very meagre knowledge  
of the structure and action of our      
bodies is enough to reveal the following
 distinctive characters3 our bodies are 
continually breathing1 that is1 they    
take in oxygen from the surrounding air2
 they take in certain substances known  
as food1 similar to those composing the 
body1 which are capable through a       
process called oxidation1 or through    
other chemical changes1 of setting free 
a certain amount of energy4  ,again1 our
 bodies are continually making heat and 
giving it out to surrounding objects1   
the production and the loss of heat     
being so adjusted that the whole body is
 warm1 that is1 of a temperature higher 
than that of surrounding objects4 ,our  
bodies1 also1 move themselves1 either   
one part on another1 or the whole body  
from place to place4 ,the motive power  
is not from the outside world1 but the  
energy of their movements exists in the 
bodies themselves1 influenced by changes

 in their surroundings4 ,finally1 our   
bodies are continually getting rid of   
so-called waste matters1 which may be   
considered products of the oxidation of 
the material used as food1 or of the    
substances which make up the organism4  
#d4 ,the ,main ,problems of ,physiology 
briefly ,stated4 ,we shall learn in a   
subsequent chapter that the living body 
is continually losing energy1 but by    
means of food is continually restoring  
its substance and replenishing its stock
 of energy4 ,a great deal of energy thus
 stored up is utilized as mechanical    
work1 the result of physical movements4 
,we shall learn later on that much of   
the energy which at last leaves the body
 as heat1 exists for a time within the  
organism in other forms than heat1      
though eventually transformed into heat4
 ,even a slight change in the           
surroundings of the living body may     
rapidly1 profoundly1 and in special ways
 affect not only the amount1 but the    
kind of energy set free4 ,thus the mere 

touch of a hair may lead to such a      
discharge of energy1 that a body        
previously at rest may be suddenly      
thrown into violent convulsions4 ,this  
is especially true in the case of       
tetanus1 or lockjaw4  ,the main problem 
we have to solve in the succeeding pages
 is to ascertain how it is that our     
bodies can renew their substance and    
replenish the energy which they are     
continually losing1 and can1 according  
to the nature of their surroundings1    
vary not only the amount1 but the kind  
of energy which they set free4  #e4     
,technical ,terms ,defined4 ,all living 
organisms are studied usually from two  
points of view3 first1 as to their form 
and structure2 second1 as to the        
processes which go on within them4 ,the 
science which treats of all living      
organisms is called biology4 ,it has    
naturally two divisions1--morphology1   
which treats of the form and structure  
of living beings1 and physiology1 which 
investigates their functions1 or the    

special work done in their vital        
processes4  ,the word anatomy1 however1 
is usually employed instead of          
morphology4 ,it is derived from two     
,greek words1 and means the science of  
dissection4 ,human anatomy then deals   
with the form and structure of the human
 body1 and describes how the different  
parts and organs are arranged1 as       
revealed by observation1 by dissection1 
and by the microscope4  ,histology is   
that part of anatomy which treats of the
 minute structure of any part of the    
body1 as shown by the microscope4       
,human physiology describes the various 
processes that go on in the human body  
in health4 ,it treats of the work done  
by the various parts of the body1 and of
 the results of the harmonious action of
 the several organs4 ,broadly speaking1 
physiology is the science which treats  
of functions4 ,by the word function is  
meant the special work which an organ   
has to do4 ,an organ is a part of the   
body which does a special work4 ,thus   

the eye is the organ of sight1 the      
stomach of digestion1 and the lungs of  
breathing4  ,it is plain that we cannot 
understand the physiology of our bodies 
without a knowledge of their anatomy4   
,an engineer could not understand the   
working of his engine unless well       
acquainted with all its parts1 and the  
manner in which they were fitted        
together4 ,so1 if we are to understand  
the principles of elementary physiology1
 we must master the main anatomical     
facts concerning the organs of the body 
before considering their special        
functions4  ,as a branch of study in our
 schools1 physiology aims to make clear 
certain laws which are necessary to     
health1 so that by a proper knowledge of
 them1 and their practical application1 
we may hope to spend happier and more   
useful1 because healthier1 lives4 ,in   
brief1 the study of hygiene1 or the     
science of health1 in the school        
curriculum1 is usually associated with  
that of physiology4#a  #f4 ,chemical    

,elements in the ,body4 ,all of the     
various complex substances found in     
nature can be reduced by chemical       
analysis to about #gj elements1 which   
cannot be further divided4 ,by various  
combinations of these #gj elements all  
the substances known to exist in the    
world of nature are built up4 ,when the 
inanimate body1 like any other          
substance1 is submitted to chemical     
analysis1 it is found that the bone1    
muscle1 teeth1 blood1 etc41 may be      
reduced to a few chemical elements4  ,in
 fact1 the human body is built up with  
#ac of the #gj elements1 namely3 oxygen1
 hydrogen1 nitrogen1 chlorine1 fluorine1
 carbon1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 calcium1  
potassium1 sodium1 magnesium1 and iron4 
,besides these1 a few of the other      
elements1 as silicon1 have been found2  
but they exist in extremely minute      
quantities4  ,the following table gives 
the proportion in which these various   
elements are present3    ,oxygen        
#fb4dcj per cent   ,carbon              

#ba4aej        ,hydrogen          #i4hfe
        ,nitrogen          #c4ajj       
,calcium           #a4ijj               
,phosphorus        #j4idf               
,potassium         #j4bcj               
,sulphur           #j4afb               
,chlorine          #j4jha        ,sodium
            #j4jha        ,magnesium    
#j4jbg        ,iron              #j4jad 
,fluorine          #j4jad               
-----                   #ajj4jjj  ,as   
will be seen from this table1 oxygen1   
hydrogen1 and nitrogen1 which are gases 
in their uncombined form1 make up  of   
the weight of the whole human body4     
,carbon1 which exists in an impure state
 in charcoal1 forms more than  of the   
weight of the body4 ,thus carbon and the
 three gases named1 make up about #if   
per cent of the total weight of the     
body4  #g4 ,chemical ,compounds in the  
,body4 ,we must keep in mind that1 with 
slight exceptions1 none of these #ac    
elements exist in their elementary form 
in the animal economy4 ,they are        

combined in various proportions1 the    
results differing widely from the       
elements of which they consist4 ,oxygen 
and hydrogen unite to form water1 and   
water forms more than  of the weight of 
the whole body4 ,in all the fluids of   
the body1 water acts as a solvent1 and  
by this means alone the circulation of  
nutrient material is possible4 ,all the 
various processes of secretion and      
nutrition depend on the presence of     
water for their activities4  #h4        
,inorganic ,salts4 ,a large number of   
the elements of the body unite one with 
another by chemical affinity and form   
inorganic salts4 ,thus sodium and       
chlorine unite and form chloride of     
sodium1 or common salt4 ,this is found  
in all the tissues and fluids1 and is   
one of the most important inorganic     
salts the body contains4 ,it is         
absolutely necessary for continued      
existence4 ,by a combination of         
phosphorus with sodium1 potassium1      
calcium1 and magnesium1 the various     

phosphates are formed4  ,the phosphates 
of lime and soda are the most abundant  
of the salts of the body4 ,they form    
more than half the material of the      
bones1 are found in the teeth and in    
other solids and in the fluids of the   
body4 ,the special place of iron is in  
the coloring matter of the blood4 ,its  
various salts are traced in the ash of  
bones1 in muscles1 and in many other    
tissues and fluids4 ,these compounds1   
forming salts or mineral matters that   
exist in the body1 are estimated to     
amount to about #f per cent of the      
entire weight4  #i4 ,organic ,compounds4
 ,besides the inorganic materials1 there
 exists in the human body a series of   
compound substances formed of the union 
of the elements just described1 but     
which require the agency of living      
structures4 ,they are built up from the 
elements by plants1 and are called      
organic4 ,human beings and the lower    
animals take the organized materials    
they require1 and build them up in their

 own bodies into still more highly      
organized forms4  ,the organic compounds
 found in the body are usually divided  
into three great classes3    #a4        
,proteids1 or albuminous substances4    
#b4 ,carbohydrates 7starches1 sugars1   
and gums74   #c4 ,fats4  ,the extent to 
which these three great classes of      
organic materials of the body exist in  
the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 and  
are utilized for the food of man1 will  
be discussed in the chapter on food     
7,chapter ,v474 ,the ,proteids1 because 
they contain the element nitrogen and   
the others do not1 are frequently called
 nitrogenous1 and the other two are     
known as non-nitrogenous substances4    
,the proteids1 the type of which is egg 
albumen1 or the white of egg1 are found 
in muscle and nerve1 in glands1 in      
blood1 and in nearly all the fluids of  
the body4 ,a human body is estimated to 
yield on an average about #ah per cent  
of albuminous substances4 ,in the       
succeeding chapters we shall have       

occasion to refer to various and allied 
forms of proteids as they exist in      
muscle 7myosin71 coagulated blood       
7fibrin71 and bones 7gelatin74  ,the    
,carbohydrates are formed of carbon1    
hydrogen1 and oxygen1 the last two in   
the proportion to form water4 ,thus we  
have animal starch1 or glycogen1 stored 
up in the liver4 ,sugar1 as grape sugar1
 is also found in the liver4 ,the body  
of an average man contains about #aj per
 cent of ,fats4 ,these are formed of    
carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 in which  
the latter two are not in the proportion
 to form water4 ,the fat of the body    
consists of a mixture which is liquid at
 the ordinary temperature4  ,now it must
 not for one moment be supposed that the
 various chemical elements1 as the      
proteids1 the salts1 the fats1 etc41    
exist in the body in a condition to be  
easily separated one from another4 ,thus
 a piece of muscle contains all the     
various organic compounds just          
mentioned1 but they are combined1 and in

 different cases the amount will vary4  
,again1 fat may exist in the muscles    
even though it is not visible to the    
naked eye1 and a microscope is required 
to show the minute fat cells4  #aj4     
,protoplasm4 ,the ultimate elements of  
which the body is composed consist of   
masses of living matter1 microscopic in 
size1 of a material commonly called     
protoplasm4#b ,in its simplest form     
protoplasm appears to be a homogeneous1 
structureless material1 somewhat        
resembling the raw white of an egg4 ,it 
is a mixture of several chemical        
substances and differs in appearance and
 composition in different parts of the  
body4  ,protoplasm has the power of     
appropriating nutrient material1 of     
dividing and subdividing1 so as to form 
new masses like itself4 ,when not built 
into a tissue1 it has the power of      
changing its shape and of moving from   
place to place1 by means of the delicate
 processes which it puts forth4 ,now1   
while there are found in the lowest     

realm of animal life1 organisms like the
 amba of stagnant pools1 consisting of  
nothing more than minute masses of      
protoplasm1 there are others like them  
which possess a small central body      
called a nucleus4 ,this is known as     
nucleated protoplasm4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #a4--;,diagram of a ,cell4    ,a1 
nucleus2   ,b1 nucleolus2   ,c1         
protoplasm4 7,highly magnified7   #aa4  
,cells4 ,when we carry back the analysis
 of an organized body as far as we can1 
we find every part of it made up of     
masses of nucleated protoplasm of       
various sizes and shapes4 ,in all       
essential features these masses conform 
to the type of protoplasmic matter just 
described4 ,such bodies are called      
cells4 ,in many cells the nucleus is    
finely granular or reticulated in       
appearance1 and on the threads of the   
meshwork may be one or more             
enlargements1 called nucleoli4 ,in some 
cases the protoplasm at the             
circumference is so modified as to give 

the appearance of a limiting membrane   
called the cell wall4 ,in brief1 then1 a
 cell is a mass of nucleated protoplasm2
 the nucleus may have a nucleolus1 and  
the cell may be limited by a cell wall4 
,every tissue of the human body is      
formed through the agency of            
protoplasmic cells1 although in most    
cases the changes they undergo are so   
great that little evidence remains of   
their existence4  ,there are some       
organisms lower down in the scale1 whose
 whole activity is confined within the  
narrow limits of a single cell4 ,thus1  
the amba begins its life as a cell split
 off from its parent4 ,this divides in  
its turn1 and each half is a complete   
amba4 ,when we come a little higher than
 the amba1 we find organisms which      
consist of several cells1 and a         
specialization of function begins to    
appear4 ,as we ascend in the animal     
scale1 specialization of structure and  
of function is found continually        
advancing1 and the various kinds of     

cells are grouped together into colonies
 or organs4  #ab4 ,cells and the ,human 
,organism4 ,if the body be studied in   
its development1 it is found to         
originate from a single mass of         
nucleated protoplasm1 a single cell with
 a nucleus and nucleolus4 ,from this    
original cell1 by growth and            
development1 the body1 with all its     
various tissues1 is built up4 ,many     
fully formed organs1 like the liver1    
consist chiefly of cells4 ,again1 the   
cells are modified to form fibers1 such 
as tendon1 muscle1 and nerve4 ,later on1
 we shall see the white blood corpuscles
 exhibit all the characters of the amba 
7,fig4 #b74 ,even such dense structures 
as bone1 cartilage1 and the teeth are   
formed from cells4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #b4--;,amboid ,movement of a ,human    
,white ,blood ,corpuscle4 7,showing     
various phases of movement47  ,in short1
 cells may be regarded as the           
histological units of animal structures2
 by the combination1 association1 and   

modification of these the body is built 
up4 ,of the real nature of the changes  
going on within the living protoplasm1  
the process of building up lifeless     
material into living structures1 and the
 process of breaking down by which waste
 is produced1 we know absolutely        
nothing4 ,could we learn that1 perhaps  
we should know the secret of life4  #ac4
 ,kinds of ,cells4 ,cells vary greatly  
in size1 some of the smallest being only
 #a_/cejj an inch or less in diameter4  
,they also vary greatly in form1 as may 
be seen in ,figs4 #c and #e4 ,the       
typical cell is usually globular in     
form1 other shapes being the result of  
pressure or of similar modifying        
influences4 ,the globular1 as well as   
the large1 flat cells1 are well shown in
 a drop of saliva4 ,then there are the  
columnar cells1 found in various parts  
of the intestines1 in which they are    
closely arranged side by side4 ,these   
cells sometimes have on the free surface
 delicate prolongations called cilia4   

,under the microscope they resemble a   
wave1 as when the wind blows over a     
field of grain 7,fig4 #e74 ,there are   
besides cells known as spindle1         
stellate1 squamous or pavement1 and     
various other names suggested by their  
shapes4 ,cells are also described as to 
their contents4 ,thus fat and pigment   
cells are alluded to in succeeding      
sections4 ,again1 they may be described 
as to their functions or location or the
 tissue in which they are found1 as     
epithelial cells1 blood cells           
7corpuscles1 ,figs4 #b and #ff71 nerve  
cells 7,fig4 #d71 and connective-tissue 
cells4  #ad4 ,vital ,properties of      
,cells4 ,each cell has a life of its    
own4 ,it manifests its vital properties 
in that it is born1 grows1 multiplies1  
decays1 and at last dies4#c ,during its 
life it assimilates food1 works1 rests1 
and is capable of spontaneous motion and
 frequently of locomotion4 ,the cell can
 secrete and excrete substance1 and1 in 
brief1 presents nearly all the phenomena

 of a human being4  ,cells are produced 
only from cells by a process of         
self-division1 consisting of a cleavage 
of the whole cell into parts1 each of   
which becomes a separate and independent
 organism4 ,cells rapidly increase in   
size up to a certain definite point     
which they maintain during adult life4  
,a most interesting quality of cell life
 is motion1 a beautiful form of which is
 found in ciliated epithelium4 ,cells   
may move actively and passively4 ,in the
 blood the cells are swept along by the 
current1 but the white corpuscles1 seem 
able to make their way actively through 
the tissues1 as if guided by some sort  
of instinct4  ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#c4--,various ,forms of ,cells4    ,a1  
columnar cells found lining various     
parts of the intestines 7called         
columnar epithelium72   ,b1 cells of a  
fusiform or spindle shape found in the  
loose tissue under      the skin and in 
other parts 7called connective-tissue   
cells72   ,c1 cell having many processes

 or projections--such are found in      
connective tissue1 ,d1 primitive cells  
composed of protoplasm with             
nucleus1 and having no cell wall4 ,all  
are represented about #djj times        
their real size4   ,some cells live a   
brief life of #ab to #bd hours1 as is   
probably the case with many of the cells
 lining the alimentary canal2 others may
 live for years1 as do the cells of     
cartilage and bone4 ,in fact each cell  
goes through the same cycle of changes  
as the whole organism1 though doubtless 
in a much shorter time4 ,the work of    
cells is of the most varied kind1 and   
embraces the formation of every tissue  
and product1--solid1 liquid1 or gaseous4
 ,thus we shall learn that the cells of 
the liver form bile1 those of the       
salivary glands and of the glands of the
 stomach and pancreas form juices which 
aid in the digestion of food4  #ae4 ,the
 ,process of ,life4 ,all living         
structures are subject to constant      
decay4 ,life is a condition of incessant

 changes1 dependent upon two opposite   
processes1 repair and decay4 ,thus our  
bodies are not composed of exactly the  
same particles from day to day1 or even 
from one moment to another1 although to 
all appearance we remain the same       
individuals4 ,the change is so gradual1 
and the renewal of that which is lost   
may be so exact1 that no difference can 
be noticed except at long intervals of  
time4#d 7,see under ,bacteria1 ,chapter 
,,xiv47  ,the entire series of chemical 
changes that take place in the living   
body1 beginning with assimilation and   
ending with excretion1 is included in   
one word1 metabolism4 ,the process of   
building up living material1 or the     
change by which complex substances      
7including the living matter itself7 are
 built up from simpler materials1 is    
called anabolism4 ,the breaking down of 
material into simple products1 or the   
changes in which complex materials      
7including the living substance7 are    
broken down into comparatively simple   

products1 is known as katabolism4 ,this 
reduction of complex substances to      
simple1 results in the production of    
animal force and energy4 ,thus a complex
 substance1 like a piece of beef-steak1 
is built up of a large number of        
molecules which required the expenditure
 of force or energy to store up4 ,now   
when this material is reduced by the    
process of digestion to simpler bodies  
with fewer molecules1 such as carbon    
dioxid1 urea1 and water1 the force      
stored up in the meat as potential      
energy becomes manifest and is used as  
active life-force known as kinetic      
energy4  #af4 ,epithelium4 ,cells are   
associated and combined in many ways to 
form a simple tissue4 ,such a simple    
tissue is called an epithelium or       
surface-limiting tissue1 and the cells  
are known as epithelial cells4 ,these   
are united by a very small amount of a  
cement substance which belongs to the   
proteid class of material4 ,the         
epithelial cells1 from their shape1 are 

known as squamous1 columnar1 glandular1 
or ciliated4 ,again1 the cells may be   
arranged in only a single layer1 or they
 may be several layers deep4 ,in the    
former case the epithelium is said to be
 simple2 in the latter1 stratified4 ,no 
blood-vessels pass into these tissues2  
the cells derive their nourishment by   
the imbibition of the plasma of the     
blood exuded into the subjacent tissue4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,nerve ,cells 
from the ,gray ,matter of the           
,cerebellum4 7,magnified #bfj           
diameters47  #ag4 ,varieties of         
,epithelium4 ,the squamous or pavement  
epithelium consists of very thin1       
flattened scales1 usually with a small  
nucleus in the center4 ,when the nucleus
 has disappeared1 they become mere horny
 plates1 easily detached4 ,such cells   
will be described as forming the outer  
layer of the skin1 the lining of the    
mouth and the lower part of the         
nostrils4  ,the columnar epithelium     
consists of pear-shaped or elongated    

cells1 frequently as a single layer of  
cells on the surface of a mucous        
membrane1 as on the lining of the       
stomach and intestines1 and the free    
surface of the windpipe and large       
air-tubes4  ,the glandular or spheroidal
 epithelium is composed of round cells  
or such as become angular by mutual     
pressure4 ,this kind forms the lining of
 glands such as the liver1 pancreas1 and
 the glands of the skin4  ,the ciliated 
epithelium is marked by the presence of 
very fine hair-like processes called    
cilia1 which develop from the free end  
of the cell and exhibit a rapid         
whip-like movement as long as the cell  
is alive4 ,this motion is always in the 
same direction1 and serves to carry away
 mucus and even foreign particles in    
contact with the membrane on which the  
cells are placed4 ,this epithelium is   
especially common in the air passages1  
where it serves to keep a free passage  
for the entrance and exit of air4 ,in   
other canals a similar office is filled 

by this kind of epithelium4  #ah4       
,functions of ,epithelial ,tissues4 ,the
 epithelial structures may be divided1  
as to their functions1 into two main    
divisions4 ,one is chiefly protective in
 character4 ,thus the layers of         
epithelium which form the superficial   
layer of the skin have little beyond    
such an office to discharge4 ,the same  
is to a certain extent true of the      
epithelial cells covering the mucous    
membrane of the mouth1 and those lining 
the air passages and air cells of the   
lungs4  ,illustration3 ,fig4            
#e4--,various ,kinds of ,epithelial     
,cells    ,a1 columnar cells of         
intestine2   ,b1 polyhedral cells of the
 conjunctiva2   ,c1 ciliated conical    
cells of the trachea2   ,d1 ciliated    
cell of frog's mouth2   ,e1 inverted    
conical cell of trachea2   ,f1 squamous 
cell of the cavity of mouth1 seen from  
its broad surface2   ,g1 squamous cell1 
seen edgeways4   ,the second great      
division of the epithelial tissues      

consists of those whose cells are formed
 of highly active protoplasm1 and are   
busily engaged in some sort of          
secretion4 ,such are the cells of       
glands1--the cells of the salivary      
glands1 which secrete the saliva1 of the
 gastric glands1 which secrete the      
gastric juice1 of the intestinal glands1
 and the cells of the liver and sweat   
glands4  #ai4 ,connective ,tissue4 ,this
 is the material1 made up of fibers and 
cells1 which serves to unite and bind   
together the different organs and       
tissues4 ,it forms a sort of flexible   
framework of the body1 and so pervades  
every portion that if all the other     
tissues were removed1 we should still   
have a complete representation of the   
bodily shape in every part4 ,in general1
 the connective tissues proper act as   
packing1 binding1 and supporting        
structures4 ,this name includes certain 
tissues which to all outward appearance 
vary greatly1 but which are properly    
grouped together for the following      

reasons3 first1 they all act as         
supporting structures2 second1 under    
certain conditions one may be           
substituted for another2 third1 in some 
places they merge into each other4  ,all
 these tissues consist of a             
ground-substance1 or matrix1 cells1 and 
fibers4 ,the ground-substance is in     
small amount in connective tissues      
proper1 and is obscured by a mass of    
fibers4 ,it is best seen in hyaline     
cartilage1 where it has a glossy        
appearance4 ,in bone it is infiltrated  
with salts which give bone its hardness1
 and make it seem so unlike other       
tissues4 ,the cells are called          
connective-tissue corpuscles1 cartilage 
cells1 and bone corpuscles1 according to
 the tissues in which they occur4 ,the  
fibers are the white fibrous and the    
yellow elastic tissues4  ,the following 
varieties are usually described3        
,i4 ,connective ,tissues ,proper3       
#a4 ,white ,fibrous ,tissue4       #b4  
,yellow ,elastic ,tissue4       #c4     

,areolar or ,cellular ,tissue4       #d4
 ,adipose or ,fatty ,tissue4       #e4  
,adenoid or ,retiform ,tissue4          
,,ii4 ,cartilage 7,gristle73        #a4 
,hyaline4       #b4 ,white              
,fibro-cartilage4       #c4 ,yellow     
,fibro-cartilage4      ,,iii4 ,bone and 
,dentine of ,teeth4  #bj4 ,white        
,fibrous ,tissue4 ,this tissue consists 
of bundles of very delicate fibrils     
bound together by a small amount of     
cement substance4 ,between the fibrils  
protoplasmic masses 7connective-tissue  
corpuscles7 are found4 ,these fibers may
 be found so interwoven as to form a    
sheet1 as in the periosteum of the bone1
 the fasci around muscles1 and the      
capsules of organs2 or they may be      
aggregated into bundles and form        
rope-like bands1 as in the ligaments of 
joints and the tendons of muscles4 ,on  
boiling1 this tissue yields gelatine4   
,in general1 where white fibrous tissue 
abounds1 structures are held together1  
and there is flexibility1 but little or 

no distensibility4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #f4--,white ,fibrous ,tissue4 7,highly 
magnified47  #ba4 ,yellow ,elastic      
,tissue4 ,the fibers of yellow elastic  
tissue are much stronger and coarser    
than those of the white4 ,they are      
yellowish1 tend to curl up at the ends1 
and are highly elastic4 ,it is these    
fibers which give elasticity to the skin
 and to the coats of the arteries4 ,the 
typical form of this tissue occurs in   
the ligaments which bind the vertebr    
together 7,fig4 #bf71 in the true vocal 
cords1 and in certain ligaments of the  
larynx4 ,in the skin and fasci1 the     
yellow elastic is found mixed with white
 fibrous and areolar tissues4 ,it does  
not yield gelatine on boiling1 and the  
cells are1 if any1 few4  ,illustration3 
,fig4 #g4--,yellow ,elastic ,tissue4    
7,highly magnified47  #bb4 ,areolar or  
,cellular ,tissue4 ,this consists of    
bundles of delicate fibers interlacing  
and crossing one another1 forming       
irregular spaces or meshes4 ,these      

little spaces1 in health1 are filled    
with fluid that has oozed out of the    
blood-vessels4 ,the areolar tissue forms
 a protective covering for the tissues  
of delicate and important organs4  #bc4 
,adipose or ,fatty ,tissue4 ,in almost  
every part of the body the ordinary     
areolar tissue contains a variable      
quantity of adipose or fatty tissue4    
,examined by the microscope1 the fat    
cells consist of a number of minute sacs
 of exceedingly delicate1 structureless 
membrane filled with oil4 ,this is      
liquid in life1 but becomes solidified  
after death4 ,this tissue is plentiful  
beneath the skin1 in the abdominal      
cavity1 on the surface of the heart1    
around the kidneys1 in the marrow of    
bones1 and elsewhere4 ,fat serves as a  
soft packing material4 ,being a poor    
conductor1 it retains the heat1 and     
furnishes a store rich in carbon and    
hydrogen for use in the body4  #bd4     
,adenoid or ,retiform ,tissue4 ,this is 
a variety of connective tissue found in 

the tonsils1 spleen1 lymphatic glands1  
and allied structures4 ,it consists of a
 very fine network of cells of various  
sizes4 ,the tissue combining them is    
known as adenoid or gland-like tissue4  
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#h4--;,fibro-,cartilage ,fibers4        
7,showing network surrounded cartilage  
cells47  #be4 ,cartilage4 ,cartilage1 or
 gristle1 is a tough but highly elastic 
substance4 ,under the microscope        
cartilage is seen to consist of a       
matrix1 or base1 in which nucleated     
cells abound1 either singly or in       
groups4 ,it has sometimes a fine        
ground-glass appearance1 when the       
cartilage is spoken of as hyaline4 ,in  
other cases the matrix is almost        
replaced by white fibrous tissue4 ,this 
is called white fibro-cartilage1 and is 
found where great strength and a certain
 amount of rigidity are required4       
,again1 there is between the cells a    
meshwork of yellow elastic fibers1 and  
this is called yellow fibro-cartilage   

7,fig4 #h74 ,the hyaline cartilage forms
 the early state of most of the bones1  
and is also a permanent coating for the 
articular ends of long bones4 ,the white
 fibro-cartilage is found in the disks  
between the bodies of the vertebr1 in   
the interior of the knee joint1 in the  
wrist and other joints1 filling the     
cavities of the bones1 in socket joints1
 and in the grooves for tendons4 ,the   
yellow fibro-cartilage forms the        
expanded part of the ear1 the           
epiglottis1 and other parts of the      
larynx4  #bf4 ,general ,plan of the     
,body4 ,to get a clearer idea of the    
general plan on which the body is       
constructed1 let us imagine its division
 into perfectly equal parts1 one the    
right and the other the left1 by a great
 knife severing it through the median1  
or middle line in front1 backward       
through the spinal column1 as a butcher 
divides an ox or a sheep into halves for
 the market4 ,in a section of the body  
thus planned the skull and the spine    

together are shown to have formed a     
tube1 containing the brain and spinal   
cord4 ,the other parts of the body form 
a second tube 7ventral7 in front of the 
spinal or dorsal tube4 ,the upper part  
of the second tube begins with the mouth
 and is formed by the ribs and          
breastbone4 ,below the chest in the     
abdomen1 the walls of this tube would be
 made up of the soft parts4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,diagrammatic
 ,longitudinal ,section of the ,trunk   
and ,head4 7,showing the dorsal and the 
ventral tubes47    ,a1 the cranial      
cavity2   ,b1 the cavity of the nose2   
,c1 the mouth2   ,d1 the alimentary     
canal represented as a simple straight  
tube2   ,e1 the sympathetic nervous     
system2   ,f1 heart2   ,g1 diaphragm2   
,h1 stomach2   ,k1 end of spinal portion
 of cerebro-spinal nervous system4   ,we
 may say1 then1 that the body consists  
of two tubes or cavities1 separated by a
 bony wall1 the dorsal or nervous tube1 
so called because it contains the       

central parts of the nervous system2 and
 the visceral or ventral tube1 as it    
contains the viscera1 or general organs 
of the body1 as the alimentary canal1   
the heart1 the lungs1 the sympathetic   
nervous system1 and other organs4  ,the 
more detailed study of the body may now 
be begun by a description of the        
skeleton or framework which supports the
 soft parts4    ,experiments4   ,for    
general directions and explanations and 
also detailed suggestions for performing
 experiments1 see ,chapter ,,xv4        
,experiment #a4 ,to examine squamous    
epithelium4 ,with an ivory   paper-knife
 scrape the back of the tongue or the   
inside of the lips or   cheek2 place the
 substance thus obtained upon a glass   
slide2 cover it   with a thin           
cover-glass1 and if necessary add a drop
 of water4 ,examine   with the          
microscope1 and the irregularly formed  
epithelial cells will be   seen4        
,experiment #b4 ,to examine ciliated    
epithelium4 ,open a frog's   mouth1 and 

with the back of a knife blade gently   
scrape a little of the   membrane from  
the roof of the mouth4 ,transfer to a   
glass slide1 add a   drop of salt       
solution1 and place over it a           
cover-glass with a hair   underneath to 
prevent pressure upon the cells4        
,examine with a microscope   under a    
high power4 ,the cilia move very rapidly
 when quite fresh1 and   are therefore  
not easily seen4  ,for additional       
experiments which pertain to the        
microscopic examination of the          
elementary tissues and to other points  
in practical histology1 see ,chapter    
,,xv4      ,,note4 ,inasmuch as most of 
the experimental work of this chapter   
depends upon the use of the microscope  
and also necessarily assumes a          
knowledge of facts which are discussed  
later1 it would be well to     postpone 
experiments in histology until they can 
be more     satisfactorily handled in   
connection with kindred topics as they  
are     met with in the succeeding      

chapters4     ,chapter ,,ii4  ,the      
,bones4    #bg4 ,the ,skeleton4 ,most   
animals have some kind of framework to  
support and protect the soft and fleshy 
parts of their bodies4 ,this framework  
consists chiefly of a large number of   
bones1 and is called the skeleton4 ,it  
is like the keel and ribs of a vessel or
 the frame of a house1 the foundation   
upon which the bodies are securely      
built4  ,there are in the adult human   
body #bjj distinct bones1 of many sizes 
and shapes4 ,this number does not1      
however1 include several small bones    
found in the tendons of muscles and in  
the ear4 ,the teeth are not usually     
reckoned as separate bones1 being a part
 of the structure of the skin4  ,the    
number of distinct bones varies at      
different periods of life4 ,it is       
greater in childhood than in adults1 for
 many bones which are then separate1 to 
allow growth1 afterwards become         
gradually united4 ,in early adult life1 
for instance1 the skull contains #bb    

naturally separate bones1 but in infancy
 the number is much greater1 and in old 
age far less4  ,the bones of the body   
thus arranged give firmness1 strength1  
and protection to the soft tissues and  
vital organs1 and also form levers for  
the muscles to act upon4  #bh4 ,chemical
 ,composition of ,bone4 ,the bones1 thus
 forming the framework of the body1 are 
hard1 tough1 and elastic4 ,they are     
twice as strong as oak2 one cubic inch  
of compact bone will support a weight of
 #ejjj pounds4 ,bone is composed of     
earthy or mineral matter 7chiefly in the
 form of lime salts71 and of animal     
matter 7principally gelatine71 in the   
proportion of two-thirds of the former  
to one-third of the latter4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,the         
,skeleton4  ,the proportion of earthy to
 animal matter varies with age4 ,in     
infancy the bones are composed almost   
wholly of animal matter4 ,hence1 an     
infant's bones are rarely broken1 but   
its legs may soon become misshapen if   

walking is allowed too early4 ,in       
childhood1 the bones still contain a    
larger percentage of animal matter than 
in more advanced life1 and are therefore
 more liable to bend than to break2     
while in old age1 they contain a greater
 percentage of mineral matter1 and are  
brittle and easily broken4              
,experiment #c4 ,to show the mineral    
matter in bone4 ,weigh a large   soup   
bone2 put it on a hot1 clear fire until 
it is at a red heat4 ,at   first it     
becomes black from the carbon of its    
organic matter1 but at   last it turns  
white4 ,let it cool and weigh again4    
,the animal matter has   been burnt out1
 leaving the mineral or earthy part1 a  
white1 brittle   substance of exactly   
the same shape1 but weighing only about 
two-thirds   as much as the bone        
originally weighed4    ,experiment #d4  
,to show the animal matter in bone4 ,add
 a   teaspoonful of muriatic acid to a  
pint of water1 and place the mixture    
in a shallow earthen dish4 ,scrape and  

clean a chicken's leg bone1 part   of a 
sheep's rib1 or any other small1 thin   
bone4 ,soak the bone in the   acid      
mixture for a few days4 ,the earthy or  
mineral matter is slowly   dissolved1   
and the bone1 although retaining its    
original form1 loses its   rigidity1 and
 becomes pliable1 and so soft as to be  
readily cut4 ,if the   experiment be    
carefully performed1 a long1 thin bone  
may even be tied   into a knot4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,the fibula  
tied into a knot1 after the hard        
mineral matter has been dissolved by    
acid4  #bi4 ,physical ,properties of    
,bone4 ,if we take a leg bone of a      
sheep1 or a large end of beef shin bone1
 and saw it lengthwise in halves1 we see
 two distinct structures4 ,there is a   
hard and compact tissue1 like ivory1    
forming the outside shell1 and a spongy 
tissue inside having the appearance of a
 beautiful lattice work4 ,hence this is 
called cancellous tissue1 and the       
gradual transition from one to the other

 is apparent4  ,it will also be seen    
that the shaft is a hollow cylinder1    
formed of compact tissue1 enclosing a   
cavity called the medullary canal1 which
 is filled with a pulpy1 yellow fat     
called marrow4 ,the marrow is richly    
supplied with blood-vessels1 which enter
 the cavity through small openings in   
the compact tissue4 ,in fact1 all over  
the surface of bone are minute canals   
leading into the substance4 ,one of     
these1 especially constant and large in 
many bones1 is called the nutrient      
foramen1 and transmits an artery to     
nourish the bone4  ,at the ends of a    
long bone1 where it expands1 there is no
 medullary canal1 and the bony tissue is
 spongy1 with only a thin layer of dense
 bone around it4 ,in flat bones we find 
two layers or plates of compact tissue  
at the surface1 and a spongy tissue     
between4 ,short and irregular bones have
 no medullary canal1 only a thin shell  
of dense bone filled with cancellous    
tissue4  ,illustration3 ,fig #ab4--,the 

,right femur sawed in two1 lengthwise4  
7,showing arrangement of compact and    
cancellous tissue47    ,experiment #e4  
,obtain a part of a beef shin bone1 or a
 portion of a   sheep's or calf's leg1  
including if convenient the knee joint4 
,have the   bone sawed in two1          
lengthwise1 keeping the marrow in place4
 ,boil1   scrape1 and carefully clean   
one half4 ,note the compact and spongy  
parts1   shaft1 etc4    ,experiment #f4 
,trim off the flesh from the second     
half4 ,note the   pinkish white         
appearance of the bone1 the marrow1 and 
the tiny specks of   blood1 etc4 ,knead 
a small piece of the marrow in the palm2
 note the oily   appearance4 ,convert   
some marrow into a liquid by heating4   
,contrast this   fresh bone with an old 
dry one1 as found in the fields4 ,fresh 
bones   should be kept in a cool place1 
carefully wrapped in a damp cloth1 while
   waiting for class use4  ,a fresh or  
living bone is covered with a delicate1 
tough1 fibrous membrane1 called the     

periosteum4 ,it adheres very closely to 
the bone1 and covers every part except  
at the joints and where it is protected 
with cartilage4 ,the periosteum is      
richly supplied with blood-vessels1 and 
plays a chief part in the growth1       
formation1 and repair of bone4 ,if a    
portion of the periosteum be detached by
 injury or disease1 there is risk that a
 layer of the subjacent bone will lose  
its vitality and be cast off4#e  #cj4   
,microscopic ,structure of ,bone4 ,if a 
very thin slice of bone be cut from the 
compact tissue and examined under a     
microscope1 numerous minute openings are
 seen4 ,around these are arranged rings 
of bone1 with little black bodies in    
them1 from which radiate fine1 dark     
lines4 ,these openings are sections of  
canals called ,haversian canals1 after  
,havers1 an ,english physician1 who     
first discovered them4 ,the black bodies
 are minute cavities called lacun1 while
 the fine lines are very minute canals1 
canaliculi1 which connect the lacun and 

the ,haversian canals4 ,these ,haversian
 canals are supplied with tiny          
blood-vessels1 while the lacun contain  
bone cells4 ,very fine branches from    
these cells pass into the canaliculi4   
,the ,haversian canals run lengthwise of
 the bone2 hence if the bone be divided 
longitudinally these canals will be     
opened along their length 7,fig4 #ac74  
,thus bones are not dry1 lifeless       
substances1 but are the very type of    
activity and change4 ,in life they are  
richly supplied with blood from the     
nutrient artery and from the periosteum1
 by an endless network of nourishing    
canals throughout their whole structure4
 ,bone has1 therefore1 like all other   
living structures1 a self-formative     
power1 and draws from the blood the     
materials for its own nutrition4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4    ,a1        
longitudinal section of bone1 by which  
the ,haversian canals are seen          
branching and communicating with one    
another2   ,b1 cross section of a very  

thin slice of bone1 magnified about #cjj
      diameters--little openings        
7,haversian canals7 are seen1 and around
      them are ranged rings of bones    
with little black bodies 7lacun71 from  
which branch out fine dark lines        
7canaliculi72   ,c1 a bone cell1 highly 
magnified1 lying in lacuna4     ,the    
,bones of the ,head4   #ca4 ,the ,head1 
or ,skull4 ,the bones of the skeleton1  
the bony framework of our bodies1 may be
 divided into those of the head1 the    
trunk1 and the limbs4  ,the bones of the
 head are described in two parts1--those
 of the cranium1 or brain-case1 and     
those of the face4 ,taken together1 they
 form the skull4 ,the head is usually   
said to contain #bb bones1 of which #h  
belong to the cranium and #ad to the    
face4 ,in early childhood1 the bones of 
the head are separate to allow the brain
 to expand2 but as we grow older they   
gradually unite1 the better to protect  
the delicate brain tissue4  #cb4 ,the   
,cranium4 ,the cranium is a dome-like   

structure1 made up in the adult of #h   
distinct bones firmly locked together4  
,these bones are3    ,one ,frontal1     
,two ,parietal1   ,two ,temporal   ,one 
,occipital1   ,one ,sphenoid1   ,one    
,ethmoid4  ,the frontal bone forms the  
forehead and front of the head4 ,it is  
united with the two parietal bones      
behind1 and extends over the forehead to
 make the roofs of the sockets of the   
eyes4 ,it is this bone which1 in many   
races of man1 gives a dignity of person 
and a beauty of form seen in no other   
animal4  ,the parietal bones form the   
sides and roof of the skull4 ,they are  
bounded anteriorly by the frontal bone1 
posteriorly by the occipital1 and       
laterally by the temporal and sphenoid  
bones4 ,the two bones make a beautiful  
arch to aid in the protection of the    
brain4  ,the temporal bones1 forming the
 temples on either side1 are attached to
 the sphenoid bone in front1 the        
parietals above1 and the occipital      
behind4 ,in each temporal bone is the   

cavity containing the organs of hearing4
 ,these bones are so called because the 
hair usually first turns gray over them4
  ,the occipital bone forms the lower   
part of the base of the skull1 as well  
as the back of the head4 ,it is a broad1
 curved bone1 and rests on the topmost  
vertebra 7atlas7 of the backbone2 its   
lower part is pierced by a large oval   
opening called the foramen magnum1      
through which the spinal cord passes    
from the brain 7,fig4 #ae74  ,the       
sphenoid bone is in front of the        
occipital1 forming a part of the base of
 the skull4 ,it is wedged between the   
bones of the face and those of the      
cranium1 and locks together fourteen    
different bones4 ,it bears a remarkable 
resemblance to a bat with extended      
wings1 and forms a series of girders to 
the arches of the cranium4  ,the ethmoid
 bone is situated between the bones of  
the cranium and those of the face1 just 
at the root of the nose4 ,it forms a    
part of the floor of the cranium4 ,it is

 a delicate1 spongy bone1 and is so     
called because it is perforated with    
numerous holes like a sieve1 through    
which the nerves of smell pass from the 
brain to the nose4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #ad4--,the ,skull  #cc4 ,the ,face4    
,the bones of the face serve1 to a      
marked extent1 in giving form and       
expression to the human countenance4    
,upon these bones depend1 in a measure1 
the build of the forehead1 the shape of 
the chin1 the size of the eyes1 the     
prominence of the cheeks1 the contour of
 the nose1 and other marks which are    
reflected in the beauty or ugliness of  
the face4  ,the face is made up of      
fourteen bones which1 with the exception
 of the lower jaw1 are1 like those of   
the cranium1 closely interlocked with   
each other4 ,by this union these bones  
help form a number of cavities which    
contain most important and vital organs4
 ,the two deep1 cup-like sockets1 called
 the orbits1 contain the organs of      
sight4 ,in the cavities of the nose is  

located the sense of smell1 while the   
buccal cavity1 or mouth1 is the site of 
the sense of taste1 and plays besides an
 important part in the first act of     
digestion and in the function of speech4
  ,the bones of the face are3    ,two   
,superior ,maxillary1   ,two ,malar1    
,two ,nasal1   ,two ,lachrymal1   ,two  
,palate1   ,two ,turbinated1   ,one     
,vomer1   ,one ,lower ,maxillary4  #cd4 
,bones of the ,face4 ,the superior      
maxillary or upper jawbones form a part 
of the roof of the mouth and the entire 
floor of the orbits4 ,in them is fixed  
the upper set of teeth4  ,the malar or  
cheek bones are joined to the upper     
jawbones1 and help form the sockets of  
the eyes4 ,they send an arch backwards  
to join the temporal bones4 ,these bones
 are remarkably thick and strong1 and   
are specially adapted to resist the     
injury to which this part of the face is
 exposed4  ,the nasal or nose bones are 
two very small bones between the eye    
sockets1 which form the bridge of the   

nose4 ,very near these bones are the two
 small lachrymal bones4 ,these are      
placed in the inner angles of the orbit1
 and in them are grooves in which lie   
the ducts through which the tears flow  
from the eyes to the nose4  ,the palate 
bones are behind those of the upper jaw 
and with them form the bony part of the 
roof of the mouth4 ,the inferior        
turbinated are spongy1 scroll-like      
bones1 which curve about within the     
nasal cavities so as to increase the    
surface of the air passages of the nose4
  ,the vomer serves as a thin and       
delicate partition between the two      
cavities of the nose4 ,it is so named   
from its resemblance to a ploughshare4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,the ,base of
 the ,skull4    ,a1 palate process of   
upper jawbone2   ,b1 zygoma1 forming    
zygomatic arch2   ,c1 condyle for       
forming articulation with atlas2   ,d1  
foramen magnum2   ,e1 occipital bone4   
,the longest bone in the face is the    
inferior maxillary1 or lower jaw4 ,it   

has a horseshoe shape1 and supports the 
lower set of teeth4 ,it is the only     
movable bone of the head1 having a      
vertical and lateral motion by means of 
a hinge joint with a part of the        
temporal bone4   #ce4 ,sutures of the   
,skull4 ,before leaving the head we must
 notice the peculiar and admirable      
manner in which the edges of the bones  
of the outer shell of the skull are     
joined together4 ,these edges of the    
bones resemble the teeth of a saw4 ,in  
adult life these tooth-like edges fit   
into each other and grow together1      
suggesting the dovetailed joints used by
 the cabinet-maker4 ,when united these  
serrated edges look almost as if sewed  
together2 hence their name1 sutures4    
,this manner of union gives unity and   
strength to the skull4  ,in infants1 the
 corners of the parietal bones do not   
yet meet1 and the throbbing of the brain
 may be seen and felt under these soft  
spots1 or fontanelles1 as they are      
called4 ,hence a slight blow to a babe's

 head may cause serious injury to the   
brain 7,fig4 #ad74    ,the ,bones of the
 ,trunk4   #cf4 ,the ,trunk4 ,the trunk 
is that central part of the body which  
supports the head and the upper pair of 
limbs4 ,it divides itself into an upper 
cavity1 the thorax1 or chest2 and a     
lower cavity1 the abdomen4 ,these two   
cavities are separated by a movable1    
muscular partition called the diaphragm1
 or midriff 7,figs4 #i and #di74  ,the  
bones of the trunk are variously related
 to each other1 and some of them become 
united during adult life into bony      
masses which at earlier periods are     
quite distinct4 ,for example1 the sacrum
 is in early life made up of five       
distinct bones which later unite into   
one4  ,the upper cavity1 or chest1 is a 
bony enclosure formed by the breastbone1
 the ribs1 and the spine4 ,it contains  
the heart and the lungs 7,fig4 #hf74    
,the lower cavity1 or abdomen1 holds the
 stomach1 liver1 intestines1 spleen1    
kidneys1 and some other organs 7,fig4   

#ei74  ,the bones of the trunk may be   
subdivided into those of the spine1 the 
ribs1 and the hips4  ,the trunk includes
 #ed bones usually thus arranged3       
,i4 ,spinal ,column1 #bf bones3      #g 
,cervical ,vertebr4     #ab ,dorsal     
,vertebr4      #e ,lumbar ,vertebr4     
#a ,sacrum4      #a ,coccyx4    ,,ii4   
,ribs1 #bd bones3     #ad ,true ,ribs4  
#f ,false ,ribs4      #d ,floating      
,ribs4   ,,iii4 ,sternum4    ,,iv4 ,two 
,hip ,bones4     ,v4 ,hyoid ,bone4  #cg4
 ,the ,spinal ,column4 ,the spinal      
column1 or backbone1 is a marvelous     
piece of mechanism1 combining offices   
which nothing short of perfection in    
adaptation and arrangement could enable 
it to perform4 ,it is the central       
structure to which all the other parts  
of the skeleton are adapted4 ,it        
consists of numerous separate bones1    
called vertebr4 ,the seven upper ones   
belong to the neck1 and are called      
cervical vertebr4 ,the next twelve are  
the dorsal vertebr2 these belong to the 

back and support the ribs4 ,the         
remaining five belong to the loins1 and 
are called lumbar vertebr4 ,on looking  
at the diagram of the backbone 7,fig4   
#i7 it will be seen that the vertebr    
increase in size and strength downward1 
because of the greater burden they have 
to bear1 thus clearly indicating that an
 erect position is the one natural to   
man4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,the   
,spinal ,column4  ,this column supports 
the head1 encloses and protects the     
spinal cord1 and forms the basis for the
 attachment of many muscles1 especially 
those which maintain the body in an     
erect position4 ,each vertebra has an   
opening through its center1 and the     
separate bones so rest1 one upon        
another1 that these openings form a     
continuous canal from the head to the   
lower part of the spine4 ,the great     
nerve1 known as the spinal cord1 extends
 from the cranium through the entire    
length of this canal4 ,all along the    
spinal column1 and between each two     

adjoining bones1 are openings on each   
side1 through which nerves pass out to  
be distributed to various parts of the  
body4  ,between the vertebr are pads or 
cushions of cartilage4 ,these act as    
buffers1 and serve to give the spine    
strength and elasticity and to prevent  
friction of one bone on another4 ,each  
vertebra consists of a body1 the solid  
central portion1 and a number of        
projections called processes4 ,those    
which spring from the posterior of each 
arch are the spinous processes4 ,in the 
dorsal region they are plainly seen and 
felt in thin persons4  ,the bones of the
 spinal column are arranged in three    
slight and graceful curves4 ,these      
curves not only give beauty and strength
 to the bony framework of the body1 but 
also assist in the formation of cavities
 for important internal organs4 ,this   
arrangement of elastic pads between the 
vertebr supplies the spine with so many 
elastic springs1 which serve to break   
the effect of shock to the brain and the

 spinal cord from any sudden jar or     
injury4  ,the spinal column rests on a  
strong three-sided bone called the      
sacrum1 or sacred-bone1 which is wedged 
in between the hip bones and forms the  
keystone of the pelvis4 ,joined to the  
lower end of the sacrum is the coccyx1  
or cuckoo-bone1 a tapering series of    
little bones4    ,experiment #g4 ,run   
the tips of the fingers briskly down the
   backbone1 and the spines of the      
vertebr will be tipped with red so that 
they can be readily counted4 ,have the  
model lean forward with the arms        
folded across the chest2 this will make 
the spines of the vertebr more          
prominent4    ,experiment #h4 ,to       
illustrate the movement of torsion in   
the spine1   or its rotation round its  
own axis4 ,sit upright1 with the back   
and   shoulders well applied against the
 back of a chair4 ,note that the head   
and neck can be turned as far as #fj or 
#gj4 ,now bend forwards1 so as to   let 
the dorsal and lumbar vertebr come into 

play1 and the head can be   turned #cj  
more4    ,experiment #i4 ,to show how   
the spinal vertebr make a firm but      
flexible column4 ,take #bd hard rubber  
overcoat buttons1 or the same   number  
of two-cent pieces1 and pile them on top
 of each other4 ,a thin   layer of soft 
putty may be put between the coins to   
represent the pads   of cartilage       
between the vertebr4 ,the most striking 
features of the   spinal column may be  
illustrated by this simple apparatus4   
#ch4 ,how the ,head and ,spine are      
,joined together4 ,the head rests upon  
the spinal column in a manner worthy of 
special notice4 ,this consists in the   
peculiar structure of the first two     
cervical vertebr1 known as the axis and 
atlas4 ,the atlas is named after the    
fabled giant who supported the earth on 
his shoulders4 ,this vertebra consists  
of a ring of bone1 having two cup-like  
sockets into which fit two bony         
projections arising on either side of   
the great opening 7foramen magnum7 in   

the occipital bone4 ,the hinge joint    
thus formed allows the head to nod      
forward1 while ligaments prevent it from
 moving too far4  ,on the upper surface 
of the axis1 the second vertebra1 is a  
peg or process1 called the odontoid     
process from its resemblance to a tooth4
 ,this peg forms a pivot upon which the 
head with the atlas turns4 ,it is held  
in its place against the front inner    
surface of the atlas by a band of strong
 ligaments1 which also prevents it from 
pressing on the delicate spinal cord4   
,thus1 when we turn the head to the     
right or left1 the skull and the atlas  
move together1 both rotating on the     
odontoid process of the axis4   #ci4    
,the ,ribs and ,sternum4 ,the           
barrel-shaped framework of the chest is 
in part composed of long1 slender1      
curved bones called ribs4 ,there are    
twelve ribs on each side1 which enclose 
and strengthen the chest2 they somewhat 
resemble the hoops of a barrel4 ,they   
are connected in pairs with the dorsal  

vertebr behind4  ,the first seven pairs1
 counting from the neck1 are called the 
true ribs1 and are joined by their own  
special cartilages directly to the      
breastbone4 ,the five lower pairs1      
called the false ribs1 are not directly 
joined to the breastbone1 but are       
connected1 with the exception of the    
last two1 with each other and with the  
last true ribs by cartilages4 ,these    
elastic cartilages enable the chest to  
bear great blows with impunity4 ,a blow 
on the sternum is distributed over      
fourteen elastic arches4 ,the lowest two
 pairs of false ribs1 are not joined    
even by cartilages1 but are quite free  
in front1 and for this reason are called
 floating ribs4  ,the ribs are not      
horizontal1 but slope downwards from the
 backbone1 so that when raised or       
depressed by the strong intercostal     
muscles1 the size of the chest is       
alternately increased or diminished4    
,this movement of the ribs is of the    
utmost importance in breathing 7,fig4   

#ia74  ,the sternum1 or breastbone1 is a
 long1 flat1 narrow bone forming the    
middle front wall of the chest4 ,it is  
connected with the ribs and with the    
collar bones4 ,in shape it somewhat     
resembles an ancient dagger4  #dj4 ,the 
,hip ,bones4 ,four immovable bones are  
joined together so as to form at the    
lower extremity of the trunk a          
basin-like cavity called the pelvis4    
,these four bones are the sacrum and the
 coccyx1 which have been described1 and 
the two hip bones4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #ag4--,thorax4 7,anterior view47  ,the 
hip bones are large1 irregularly shaped 
bones1 very firm and strong1 and are    
sometimes called the haunch bones or    
ossa innominata 7nameless bones74 ,they 
are united to the sacrum behind and     
joined to each other in front4 ,on the  
outer side of each hip bone is a deep   
cup1 or socket1 called the acetabulum1  
resembling an ancient vinegar cup1 into 
which fits the rounded head of the thigh
 bone4 ,the bones of the pelvis are     

supported like a bridge on the legs as  
pillars1 and they in turn contain the   
internal organs in the lower part of the
 trunk4  #da4 ,the ,hyoid ,bone4 ,under 
the lower jaw is a little horseshoe     
shaped bone called the hyoid bone1      
because it is shaped like the ,greek    
letter upsilon 774 ,the root of the     
tongue is fastened to its bend1 and the 
larynx is hung from it as from a hook4  
,when the neck is in its natural        
position this bone can be plainly felt  
on a level with the lower jaw and about 
one inch and a half behind it4 ,it      
serves to keep open the top of the      
larynx and for the attachment of the    
muscles1 which move the tongue4 7,see   
,fig4 #df47 ,the hyoid bone1 like the   
knee-pan1 is not connected with any     
other bone4    ,the ,bones of the ,upper
 ,limbs4   #db4 ,the ,upper ,limbs4     
,each of the upper limbs consist of the 
upper arm1 the forearm1 and the hand4   
,these bones are classified as follows3 
,upper ,arm3       ,scapula1 or         

shoulder-blade1       ,clavicle1 or     
collar bone1       ,humerus1 or arm     
bone1      ,forearm3       ,ulna1       
,radius1      ,hand3       #h ,carpal or
 wrist bones1       #e ,metacarpal      
bones1      #ad ,phalanges1 or finger   
bones1  making #cb bones in all4   #dc4 
,the ,upper ,arm4 ,the two bones of the 
shoulder1 the scapula and the clavicle1 
serve in man to attach the arm to the   
trunk4 ,the scapula1 or shoulder-blade1 
is a flat1 triangular bone1 placed point
 downwards1 and lying on the upper and  
back part of the chest1 over the ribs4  
,it consists of a broad1 flat portion   
and a prominent ridge or spine4 ,at its 
outer angle it has a shallow cup known  
as the glenoid cavity4 ,into this socket
 fits the rounded head of the humerus4  
,the shoulder-blade is attached to the  
trunk chiefly by muscles1 and is capable
 of extensive motion4  ,the clavicle1 or
 collar bone1 is a slender bone with a  
double curve like an italic f1 and      
extends from the outer angle of the     

shoulder-blade to the top of the        
breastbone4 ,it thus serves like the    
keystone of an arch to hold the         
shoulder-blade firmly in its place1 but 
its chief use is to keep the shoulders  
wide apart1 that the arm may enjoy a    
freer range of motion4 ,this bone is    
often broken by falls upon the shoulder 
or arm4  ,the humerus is the strongest  
bone of the upper extremity4 ,as already
 mentioned1 its rounded head fits into  
the socket of the shoulder-blade1       
forming a ball-and-socket joint1 which  
permits great freedom of motion4 ,the   
shoulder joint resembles what mechanics 
call a universal joint1 for there is no 
part of the body which cannot be touched
 by the hand4  ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ah4--,left ,scapula1 or                
,shoulder-,blade4  ,when the shoulder is
 dislocated the head of the humerus has 
been forced out of its socket4 ,the     
lower end of the bone is grooved to help
 form a hinge joint at the elbow with   
the bones of the forearm 7,fig4 #bg74   

#dd4 ,the ,forearm4 ,the forearm        
contains two long bones1 the ulna and   
the radius4 ,the ulna1 so called because
 it forms the elbow1 is the longer and  
larger bone of the forearm1 and is on   
the same side as the little finger4 ,it 
is connected with the humerus by a hinge
 joint at the elbow4 ,it is prevented   
from moving too far back by a hook-like 
projection called the olecranon process1
 which makes the sharp point of the     
elbow4  ,the radius is the shorter of   
the two bones of the forearm1 and is on 
the same side as the thumb4 ,its        
slender1 upper end articulates with the 
ulna and humerus2 its lower end is      
enlarged and gives attachment in part to
 the bones of the wrist4 ,this bone     
radiates or turns on the ulna1 carrying 
the hand with it4    ,experiment #aj4   
,rest the forearm on a table1 with the  
palm up 7an   attitude called           
supination74 ,the radius is on the outer
 side and   parallel with the ulna ,if  
now1 without moving the elbow1 we turn  

the   hand 7pronation71 as if to pick up
 something from the table1 the radius   
may be seen and felt crossing over the  
ulna1 while the latter has not   moved4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,left        
,clavicle1 or ,collar ,bone4 7,anterior 
surface47  #de4 ,the ,hand4 ,the hand is
 the executive or essential part of the 
upper limb4 ,without it the arm would be
 almost useless4 ,it consists of #bg    
separate bones1 and is divided into     
three parts1 the wrist1 the palm1 and   
the fingers4  ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#bj4--,left ,humerus4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #ba4--,left ,radius and ,ulna4    
,the carpus1 or wrist1 includes #h short
 bones1 arranged in two rows of four    
each1 so as to form a broad support for 
the hand4 ,these bones are closely      
packed1 and tightly bound with ligaments
 which admit of ample flexibility4 ,thus
 the wrist is much less liable to be    
broken than if it were to consist of a  
single bone1 while the elasticity from  
having the eight bones movable on each  

other1 neutralizes1 to a great extent1 a
 shock caused by falling on the hands4  
,although each of the wrist bones has a 
very limited mobility in relation to its
 neighbors1 their combination gives the 
hand that freedom of action upon the    
wrist1 which is manifest in countless   
examples of the most accurate and       
delicate manipulation4  ,the metacarpal 
bones are the five long bones of the    
back of the hand4 ,they are attached to 
the wrist and to the finger bones1 and  
may be easily felt by pressing the      
fingers of one hand over the back of the
 other4 ,the metacarpal bones of the    
fingers have little freedom of movement1
 while the thumb1 unlike the others1 is 
freely movable4 ,we are thus enabled to 
bring the thumb in opposition to each of
 the fingers1 a matter of the highest   
importance in manipulation4 ,for this   
reason the loss of the thumb disables   
the hand far more than the loss of      
either of the fingers4 ,this very       
significant opposition of the thumb to  

the fingers1 furnishing the complete    
grasp by the hand1 is characteristic of 
the human race1 and is wanting in the   
hand of the ape1 chimpanzee1 and        
ourang-outang4  ,the phalanges1 or      
finger bones1 are the fourteen small    
bones arranged in three rows to form the
 fingers4 ,each finger has three bones2 
each thumb1 two4  ,the large number of  
bones in the hand not only affords every
 variety of movement1 but offers great  
resistance to blows or shocks4 ,these   
bones are united by strong but flexible 
ligaments4 ,the hand is thus given      
strength and flexibility1 and enabled to
 accomplish the countless movements so  
necessary to our well-being4  ,in brief1
 the hand is a marvel of precise and    
adapted mechanism1 capable not only of  
performing every variety of work and of 
expressing many emotions of the mind1   
but of executing its orders with        
inconceivable rapidity4    ,the ,bones  
of the ,lower ,limbs4   #df4 ,the ,lower
 ,limbs4 ,the general structure and     

number of the bones of the lower limbs  
bear a striking similarity to those of  
the upper limbs4 ,thus the leg1 like the
 arm1 is arranged in three parts1 the   
thigh1 the lower leg1 and the foot4 ,the
 thigh bone corresponds to the humerus2 
the tibia and fibula to the ulna and    
radius2 the ankle to the wrist2 and the 
metatarsus and the phalanges of the     
foot1 to the metacarpus and the         
phalanges of the hand4  ,the bones of   
the lower limbs may be thus arranged3   
,thigh3 ,femur1 or thigh bone1    ,lower
 ,leg3     ,patella1 or knee cap1       
,tibia1 or shin bone1     ,fibula1 or   
splint bone1    ,foot3     #g ,tarsal or
 ankle bones1     #e ,metatarsal or     
instep bones1    #ad ,phalanges1 or toes
 bones1  making #cj bones in all4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,right       
,femur1 or ,thigh ,bone4  #dg4 ,the     
,thigh4 ,the longest and strongest of   
all the bones is the femur1 or thigh    
bone4 ,its upper end has a rounded head 
which fits into the acetabulum1 or the  

deep cup-like cavity of the hip bone1   
forming a perfect ball-and-socket joint4
 ,when covered with cartilage1 the ball 
fits so accurately into its socket that 
it may be retained by atmospheric       
pressure alone 7sec4 #ej74  ,the shaft  
of the femur is strong1 and is ridged   
and roughened in places for the         
attachment of the muscles4 ,its lower   
end is broad and irregularly shaped1    
having two prominences called condyles1 
separated by a groove1 the whole fitted 
for forming a hinge joint with the bones
 of the lower leg and the knee-cap4     
#dh4 ,the ,lower ,leg4 ,the lower leg1  
like the forearm1 consists of two bones4
 ,the tibia1 or shin bone1 is the long  
three-sided bone forming the front of   
the leg4 ,the sharp edge of the bone is 
easily felt just under the skin4 ,it    
articulates with the lower end of the   
thigh bone1 forming with it a hinge     
joint4  ,the fibula1 the companion bone 
of the tibia1 is the long1 slender bone 
on the outer side of the leg4 ,it is    

firmly fixed to the tibia at each end1  
and is commonly spoken of as the small  
bone of the leg4 ,its lower end forms   
the outer projection of the ankle4 ,in  
front of the knee joint1 embedded in a  
thick1 strong tendon1 is an irregularly 
disk-shaped bone1 the patella1 or       
knee-cap4 ,it increases the leverage of 
important muscles1 and protects the     
front of the knee joint1 which is1 from 
its position1 much exposed to injury4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,patella1 or 
,knee-,cap4  #di4 ,the ,foot4 ,the bones
 of the foot1 #bf in number1 consist of 
the tarsal bones1 the metatarsal1 and   
the phalanges4 ,the tarsal bones are the
 seven small1 irregular bones which make
 up the ankle4 ,these bones1 like those 
of the wrist1 are compactly arranged1   
and are held firmly in place by         
ligaments which allow a considerable    
amount of motion4  ,one of the ankle    
bones1 the os calcis1 projects          
prominently backwards1 forming the heel4
 ,an extensive surface is thus afforded 

for the attachment of the strong tendon 
of the calf of the leg1 called the      
tendon of ,achilles4 ,the large bone    
above the heel bone1 the astragalus1    
articulates with the tibia1 forming a   
hinge joint1 and receives the weight of 
the body4  ,the metatarsal bones1       
corresponding to the metacarpals of the 
hand1 are five in number1 and form the  
lower instep4  ,the phalanges are the   
fourteen bones of the toes1--three in   
each except the great toe1 which1 like  
the thumb1 has two4 ,they resemble in   
number and plan the corresponding bones 
in the hand4 ,the bones of the foot form
 a double arch1--an arch from before    
backwards1 and an arch from side to     
side4 ,the former is supported behind by
 the os calcis1 and in front by the ends
 of the metatarsal bones4 ,the weight of
 the body falls perpendicularly on the  
astragalus1 which is the key-bone or    
crown of the arch4 ,the bones of the    
foot are kept in place by powerful      
ligaments1 combining great strength with

 elasticity4  ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#bd4--,right ,tibia and ,fibula         
7,anterior surface47  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #be4--;,bones of ,right ,foot4    
7,dorsal surface47    ,the ,joints4     
#ej4 ,formation of ,joints4 ,the various
 bones of the skeleton are connected    
together at different parts of their    
surfaces by joints1 or articulations4   
,many different kinds of joints have    
been described1 but the same general    
plan obtains for nearly all4 ,they vary 
according to the kind and the amount of 
motion4  ,the principal structures which
 unite in the formation of a joint are3 
bone1 cartilage1 synovial membrane1 and 
ligaments4 ,bones make the chief element
 of all the joints1 and their adjoining 
surfaces are shaped to meet the special 
demands of each joint 7,fig4 #bg74 ,the 
joint-end of bones is coated with a thin
 layer of tough1 elastic cartilage4     
,this is also used at the edge of       
joint-cavities1 forming a ring to deepen
 them4 ,the rounded heads of bones which

 move in them are thus more securely    
held in their sockets4  ,besides these  
structures1 the muscles also help to    
maintain the joint-surfaces in proper   
relation4 ,another essential to the     
action of the joints is the pressure of 
the outside air4 ,this may be sufficient
 to keep the articular surfaces in      
contact even after all the muscles are  
removed4 ,thus the hip joint is so      
completely surrounded by ligaments as to
 be air-tight2 and the union is very    
strong4 ,but if the ligaments be pierced
 and air allowed to enter the joint1 the
 union at once becomes much less close1 
and the head of the thigh bone falls    
away as far as the ligaments will allow 
it4  #ea4 ,synovial ,membrane4 ,a very  
delicate connective tissue1 called the  
synovial membrane1 lines the capsules of
 the joints1 and covers the ligaments   
connected with them4 ,it secretes the   
synovia1 or joint oil1 a thick and      
glairy fluid1 like the white of a raw   
egg1 which thoroughly lubricates the    

inner surfaces of the joints4 ,thus the 
friction and heat developed by movement 
are reduced1 and every part of a joint  
is enabled to act smoothly4  #eb4       
,ligaments4 ,the bones are fastened     
together1 held in place1 and their      
movements controlled1 to a certain      
extent1 by bands of various forms1      
called ligaments4 ,these are composed   
mainly of bundles of white fibrous      
tissue placed parallel to1 or closely   
interlaced with1 one another1 and       
present a shining1 silvery aspect4 ,they
 extend from one of the articulating    
bones to another1 strongly supporting   
the joint1 which they sometimes         
completely envelope with a kind of cap  
7,fig4 #bh74 ,this prevents the bones   
from being easily dislocated4 ,it is    
difficult1 for instance1 to separate the
 two bones in a shoulder or leg of      
mutton1 they are so firmly held together
 by tough ligaments4  ,while ligaments  
are pliable and flexible1 permitting    
free movement1 they are also wonderfully

 strong and inextensible4 ,a bone may be
 broken1 or its end torn off1 before its
 ligaments can be ruptured4 ,the wrist  
end of the radius1 for instance1 is     
often torn off by force exerted on its  
ligaments without their rupture4  ,the  
ligaments are so numerous and various   
and are in some parts so interwoven with
 each other1 that space does not allow  
even mention of those that are          
important4 ,at the knee joint1 for      
instance1 there are no less than fifteen
 distinct ligaments4  #ec4 ,imperfect   
,joints4 ,it is only perfect joints that
 are fully equipped with the structures 
just mentioned4 ,some joints lack one or
 more1 and are therefore called         
imperfect joints4 ,such joints allow    
little or no motion and have no smooth  
cartilages at their edges4 ,thus1 the   
bones of the skull are dovetailed by    
joints called sutures1 which are        
immovable4 ,the union between the       
vertebr affords a good example of       
imperfect joints which are partially    

movable4  ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#bf4--;,elastic ,tissue from the        
,ligaments about ,joints4 7,highly      
magnified47  #ed4 ,perfect ,joints4     
,there are various forms of perfect     
joints1 according to the nature and     
amount of movement permitted4 ,they an  
divided into hinge joints1              
ball-and-socket joints and pivot joints4
  ,the hinge joints allow forward and   
backward movements like a hinge4 ,these 
joints are the most numerous in the     
body1 as the elbow1 the ankle1 and the  
knee joints4  ,in the ball-and-socket   
joints--a beautiful contrivance--the    
rounded head of one bone fits into a    
socket in the other1 as the hip joint   
and shoulder joint4 ,these joints permit
 free motion in almost every direction4 
,in the pivot joint a kind of peg in one
 bone fits into a notch in another4 ,the
 best example of this is the joint      
between the first and second vertebr    
7see sec4 #ch74 ,the radius moves around
 on the ulna by means of a pivot joint4 

,the radius1 as well as the bones of the
 wrist and hand1 turns around1 thus     
enabling us to turn the palm of the hand
 upwards and downwards4 ,in many joints 
the extent of motion amounts to only a  
slight gliding between the ends of the  
bones4  #ee4 ,uses of the ,bones4 ,the  
bones serve many important and useful   
purposes4 ,the skeleton1 a general      
framework1 affords protection1 support1 
and leverage to the bodily tissues4     
,thus1 the bones of the skull and of the
 chest protect the brain1 the lungs1 and
 the heart2 the bones of the legs       
support the weight of the body2 and the 
long bones of the limbs are levers to   
which muscles are attached4  ,owing to  
the various duties they have to perform1
 the bones are constructed in many      
different shapes4 ,some are broad and   
flat2 others1 long and cylindrical2 and 
a large number very irregular in form4  
,each bone is not only different from   
all the others1 but is also curiously   
adapted to its particular place and use4

  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--,showing   
how the ,ends of the ,bones are shaped  
to form the ,elbow ,joint4 7,the cut    
ends of a few ligaments are seen47      
,nothing could be more admirable than   
the mechanism by which each one of the  
bones is enabled to fulfill the manifold
 purposes for which it was designed4 ,we
 have seen how the bones of the cranium 
are united by sutures in a manner the   
better to allow the delicate brain to   
grow1 and to afford it protection from  
violence4 ,the arched arrangement of the
 bones of the foot has several          
mechanical advantages1 the most         
important being that it gives firmness  
and elasticity to the foot1 which thus  
serves as a support for the weight of   
the body1 and as the chief instrument of
 locomotion4  ,the complicated organ of 
hearing is protected by a winding series
 of minute apartments1 in the rock-like 
portion of the temporal bone4 ,the      
socket for the eye has a jutting ridge  
of bone all around it1 to guard the     

organ of vision against injury4 ,grooves
 and canals1 formed in hard bone1 lodge 
and protect minute nerves and tiny      
blood-vessels4 ,the surfaces of bones   
are often provided with grooves1 sharp  
edges1 and rough projections1 for the   
origin and insertion of muscles4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,external   
,ligaments of the ,knee4  #ef4 ,the     
,bones in ,infancy and ,childhood4 ,the 
bones of the infant1 consisting almost  
wholly of cartilage1 are not stiff and  
hard as in after life1 but flexible and 
elastic4 ,as the child grows1 the bones 
become more solid and firmer from a     
gradually increased deposit of lime     
salts4 ,in time they become capable of  
supporting the body and sustaining the  
action of the muscles4 ,the reason is   
that well-developed bones would be of no
 use to a child that had not muscular   
strength to support its body4 ,again1   
the numerous falls and tumbles that the 
child sustains before it is able to     
walk1 would result in broken bones      

almost every day of its life4 ,as it is1
 young children meet with a great       
variety of falls without serious injury4
  ,but this condition of things has its 
dangers4 ,the fact that a child's bones 
bend easily1 also renders them liable to
 permanent change of shape4 ,thus1      
children often become bow-legged when   
allowed to walk too early4 ,moderate    
exercise1 however1 even in infancy1     
promotes the health of the bones as well
 as of the other tissues4 ,hence a child
 may be kept too long in its cradle1 or 
wheeled about too much in a carriage1   
when the full use of its limbs would    
furnish proper exercise and enable it to
 walk earlier4  #eg4 ,positions at      
,school4 ,great care must be exercised  
by teachers that children do not form   
the habit of taking injurious positions 
at school4 ,the desks should not be too 
low1 causing a forward stoop2 or too    
high1 throwing one shoulder up and      
giving a twist to the spine4 ,if the    
seats are too low there will result an  

undue strain on the shoulder and the    
backbone2 if too high1 the feet have no 
proper support1 the thighs may be bent  
by the weight of the feet and legs1 and 
there is a prolonged strain on the hips 
and back4 ,curvature of the spine and   
round shoulders often result from       
long-continued positions at school in   
seats and at desks which are not adapted
 to the physical build of the occupant4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--,section of  
the ,knee ,joint4 7,showing its internal
 structure7    ,a1 tendon of the        
semi-membranosus muscle cut across2     
,b1 ,f1 tendon of same muscle2   ,c1    
internal condyle of femur2   ,d1        
posterior crucial ligament2   ,e1       
internal interarticular fibro cartilage2
   ,g1 bursa under knee-cap2   ,h1      
ligament of knee-cap2   ,k1 fatty mass  
under knee-cap2   ,l1 anterior crucial  
ligament cut across2   ,p1 patella1 or  
knee-cap   ,a few simple rules should   
guide teachers and school officials in  
providing proper furniture for pupils4  

,seats should be regulated according to 
the size and age of the pupils1 and     
frequent changes of seats should be     
made4 ,at least three sizes of desks    
should be used in every schoolroom1 and 
more in ungraded schools4 ,the feet of  
each pupil should rest firmly on the    
floor1 and the edge of the desk should  
be about one inch higher than the level 
of the elbows4 ,a line dropped from the 
edge of the desk should strike the front
 edge of the seat4 ,sliding down into   
the seat1 bending too much over the desk
 while writing and studying1 sitting on 
one foot or resting on the small of the 
back1 are all ungraceful and unhealthful
 positions1 and are often taken by      
pupils old enough to know better4 ,this 
topic is well worth the vigilance of    
every thoughtful teacher1 especially of 
one in the lower grades4  #eh4 ,the     
,bones in ,after ,life4 ,popular        
impression attributes a less share of   
life1 or a lower grade of vitality1 to  
the bones than to any other part of the 

body4 ,but really they have their own   
circulation and nutrition1 and even     
nervous relations4 ,thus1 bones are the 
seat of active vital processes1 not only
 during childhood1 but also in adult    
life1 and in fact throughout life1      
except perhaps in extreme old age4 ,the 
final knitting together of the ends of  
some of the bones with their shafts does
 not occur until somewhat late in life4 
,for example1 the upper end of the tibia
 and its shaft do not unite until the   
twenty-first year4 ,the separate bones  
of the sacrum do not fully knit into one
 solid bone until the twenty-fifth year4
 ,hence1 the risk of subjecting the     
bones of young persons to undue violence
 from injudicious physical exercise as  
in rowing1 baseball1 football1 and      
bicycle-riding4  ,the bones during life 
are constantly going through the process
 of absorption and reconstruction4 ,they
 are easily modified in their growth4   
,thus the continued pressure of some    
morbid deposit1 as a tumor or cancer1 or

 an enlargement of an artery1 may cause 
the absorption or distortion of bones as
 readily as of one of the softer        
tissues4 ,the distortion resulting from 
tight lacing is a familiar illustration 
of the facility with which the bones may
 be modified by prolonged pressure4     
,some savage races1 not content with the
 natural shape of the head1 take special
 methods to mould it by continued       
artificial pressure1 so that it may     
conform in its distortion to the fashion
 of their tribe or race4 ,this custom is
 one of the most ancient and widespread 
with which we are acquainted4 ,in some  
cases the skull is flattened1 as seen in
 certain ,indian tribes on our ,pacific 
coast1 while with other tribes on the   
same coast it is compressed into a sort 
of conical appearance4 ,in such cases   
the brain is compelled1 of course1 to   
accommodate itself to the change in the 
shape of the head2 and this is done1 it 
is said1 without any serious result4    
#ei4 ,sprains and ,dislocations4 ,a     

twist or strain of the ligaments and    
soft parts about a joint is known as a  
sprain1 and may result from a great     
variety of accidents4 ,when a person    
falls1 the foot is frequently caught    
under him1 and the twist comes upon the 
ligaments and tissues of the ankle4 ,the
 ligaments cannot stretch1 and so have  
to endure the wrench upon the joint4    
,the result is a sprained ankle4 ,next  
to the ankle1 a sprain of the wrist is  
most common4 ,a person tries1 by        
throwing out his hand1 to save himself  
from a fall1 and the weight of the body 
brings the strain upon the firmly fixed 
wrist4 ,as a result of a sprain1 the    
ligaments may be wrenched or torn1 and  
even a piece of an adjacent bone may be 
torn off2 the soft parts about the      
injured joint are bruised1 and the      
neighboring muscles put to a severe     
stretch4 ,a sprain may be a slight      
affair1 needing only a brief rest1 or it
 may be severe and painful enough to    
call for the most skillful treatment by 

a surgeon4 ,lack of proper care in      
severe sprains often results in         
permanent lameness4  ,a fall or a blow  
may bring such a sudden wrench or twist 
upon the ligaments as to force a bone   
out of place4 ,this displacement is     
known as a dislocation4 ,a child may    
trip or fall during play and put his    
elbow out of joint4 ,a fall from        
horseback1 a carriage1 or a bicycle may 
result in a dislocation of the shoulder 
joint4 ,in playing baseball a swift ball
 often knocks a finger out of joint4 ,a 
dislocation must be reduced at once4    
,any delay or carelessness may make a   
serious and painful affair of it1 as the
 torn and bruised parts rapidly swell   
and become extremely sensitive4  #fj4   
,broken ,bones4 ,the bones1 especially  
those of the upper limbs1 are often     
fractured or broken4 ,the simple        
fracture is the most common form1 the   
bone being broken in a single place with
 no opening through the skin4 ,when     
properly adjusted1 the bone heals       

rapidly4 ,sometimes bones are crushed   
into a number of fragments2 this is a   
comminuted fracture4 ,when1 besides the 
break1 there is an opening through the  
soft parts and surface of the body1 we  
have a compound fracture4 ,this is a    
serious injury1 and calls for the best  
surgical treatment4  ,a bone may be     
bent1 or only partly broken1 or split4  
,this is called a green-stick fracture1 
from its resemblance to a half-broken   
green stick4 ,this fracture is more     
common in the bones of children4        
,fractures may be caused by direct      
violence1 as when a bone is broken at a 
certain point by some powerful force1 as
 a blow from a baseball bat or a fall   
from a horse4 ,again1 a bone may be     
broken by indirect violence1 as when a  
person being about to fall1 throws out  
his hand to save himself4 ,the force of 
the fall on the hand often breaks the   
wrist1 by which is meant the fracture of
 the lower end of the radius1 often     
known as the silver-fork fracture4 ,this

 accident is common in winter from a    
fall or slip on the ice4  ,sometimes    
bones are broken at a distance from the 
point of injury1 as in a fracture of the
 ribs by violent compression of the     
chest2 or fracture may occur from the   
vibration of a blow1 as when a fall or  
blow upon the top of the head produces  
fracture of the bones at the base of the
 brain4#f  #fa4 ,treatment for ,broken  
,bones4 ,when a bone is broken a surgeon
 is needed to set it1 that is1 to bring 
the broken parts into their natural     
position1 and retain them by proper     
appliances4 ,nature throws out between  
and around the broken ends of bones a   
supply of repair material known as      
plastic lymph1 which is changed to      
fibrous tissue1 then to cartilage1 and  
finally to bone4 ,this material serves  
as a sort of cement to hold the         
fractured parts together4 ,the excess of
 this at the point of union can be felt 
under the skin for some time after the  
bone is healed4  ,with old people a     

broken bone is often a serious matter1  
and may cripple them for life or prove  
fatal4 ,a trifling fall1 for instance1  
may cause a broken hip 7popularly so    
called1 though really a fracture of the 
neck of the femur71 from the shock of   
which1 and the subsequent pain and      
exhaustion1 an aged person may die in a 
few weeks4 ,in young people1 however1   
the parts of a broken bone will knit    
together in three or four weeks after   
the fracture is reduced2 while in       
adults1 six or even more may be required
 for firm union4 ,after a broken bone is
 strong enough to be used1 it is fragile
 for some time2 and great care must be  
taken1 especially with children1 that   
the injured parts may not be broken     
again before perfect union takes        
place4#g  #fb4 ,the ,effect of ,alcohol 
upon the ,bones4 ,while the growth of   
the bones occurs1 of course1 mainly     
during the earlier years of life1 yet   
they do not attain their full maturity  
until about the twenty-fifth year2 and  

it is stated that in persons devoted to 
intellectual pursuits1 the skull grows  
even after that age4 ,it is plainly     
necessary that during this period of    
bone growth the nutrition of the body   
should be of the best1 that the bones   
may be built up from pure blood1 and    
supplied with all the materials for a   
large and durable framework4 ,else the  
body will be feeble and stunted1 and so 
through life fall short of its purpose4 
,if this bony foundation be then laid   
wrong1 the defect can never be remedied4
 ,this condition is seen in young       
persons who have been underfed and      
overworked4 ,but the use of alcoholic   
liquors produces a similar effect1      
hindering bone cell-growth and          
preventing full development4#h ,the     
appetite is diminished1 nutrition       
perverted and impaired1 the stature     
stunted1 and both bodily and mental     
powers are enfeebled4  #fc4 ,effect of  
,tobacco upon the ,bones4 ,another      
narcotic1 the destructive influence of  

which is wide and serious1 is tobacco4  
,its pernicious influence1 like that of 
alcohol1 is peculiarly hurtful to the   
young1 as the cell development during   
the years of growth is easily disturbed 
by noxious agents4 ,the bone growth is  
by cells1 and a powerful narcotic like  
tobacco retards cell-growth1 and thus   
hinders the building up of the bodily   
frame4 ,the formation of healthy bone   
demands good1 nutritious blood1 but if  
instead of this1 the material furnished 
for the production of blood is poor in  
quality or loaded with poisonous        
narcotics1 the body thus defrauded of   
its proper building material becomes    
undergrown and enfeebled4  ,two         
unfavorable facts accompany this serious
 drawback3 one is1 that owing to the    
insidious nature of the smoky poison#i  
7cigarettes are its worst form7 the     
cause may often be unsuspected1 and so  
go on1 unchecked2 and the other1 that   
the progress of growth once interrupted1
 the gap can never be fully made up4    

,nature does her best to repair damages 
and to restore defects1 but never goes  
backwards to remedy neglects4           
,additional ,experiments4    ,experiment
 #aa4 ,take a portion of the decalcified
 bone obtained from   ,experiment #d1   
and wash it thoroughly in water3 in this
 it is insoluble4   ,place it in a      
solution of carbonate of soda and wash  
it again4 ,boil it   in water1 and from 
it gelatine will be obtained4           
,experiment #ab4 ,dissolve in           
hydrochloric acid a small piece of the  
powdered bone-ash obtained from         
,experiment #c4 ,bubbles of carbon      
dioxid   are given off1 indicating the  
presence of a carbonate4 ,dilute the    
solution2 add an excess of ammonia1 and 
we find a white precipitate of   the    
phosphate of lime and of magnesia4      
,experiment #ac4 ,filter the solution in
 the preceding experiment1 and   to the 
filtrate add oxalate of ammonia4 ,the   
result is a white   precipitate of the  
oxalate of lime1 showing there is lime  

present1 but   not as a phosphate4      
,experiment #ad4 ,to the solution of    
mineral matters obtained from           
,experiment #c1 add acetate of soda     
until free acetic acid is present1      
recognized by the smell 7like dilute    
vinegar72 then add oxalate of   ammonia4
 ,the result will be a copious white    
precipitate of lime salts4              
,experiment #ae4 ,to show how the       
cancellous structure of bone is   able  
to support a great deal of weight4 ,have
 the market-man saw out a   cubic inch  
from the cancellous tissue of a fresh   
beef bone and place it   on a table with
 its principal layers upright4 ,balance 
a heavy book upon   it1 and then        
gradually place upon it various articles
 and note how many   pounds it will     
support before giving way4              
,experiment #af4 ,repeat the last       
experiment1 using a cube of the         
decalcified bone obtained from          
,experiment #d4      ,,note4 ,as the    
succeeding chapters are studied1        

additional experiments     on bones and 
their relation to other parts of the    
body1 will readily     suggest          
themselves to the ingenious instructor  
or the thoughtful     student4 ,such    
experiments may be utilized for review  
or other     exercises4                 
,review ,analysis3 ,the ,skeleton 7#bjf 
bones74                      _/         
_/ #a ,frontal1                    _/   
_/  #b ,parietal1                   _/  
,i4 ,cranium     #b ,temporal1          
_/       7#h bones7     #a ,occipital1  
_/                      #a ,sphenoid1   
#a ,ethmoid4                            
_/ #b ,superior ,maxillary1    ,the     
,head                          _/  #b   
,malar1   7#bh bones74                  
_/   #b ,nasal1                         
,,ii4 ,face         #b ,lachrymal       
,bones1                      7#ad bones7
        #b ,palate ,bones1              
#b ,turbinated1                         
#a ,vomer1                              
#a ,lower ,maxillary4                   

_/ ,hammer1                      ,,iii4 
,the ,ear    ,anvil1                    
7#f bones7      ,stirrup4               
_/                         _/  #g       
,cervical ,vertebr4                  _/ 
_/  #ab ,dorsal ,vertebr1               
_/       ,i4 ,spinal ,column      #e    
,lumbar ,vertebr1                       
7#bf bones7           ,sacrum1          
,coccyx4    ,the ,trunk      7#ed       
bones74                         _/  #g  
,true ,ribs1                       ,,ii4
 ,the ,ribs      #c ,false ,ribs1       
7#bd bones7       #b ,floating ,ribs4   
,,iii4 ,sternum4                        
,,iv4 ,two ,hip ,bones4                 
,v4 ,hyoid ,bone4                       
_/                    _/   ,scapula1    
_/      ,i4 ,upper ,arm      ,clavicle1 
,humerus4                       ,the    
,upper ,limbs        ,,ii4 ,forearm     
_/    ,ulna1     7#fd bones74           
,radius4                                
_/  #h ,carpal ,bones1                  
,,iii4 ,hand         #e ,metacarpal     

,bones1                                 
#ad ,phalanges4                       _/
     ,i4 ,thigh           ,femur4       
_/                                      
_/   ,patella1   ,the ,lower ,limbs     
,,ii4 ,lower ,leg      ,tibia1     7#fj 
bones74                                 
,fibula4                                
_/  #g ,tarsal ,bones1                  
,,iii4 ,foot         #e ,metatarsal     
,bones1                                 
#ad ,phalanges4      ,chapter ,,iii4    
,the ,muscles4    #fd4 ,motion in       
,animals4 ,all motion of our bodies is  
produced by means of muscles4 ,not only 
the limbs are moved by them1 but even   
the movements of the stomach and of the 
heart are controlled by muscles4 ,every 
part of the body which is capable of    
motion has its own special set of       
muscles4  ,even when the higher animals 
are at rest it is possible to observe   
some kind of motion in them4 ,trees and 
stones never move unless acted upon by  
external force1 while the infant and the

 tiniest insect can execute a great     
variety of movements4 ,even in the      
deepest sleep the beating of the heart  
and the motion of the chest never cease4
 ,in fact1 the power to execute         
spontaneous movement is the most        
characteristic property of living       
animals4  #fe4 ,kinds of ,muscles4 ,most
 of the bodily movements1 such as affect
 the limbs and the body as a whole1 are 
performed by muscles under our control4 
,these muscles make up the red flesh or 
lean parts1 which1 together with the    
fat1 clothe the bony framework1 and give
 to it general form and proportion4 ,we 
call these muscular tissues voluntary   
muscles1 because they usually act under 
the control of the will4  ,the internal 
organs1 as those of digestion1          
secretion1 circulation1 and respiration1
 perform their functions by means of    
muscular activity of another kind1 that 
is1 by that of muscles not under our    
control4 ,this work goes on quite       
independently of the will1 and during   

sleep4 ,we call the instruments of this 
activity involuntary muscles4 ,the      
voluntary muscles1 from peculiarities   
revealed by the microscope1 are also    
known as striped or striated muscles4   
,the involuntary from their smooth1     
regular appearance under the microscope 
are called the unstriped or non-striated
 muscles4  ,the two kinds of muscles1   
then1 are the red1 voluntary1 striated  
muscles1 and the smooth1 involuntary1   
non-striated muscles4  #ff4 ,structure  
of ,voluntary ,muscles4 ,the main       
substance which clothes the bony        
framework of the body1 and which forms  
about two-fifths of its weight1 is the  
voluntary muscular tissue4 ,these       
muscles do not cover and surround the   
bones in continuous sheets1 but consist 
of separate bundles of flesh1 varying in
 size and length1 many of which are     
capable of independent movement4  ,each 
muscle has its own set of blood-vessels1
 lymphatics1 and nerves4 ,it is the     
blood that gives the red color to the   

flesh4 ,blood-vessels and nerves on     
their way to other parts of the body1 do
 not pass through the muscles1 but      
between them4 ,each muscle is enveloped 
in its own sheath of connective tissue1 
known as the fascia4 ,muscles are not   
usually connected directly with bones1  
but by means of white1 glistening cords 
called tendons4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#cj4--,striated 7voluntary7 ,muscular   
,fibers4    ,a1 fiber serparating into  
disks2   ,b1 fibrill 7highly magnified72
   ,c1 cross section of a disk   ,if a  
small piece of muscle be examined under 
a microscope it is found to be made up  
of bundles of fibers4 ,each fiber is    
enclosed within a delicate1 transparent 
sheath1 known as the sarcolemma4 ,if one
 of these fibers be further examined    
under a microscope1 it will be seen to  
consist of a great number of still more 
minute fibers called fibrill4 ,these    
fibers are also seen marked cross-wise  
with dark stripes1 and can be separated 
at each stripe into disks4 ,these cross 

markings account for the name striped or
 striated muscle4  ,the fibrill1 then1  
are bound together in a bundle to form a
 fiber1 which is enveloped in its own   
sheath1 the sarcolemma4 ,these fibers1  
in turn1 are further bound together to  
form larger bundles called fasciculi1   
and these1 too1 are enclosed in a sheath
 of connective tissue4 ,the muscle      
itself is made up of a number of these  
fasciculi bound together by a denser    
layer of connective tissue4             
,experiment #ag4 ,to show the gross     
structure of muscle4 ,take a   small    
portion of a large muscle1 as a strip of
 lean corned beef4 ,have it   boiled    
until its fibers can be easily          
separated4 ,pick the bundles and        
fasciculi apart until the fibers are so 
fine as to be almost invisible   to the 
naked eye4 ,continue the experiment with
 the help of a hand   magnifying glass  
or a microscope4  #fg4 ,the ,involuntary
 ,muscles4 ,these muscles consist of    
ribbon-shaped bands which surround      

hollow fleshy tubes or cavities4 ,we    
might compare them to ,india rubber     
rings on rolls of paper4 ,as they are   
never attached to bony levers1 they have
 no need of tendons4  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #ca4--;,a1 ,muscular ,fiber1      
showing ,stripes1 and ,nuclei1 b and c4 
7,highly magnified47  ,the microscope   
shows these muscles to consist not of   
fibers1 but of long spindle-shaped      
cells1 united to form sheets or bands4  
,they have no sarcolemma1 stripes1 or   
cross markings like those of the        
voluntary muscles4 ,hence their name of 
non-striated1 or unstriped1 and smooth  
muscles4  ,the involuntary muscles      
respond to irritation much less rapidly 
than do the voluntary4 ,the wave of     
contraction passes over them more slowly
 and more irregularly1 one part         
contracting while another is relaxing4  
,this may readily be seen in the        
muscular action of the intestines1      
called vermicular motion4 ,it is the    
irregular and excessive contraction of  

the muscular walls of the bowels that   
produces the cramp-like pains of colic4 
,the smooth muscles are found in the    
tissues of the heart1 lungs1            
blood-vessels1 stomach1 and intestines4 
,in the stomach their contraction       
produces the motion by which the food is
 churned about2 in the arteries and     
veins they help supply the force by     
which the blood is driven along1 and in 
the intestines that by which the partly 
digested food is mainly kept in motion4 
,thus all the great vital functions are 
carried on1 regardless of the will of   
the individual1 or of any outward       
circumstances4 ,if it required an effort
 of the will to control the action of   
the internal organs we could not think  
of anything else4 ,it would take all our
 time to attend to living4 ,hence the   
care of such delicate and important     
machinery has wisely been put beyond our
 control4  ,thus1 too1 these muscles act
 instinctively without training2 but the
 voluntary need long and careful        

education4 ,a babe can use the muscles  
of swallowing on the first day of its   
life as well as it ever can4 ,but as it 
grows up1 long and patient education of 
its voluntary muscles is needed to      
achieve walking1 writing1 use of musical
 instruments1 and many other acts of    
daily life4  ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#cb4--;,a ,spindle ,cell of ,involuntary
 ,muscle4 7,highly magnified47          
,experiment #ah4 ,to show the general   
appearance of the muscles4   ,obtain the
 lower part of a sheep's or calf's leg1 
with the most of the   lean meat and the
 hoof left on4 ,one or more of the      
muscles with their   bundles of fibers1 
fascia1 and tendons2 are readily made   
out with a   little careful dissection4 
,the dissection should be made a few    
days   before it is wanted and the parts
 allowed to harden somewhat in dilute   
alcohol4  #fh4 ,properties of ,muscular 
,tissue4 ,the peculiar property of      
living muscular tissue is irritability1 
or the capacity of responding to a      

stimulus4 ,when a muscle is irritated it
 responds by contracting4 ,by this act  
the muscle does not diminish its bulk to
 any extent2 it simply changes its form4
 ,the ends of the muscle are drawn      
nearer each other and the middle is     
thicker4  ,muscles do not shorten       
themselves all at once1 but the         
contraction passes quickly over them in 
the form of a wave4 ,they are usually   
stimulated by nervous action4 ,the      
delicate nerve fibrils which end in the 
fibers communicate with the brain1 the  
center of the will power4 ,hence1 when  
the brain commands1 a nervous impulse1  
sent along the nerve fibers1 becomes the
 exciting stimulus which acts upon the  
muscles and makes them shorter1 harder1 
and more rigid4#aj  ,muscles1 however1  
will respond to other than this usual   
stimulus4 ,thus an electrical current   
may have a similar effect4 ,heat1 also1 
may produce muscular contraction4       
,mechanical means1 such as a sharp blow 
or pinching1 may irritate a muscle and  

cause it to contract4  ,we must remember
 that this property of contraction is   
inherent and belongs to the muscle      
itself4 ,this power of contraction is   
often independent of the brain4 ,thus1  
on pricking the heart of a fish an hour 
after removal from its body1 obvious    
contraction will occur4 ,in this case it
 is not the nerve force from the brain  
that supplies the energy for            
contraction4 ,the power of contraction  
is inherent in the muscle substance1 and
 the stimulus by irritating the nerve   
ganglia of the heart simply affords the 
opportunity for its exercise4           
,contraction is not1 however1 the       
natural state of a muscle4 ,in time it  
is tired1 and begins to relax4 ,even the
 heart1 the hardest-working muscle1 has 
short periods of rest between its beats4
 ,muscles are highly elastic as well as 
contractile4 ,by this property muscle   
yields to a stretching force1 and       
returns to its original length if the   
stretching has not been excessive4      

,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,principal   
,muscles of the ,body4 7,anterior view47
  #fi4 ,the ,object of ,contraction4    
,the object of contraction is obvious4  
,like rubber bands1 if one end of a     
muscle be fixed and the other attached  
to some object which is free to move1   
the contraction of the muscle will bring
 the movable body nearer to the fixed   
point4 ,a weight fastened to the free   
end of a muscle may be lifted when the  
muscle contracts4 ,thus by their        
contraction muscles are able to do their
 work4 ,they even contract more         
vigorously when resistance is opposed to
 them than when it is not4 ,with        
increased weight there is an increased  
amount of work to be done4 ,the greater 
resistance calls forth a greater action 
of the muscle4 ,this is true up to a    
certain point1 but when the limit has   
been passed1 the muscle quickly fails to
 respond4  ,again1 muscles work best    
with a certain degree of rapidity       
provided the irritations do not follow  

each other too rapidly4 ,if1 however1   
the contractions are too rapid1 the     
muscles become exhausted and fatigue    
results4 ,when the feeling of fatigue   
passes away with rest1 the muscle       
recovers its power4 ,while we are       
resting1 the blood is pouring in fresh  
supplies of building material4          
,experiment #ai4 ,to show how muscles   
relax and contract4 ,lay your   left    
forearm on a table2 grasp with the right
 hand the mass of flesh on   the front  
of the upper arm4 ,now gradually raise  
the forearm1 keeping the   elbow on the 
table4 ,note that the muscle thickens as
 the hand rises4   ,this illustrates the
 contraction of the biceps1 and is      
popularly called   trying your muscle   
,reverse the act4 ,keep the elbow in    
position1 bring   the forearm slowly to 
the table1 and the biceps appears to    
become softer   and smaller1--it        
relaxes4    ,experiment #bj4 ,repeat the
 same experiment with other muscles4    
,with   the right hand grasp firmly the 

extended left forearm4 ,extend and flex 
the fingers vigorously4 ,note the effect
 on the muscles and tendons of   the    
forearm4 ,grasp with the right hand the 
calf of the extended right   leg1 and   
vigorously flex the leg1 bringing it    
near to the body4 ,note the             
contractions and relaxations of the     
muscles4  #gj4 ,arrangement of ,muscles4
 ,muscles are not connected directly    
with bones4 ,the mass of flesh tapers   
off towards the ends1 where the fibers  
pass into white1 glistening cords known 
as tendons4 ,the place at which a muscle
 is attached to a bone1 generally by    
means of a tendon1 is called its origin2
 the end connected with the movable bone
 is its insertion4  ,there are about    
#djj muscles in the human body1 all     
necessary for its various movements4    
,they vary greatly in shape and size1   
according to their position and use4    
,some are from one to two feet long1    
others only a fraction of an inch4 ,some
 are long and spindle-shaped1 others    

thin and broad1 while still others form 
rings4 ,thus some of the muscles of the 
arm and thigh are long and tapering1    
while the abdominal muscles are thin and
 broad because they help form walls for 
cavities4 ,again1 the muscular fibers   
which surround and by their contraction 
close certain orifices1 as those of the 
eyelids and lips1 often radiate like the
 spokes of a wheel4  ,muscles are named 
according to their shape1 position1     
division of origin or insertion1 and    
their function4 ,thus we have the recti 
7straight71 and the deltoid 71 delta71  
the brachial 7arm71 pectoral 7breast71  
and the intercostals 7between the ribs71
 so named from their position4 ,again1  
we have the biceps 7two-headed71 triceps
 7three-headed71 and many others with   
similar names1 so called from the points
 of origin and insertion4 ,we find other
 groups named after their special use4  
,the muscles which bend the limbs are   
called flexors while those which        
straighten them are known as extensors4 

,after a bone has been moved by the     
contraction of a muscle1 it is brought  
back to its position by the contraction 
of another muscle on the opposite side1 
the former muscle meanwhile being       
relaxed4 ,muscles thus acting in        
opposition to each other are called     
antagonistic4 ,thus the biceps serves as
 one of the antagonists to the triceps1 
and the various flexors and extensors of
 the limbs are antagonistic to one      
another4  #ga4 ,the ,tendons4 ,the      
muscles which move the bones by their   
contraction taper for the most part1 as 
before mentioned1 into tendons4 ,these  
are commonly very strong cords1 like    
belts or straps1 made up of white1      
fibrous tissue4  ,tendons are most      
numerous about the larger joints1 where 
they permit free action and yet occupy  
but little space4 ,large and prominent  
muscles in these places would be clumsy 
and inconvenient4 ,if we bend the arm or
 leg forcibly1 and grasp the inside of  
the elbow or knee joint1 we can feel the

 tendons beneath the skin4 ,the numerous
 tendons in the palm or on the back of  
the hand contribute to its marvelous    
dexterity and flexibility4 ,the thickest
 and strongest tendon in the body is the
 tendon of ,achilles1 which connects the
 great muscles in the calf of the leg   
with the heel bone 7sec4 #di74  ,when   
muscles contract forcibly1 they pull    
upon the tendons which transmit the     
movement to the bones to which they are 
attached4 ,tendons may be compared to   
ropes or cords which1 when pulled1 are  
made to act upon distant objects to     
which one end is fastened4 ,sometimes   
the tendon runs down the middle of a    
muscle1 and the fibers run obliquely    
into it1 the tendon resembling the quill
 in a feather4 ,again1 tendons are      
spread out in a flat layer on the       
surface of muscles1 in which case they  
are called aponeuroses4 ,sometimes a    
tendon is found in the middle of a      
muscle as well as at each end of it4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,the ,biceps 

,muscle dissected to show its ,tendons4 
#gb4 ,synovial ,sheaths and ,sacs4 ,the 
rapid movement of the tendons over bony 
surfaces and prominences would soon     
produce an undue amount of heat and     
friction unless some means existed to   
make the motion as easy as possible4    
,this is supplied by sheaths which form 
a double lining around the tendons4 ,the
 opposed surfaces are lined with        
synovial membrane1#aa the secretion from
 which oils the sheaths in which the    
tendons move4  ,little closed sacs1     
called synovial sacs or burs1 similarly 
lined and containing fluid1 are also    
found in special places between two     
surfaces where much motion is required4 
,there are two of these burs near the   
patella1 one superficial1 just under the
 skin2 the other deep beneath the bone  
7,fig4 #bi74 ,without these1 the        
constant motion of the knee-pan and its 
tendons in walking would produce undue  
friction and heat and consequent        
inflammation4 ,similar1 though smaller1 

sacs are found over the point of the    
elbow1 over the knuckles1 the ankle     
bones1 and various other prominent      
points4 ,these sacs answer a very       
important purpose1 and are liable to    
various forms of inflammation4          
,experiment #ba4 ,examine carefully the 
tendons in the parts dissected   in     
,experiment #ah4 ,pull on the muscles   
and the tendons1 and note how they   act
 to move the parts4 ,this may be also   
admirably shown on the leg of a   fowl  
or turkey from a kitchen or obtained at 
the market4    ,obtain the hoof of a    
calf or sheep with one end of the tendon
 of   ,achilles still attached4 ,dissect
 it and test its strength4  #gc4        
,mechanism of ,movement4 ,the active    
agents of bodily movements1 as we have  
seen1 are the muscles1 which by their   
contraction cause the bones to move one 
on the other4 ,all these movements1 both
 of motion and of locomotion1 occur     
according to certain fixed laws of      
mechanics4 ,the bones1 to which a great 

proportion of the muscles in the body   
are attached1 act as distinct levers4   
,the muscles supply the power for moving
 the bones1 and the joints act as       
fulcrums or points of support4 ,the     
weight of the limb1 the weight to be    
lifted1 or the force to overcome1 is the
 resistance4  #gd4 ,levers in the ,body4
 ,in mechanics three classes of levers  
are described1 according to the relative
 position of the power1 the fulcrum1 and
 the resistance4 ,all the movements of  
the bones can be referred to one or     
another of these three classes4  ,levers
 of the first class are those in which  
the fulcrum is between the power and the
 weight4 ,the crowbar1 when used to lift
 a weight at one end by the application 
of power at the other1 with a block as a
 fulcrum1 is a familiar example of this 
class4 ,there are several examples of   
this in the human body4 ,the head       
supported on the atlas is one4 ,the     
joint between the atlas and the skull is
 the fulcrum1 the weight of the head is 

the resistance4 ,the power is behind1   
where the muscles from the neck are     
attached to the back of the skull4 ,the 
object of this arrangement is to keep   
the head steady and balanced on the     
spinal column1 and to move it backward  
and forward4  ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#ce4--,showing how the ,bones of the    
,arm serve as ,levers4    ,p1 power2    
,w1 weight2   ,f1 fulcrum4   ,levers of 
the second class are those in which the 
weight is between the fulcrum and the   
power4 ,a familiar example is the       
crowbar when used for lifting a weight  
while one end rests on the ground4 ,this
 class of levers is not common in the   
body4 ,standing on tiptoe is1 however1  
an example4 ,here the toes in contact   
with the ground are the fulcrum1 the    
power is the action of the muscles of   
the calf1 and between these is the      
weight of the body transmitted down the 
bones of the leg to the foot4  ,levers  
of the third class are those in which   
the power is applied at a point between 

the fulcrum and weight4 ,a familiar     
example is where a workman raises a     
ladder against a wall4 ,this class of   
levers is common in the body4 ,in       
bending the forearm on the arm1         
familiarly known as trying your muscle1 
the power is supplied by the biceps     
muscle attached to the radius1 the      
fulcrum is the elbow joint at one end of
 the lever1 and the resistance is the   
weight of the forearm at the other end4 
,experiment #bb4 ,to illustrate how the 
muscles use the bones as   levers4      
,first1 practice with a ruler1          
blackboard pointer1 or any other        
convenient object1 illustrating the     
different kinds of levers until the     
principles are familiar4 ,next1         
illustrate these principles on the      
person1 by making use of convenient     
muscles4 ,thus1 lift a book on the      
toes1 by the fingers1 on the back of the
 hand1 by the mouth1 and in   other     
ways4    ,these experiments1 showing how
 the bones serve as levers1 may be      

multiplied and varied as circumstances  
may require4  #ge4 ,the ,erect          
,position4 ,the erect position is       
peculiar to man4 ,no other animal       
naturally assumes it or is able to keep 
it long4 ,it is the result of a somewhat
 complex arrangement of muscles which   
balance each other1 some pulling        
backwards and some forwards4 ,although  
the whole skeleton is formed with       
reference to the erect position1 yet    
this attitude is slowly learned in      
infancy4  ,in the erect position the    
center of gravity lies in the joint     
between the sacrum and the last lumbar  
vertebra4 ,a line dropped from this     
point would fall between the feet1 just 
in front of the ankle joints4 ,we rarely
 stand with the feet close together1    
because that basis of support is too    
small for a firm position4 ,hence1 in   
all efforts requiring vigorous muscular 
movements the feet are kept more or less
 apart to enlarge the basis of support4 
,now1 on account of the large number and

 flexibility of the joints1 the body    
could not be kept in an upright position
 without the cooperation of certain     
groups of muscles4 ,the muscles of the  
calf of the leg1 acting on the thigh    
bone1 above the knee1 keep the body from
 falling forward1 while another set in  
front of the thigh helps hold the leg   
straight4 ,these thigh muscles also tend
 to pull the trunk forward1 but in turn 
are balanced by the powerful muscles of 
the lower back1 which help keep the body
 straight and braced4  ,the head is kept
 balanced on the neck partly by the     
central position of the joint between   
the atlas and axis1 and partly by means 
of strong muscles4 ,thus1 the combined  
action of these and other muscles serves
 to balance the body and keep it erect4 
,a blow on the head1 or a sudden shock  
to the nervous system1 causes the body  
to fall in a heap1 because the brain has
 for the time lost its power over the   
muscles1 and they cease to contract4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--;,diagram    

showing the ,action of the ,chief       
,muscles which keep the ,body ,erect4   
7,the arrows indicate the direction in  
which these muscles act1 the feet       
serving as a fixed basis47 ,after       
,huxley4  ,muscles which tend to keep   
the body from falling forward4    ,a1   
muscles of the calf2   ,b1 of the back  
of the thigh2   ,c1 of the spinal       
column4  ,muscles which tend to keep the
 body from falling backward4    ,d1     
muscles of the front of the leg2   ,e1  
of the front of the thigh2   ,f1 of the 
front of the abdomen2   ,g1 of the front
 of the neck4   #gf4 ,important         
,muscles4 ,there are scores of tiny     
muscles about the head1 face1 and eyes1 
which1 by their alternate contractions  
and relaxations1 impart to the          
countenance those expressions which     
reflect the feelings and passions of the
 individual4 ,two important muscles1 the
 temporal1 near the temples1 and the    
masseter1 or chewing muscle1 are the    
chief agents in moving the lower jaw4   

,they are very large in the lion1 tiger1
 and other flesh-eating animals4 ,on the
 inner side of each cheek is the        
buccinator1 or trumpeter's muscle1 which
 is largely developed in those who play 
on wind instruments4 ,easily seen and   
felt under the skin in thin persons1 on 
turning the head to one side1 is the    
sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle1 which     
passes obliquely down on each side of   
the neck to the collar bone--prominent  
in sculpture and painting4  ,the chest  
is supplied with numerous muscles which 
move the ribs up and down in the act of 
breathing4 ,a great1 fan-shaped muscle1 
called the pectoralis major1 lies on the
 chest4 ,it extends from the chest to   
the arm and helps draw the arm inward   
and forward4 ,the arm is raised from the
 side by a large triangular muscle on   
the shoulder1 the deltoid1 so called    
from its resemblance to the ,greek      
letter delta1 4 ,the biceps1 or         
two-headed muscle1 forms a large part of
 the fleshy mass in front of the arm4   

,its use is to bend the forearm on the  
arm1 an act familiarly known as trying  
your muscle4 ,its direct antagonist is  
the three-headed muscle called the      
triceps4 ,it forms the fleshy mass on   
the back of the arm1 its use being to   
draw the flexed forearm into a right    
line4  ,on the back and outside of the  
forearm are the extensors1 which        
straighten the wrist1 the hand1 and the 
fingers4 ,on the front and inside of the
 forearm are the flexors1 which bend the
 hand1 the wrist1 and the fingers4 ,if  
these muscles are worked vigorously1    
their tendons can be readily seen and   
felt under the skin4 ,at the back of the
 shoulder a large1 spread-out muscle    
passes upward from the back to the      
humerus4 ,from its wide expanse on the  
back it is known as the latissimus dorsi
 7broadest of the back74 ,when in action
 it draws the arm downward and backward1
 or1 if one hangs by the hands1 it helps
 to raise the body4 ,it is familiarly   
known as the climbing muscle4           

,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,a ,few of  
the ,important ,muscles of the ,back4   
,passing to the lower extremity1 the    
thigh muscles are the largest and the   
most powerful in the body4 ,in front a  
great1 four-headed muscle1 quadriceps   
extensor1 unites into a single tendon in
 which the knee-cap is set1 and serves  
to straighten the knee1 or when rising  
from a sitting posture helps elevate the
 body4 ,on the back of the thigh are    
several large muscles which bend the    
knee1 and whose tendons1 known as the   
hamstrings1 are readily felt just behind
 the knee4 ,on the back of the leg the  
most important muscles1 forming what is 
known as the calf1 are the gastrocnemius
 and the soleus4 ,the first forms the   
largest part of the calf4 ,the soleus1  
so named from resembling a sole-fish1 is
 a muscle of broad1 flattened shape1    
lying beneath the gastrocnemius4 ,the   
tendons of these two muscles unite to   
form the tendon of ,achilles1 as that   
hero is said to have been invulnerable  

except at this point4 ,the muscles of   
the calf have great power1 and are      
constantly called into use in walking1  
cycling1 dancing1 and leaping4  #gg4    
,the ,effect of ,alcoholic ,drinks upon 
the ,muscles4 ,it is found that a man   
can do more work without alcohol than   
with it4 ,after taking it there may be a
 momentary increase of activity1 but    
this lasts only ten or fifteen minutes  
at the most4 ,it is followed by a rapid 
reduction of power that more than       
outweighs the momentary gain1 while the 
quality of the work is decidedly        
impaired from the time the alcohol is   
taken4  ,even in the case of hard work  
that must be speedily done1 alcohol does
 not help1 but hinders its execution4   
,the tired man who does not understand  
the effects of alcohol often supposes   
that it increases his strength1 when in 
fact it only deadens his sense of       
fatigue by paralyzing his nerves4 ,when 
put to the test he is surprised at his  
self-deception4  ,full intoxication     

produces1 by its peculiar depression of 
the brain and nervous system1 an        
artificial and temporary paralysis of   
the muscles1 as is obvious in the       
pitifully helpless condition of a man   
fully intoxicated4 ,but even partial    
approach to intoxication involves its   
proportionate impairment of nervous     
integrity1 and therefore just so much   
diminution of muscular force4 ,all      
athletes recognize this fact1 as while  
training for a contest1 rigid abstinence
 is the rule1 both from liquors and     
tobacco4 ,this muscular weakness is     
shown also in the unsteady hand1 the    
trembling limbs of the inebriate1 his   
thick speech1 wandering eye1 and lolling
 head4  #gh4 ,destructive ,effect of    
,alcoholic ,liquors upon ,muscular      
,tissue4 ,alcoholic liquors retard the  
natural chemical changes so essential to
 good health1 by which is meant the     
oxidation of the nutritious elements of 
food4 ,careful demonstration has proved 
also that the amount of carbon dioxide  

escaping from the lungs of intoxicated  
persons is from thirty to fifty per cent
 less than normal4 ,this shut-in carbon 
stifles the nervous energy1 and cuts off
 the power that controls muscular force4
 ,this lost force is in close ratio to  
the retained carbon3 so much perverted  
chemical change1 so much loss of        
muscular power4 ,not only the strength  
but the fine delicacy of muscular action
 is lost1 the power of nice control of  
the hand and fingers1 as in neat        
penmanship1 or the use of musical       
instruments4  ,to this perverted        
chemical action is also due the fatty   
degeneration so common in inebriates1   
affecting the muscles1 the heart1 and   
the liver4 ,these organs are encroached 
upon by globules of fat 7a hydrocarbon71
 which1 while very good in their proper 
place and quantity1 become a source of  
disorder and even of death when they    
abnormally invade vital structures4     
,other poisons1 as phosphorus1 produce  
this fatty decay more rapidly2 but      

alcohol causes it in a much more general
 way4  ,this is proved by the           
microscope1 which plainly shows the     
condition mentioned1 and the difference 
between the healthy tissues and those   
thus diseased4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ch4--,principal ,muscles on the ,left  
,side of ,neck4    ,a1 buccinator2   ,b1
 masseter2   ,c1 depressor anguli oris2 
,d1 anterior portion of the digastric2  
,e1 mylo-hyoid2   ,f1 tendon of the     
digastric2   ,g1 sterno-hyoid2   ,h1    
sterno-thyroid2   ,k1 omo-hyoid2   ,l1  
sternal origin of sterno-cleido-mastoid 
muscle2   ,m1 superior fibers of        
deltoid2   ,n1 posterior scalenus2   ,o1
 clavicular origin of                   
sterno-cleido-mastoid2   ,p1            
sterno-cleido-mastoid2   ,r1 trapezius2 
,s1 anterior constrictor2   ,t1 splenius
 capitis2   ,v1 stylo-hyoid2   ,w1      
posterior portion of the digastric2     
,x1 fasciculi of ear muscles2   ,z1     
occipital4       ,,note4 ,it was        
proposed during the ,civil ,war to give 

each soldier in a     certain army one  
gill of whiskey a day1 because of great 
hardship and     exposure4 ,the eminent 
surgeon1 ,dr4 ,frank ,h4 ,hamilton of   
,new ,york1 thus     expressed his views
 of the question3 ,it is earnestly      
desired that no     such experiment will
 ever be repeated in the armies of the  
,united     ,states4 ,in our own mind1  
the conviction is established1 by the   
experience and observation of a life1   
that the regular routine     employment 
of alcoholic stimulants by man in health
 is never1 under     any circumstances1 
useful4 ,we make no exceptions in favor 
of cold or     heat or rain4      ,it   
seems to me to follow from these ,arctic
 experiences that the     regular use of
 spirits1 even in moderation1 under     
conditions of great     physical        
hardship1 continued and exhausting      
labor1 or exposure to     severe cold   
cannot be too strongly deprecated4      
,a4 ,w4 ,greely1 retired ,brigadier     
,general1 ,u4,s4,a41 and formerly leader

     of the ,greely ,expedition4  #gi4  
,effect of ,tobacco on the ,muscles4    
,that other prominent narcotic1 tobacco1
 impairs the energy of the muscles      
somewhat as alcohol does1 by its        
paralyzing effect upon the nervous      
system4 ,as all muscular action depends 
on the integrity of the nervous system1 
whatever lays its deadening hand upon   
that1 saps the vigor and growth of the  
entire frame1 dwarfs the body1 and      
retards mental development4 ,this       
applies especially to the young1 in the 
growing age between twelve or fourteen  
and twenty1 the very time when the      
healthy body is being well knit and     
compacted4  ,hence many public schools1 
as well as our national naval and       
military academies1 rigidly prohibit the
 use of tobacco by their pupils4 ,so    
also young men in athletic training are 
strictly forbidden to use it4#ab ,this  
loss of muscular vigor is shown by the  
unsteady condition of the muscles1 the  
trembling hand1 and the inability to do 

with precision and accuracy any fine    
work1 as in drawing or nice penmanship4 
,additional ,experiments4    ,experiment
 #bc4  ,to examine the minute structure 
of voluntary   muscular fiber4 ,tease1  
with two needles set in small handles1 a
 bit of   raw1 lean meat1 on a slip of  
glass1 in a little water4 ,continue     
until   the pieces are almost invisible 
to the naked eye4    ,experiment #bd4   
,place a clean1 dry cover-glass of about
 the width of   the slip1 over the water
 containing the torn fragments4 ,absorb 
the   excess of moisture at the edge of 
the cover1 by pressing a bit of         
blotting-paper against it for a moment4 
,place it on the stage of a   microscope
 and examine with highest obtainable    
power1 by light reflected   upward from 
the mirror beneath the stage4 ,note the 
apparent size of the   finest fibers2   
the striation of the fibers1 or their   
markings1   consisting of alternate dim 
and bright cross bands4 ,note the       
arrangement   of the fibers in bundles1 

each thread running parallel with its   
neighbor4    ,experiment #be4 ,to       
examine the minute structure of         
involuntary   muscular fiber1 a tendon1 
or a ligament4 ,obtain a very small     
portion of   the muscular coat of a     
cow's or a pig's stomach4 ,put it to    
soak in a   solution of one dram of     
bichromate of potash in a pint of water4
 ,take   out a morsel on the slip of    
glass1 and tease as directed for the    
voluntary muscle4 ,examine with a high  
power of the microscope and note3   7#a7
 the isolated cells1 long and           
spindle-shaped1 that they are much      
flattened2 7#b7 the arrangement of the  
cells1 or fibers1 in sheets1 or         
layers1 from the torn ends of which they
 project like palisades4    ,experiment 
#bf4 ,tease out a small portion of the  
tendon or ligament   in water1 and      
examine with a glass of high power4     
,note the large fibers   in the         
ligament1 which branch and interlace4   
,experiment #bg4 ,with the head slightly

 bent forwards1 grasp between   the     
fingers of the right hand the edge of   
the left   sterno-cleido-mastoid1 just  
above the collar bone4 ,raise the head  
and   turn it from left to right1 and   
the action of this important muscle is  
readily seen and felt4 ,in some persons 
it stands out in bold relief4           
,experiment #bh4 ,the tendons which     
bound the space 7popliteal7 behind   the
 knee can be distinctly felt when the   
muscles which bend the knee are   in    
action4 ,on the outer side note the     
tendons of the biceps of the leg1       
running down to the head of the fibula4 
,on the inside we feel three   tendons  
of important muscles on the back of the 
thigh which flex the leg   upon the     
thigh4    ,experiment #bi4 ,to show the 
ligamentous action of the muscles4      
,standing with the back fixed against a 
wall to steady the pelvis1 the   knee   
can be flexed so as to almost touch the 
abdomen4 ,take the same   position and  
keep the knee rigid4 ,when the heel has 

been but slightly   raised a sharp pain 
in the back of the thigh follows any    
effort to carry   it higher4 ,flexion of
 the leg to a right angle1 increases the
 distance   from the lines of insertion 
on the pelvic bones to the tuberosities 
of   the tibia by two or three          
inches--an amount of stretching these   
muscle   cannot undergo4 ,hence the knee
 must be flexed in flexion of the hip4  
,experiment #cj4 ,a similar experiment  
may be tried at the wrist4 ,flex   the  
wrist with the fingers extended1 and    
again with the fingers in the   fist4   
,the first movement can be carried to   
#ij1 the second only to #cj1   or in    
some persons up to #fj4 ,making a fist  
had already stretched the   extensor    
muscles of the arm1 and they can be     
stretched but little   farther4 ,hence1 
needless pain will be avoided by working
 a stiff wrist   with the parts loose1  
or the fingers extended1 and not with a 
clenched   fist4                        
,review ,analysis3 ,important ,muscles4 

,location4             ,name4           
,chief ,function4     ,head and ,neck4  
,occipito-frontalis4      moves scalp   
and raises eye brow4     ,orbicularis   
palpebrarum4 shuts the eyes4            
,levator palpebrarum4     opens the     
eyes4     ,temporal4                    
raise the lower jaw4     ,masseter4     
,sterno-cleido-mastoid4   depresses head
 upon neck and neck upon chest4         
,platysma myoides4        depresses     
lower jaw and lower lip4     ,trunk4    
,pectoralis major4        draws arm     
across front of chest4     ,pectoralis  
minor4        depresses point of        
shoulder1     ,latissimus dorsi4        
draws arm downwards and backwards4      
,serratus magnus4         assists in    
raising ribs4     ,trapezius4           
,rhomboideus4  backward movements of    
head and shoulder1     ,intercostals4   
raise and depress the ribs4             
,external oblique4       _/various      
forward movements     ,internal oblique4
         of trunk     ,rectus abdominis4

        compresses abdominal viscera and
 acts upon                              
pelvis4    ,upper ,limbs4      ,deltoid4
                 carries arm outwards   
and upwards4     ,biceps4               
flexes elbow and raises arm4            
,triceps4                 extends the   
forearm4     ,brachialis anticus4       
flexor of elbow4     ,supinator longus4 
flexes the forearm4     ,flexor carpi   
radialis4   flexors of wrist4           
,flexor carpi ulnaris4                  
,lower ,limbs4      ,gluteus maximus4   
adducts the thigh4     ,adductors of    
thigh4      draw the leg inwards4       
,sartorius4               crosses the   
legs4     ,rectus femoris4              
flexes the thigh4     ,vastus externus4 
extensor of leg4     ,vastus internus4  
extensor of leg upon thigh4     ,biceps 
femoris4          flexes leg upon thigh4
     ,gracilis4                flexes   
the leg and adducts thigh4     ,tibialis
 anticus4        draws up inner border  
of foot4     ,peroneus longus4          

raises outer edge of foot1              
,gastrocnemius4           keep the body 
erect1 and     ,soleus4                 
aid in walking and running4     ,chapter
 ,,iv4  ,physical ,exercise4    #hj4    
,importance of ,bodily ,exercise4       
,nothing is so essential to success in  
life as sound physical health4 ,it      
enables us to work with energy and      
comfort1 and better to endure unusual   
physical and mental strains4 ,while     
others suffer the penalties of          
feebleness1 a lower standard of         
functional activities1 and premature    
decay1 the fortunate possessor of a     
sound mind in a sound body is better    
prepared1 with proper application1 to   
endure the hardships and win the        
triumphs of life#ac4  ,this element of  
physical capacity is as necessary to a  
useful and energetic life1 as are mental
 endowment and intellectual acquirement4
 ,instinct impels us to seek health and 
pleasure in muscular exercise4 ,a       
healthy and vigorous child is never     

still except during sleep4 ,the restless
 limbs and muscles of school children   
pent up for several hours1 feel the need
 of movement1 as a hungry man craves    
food4 ,this natural desire for exercise1
 although too often overlooked1 is      
really one of the necessities of life4  
,one must be in ill health or of an     
imperfect nature1 when he ceases to feel
 this impulse4 ,indeed1 motion within   
proper bounds is essential to the full  
development and perfect maintenance of  
the bodily health4 ,unlike other        
machines1 the human body becomes within 
reasonable limits1 stronger and more    
capable the more it is used4  ,as our   
tenure of life at best is short1 it is  
our duty to strive to live as free as   
possible from bodily ills4 ,it is1      
therefore1 of paramount importance to   
rightly exercise every part of the body1
 and this without undue effort or       
injurious strain4  ,strictly speaking1  
physical exercise refers to the         
functional activity of each and every   

tissue1 and properly includes the       
regulation of the functions and         
movements of the entire body4 ,the word 
exercise1 however1 is used usually in a 
narrower sense as applied to those      
movements that are effected by the      
contraction of the voluntary muscles4   
,brief reference will be made in this   
chapter only to such natural and        
systematic physical training as should  
enter into the life of every healthy    
person4  #ha4 ,muscular ,activity4 ,the 
body1 as we have learned1 is built up of
 certain elementary tissues which are   
combined to make bones1 muscles1 nerves1
 and other structures4 ,the tissues1 in 
turn1 are made up of countless minute   
cells1 each of which has its birth1     
lives its brief moment to do its work in
 the animal economy1 is separated from  
the tissue of which it was a part1 and  
is in due time eliminated by the organs 
of excretion1--the lungs1 the skin1 or  
the kidneys4 ,thus there is a continuous
 process of growth1 of decay1 and       

removal1 among the individual cells of  
each tissue4      ,,note4 ,the          
,incessant ,changes in ,muscular        
,tissue4 ,in every tiny     block of    
muscle there is a part which is really  
alive1 there are parts     which are    
becoming alive1 there are parts which   
have been alive1 and     are now dying  
or dead2 there is an upward rush from   
the lifeless to     the living1 a       
downward rush from the living to the    
dead4 ,this is     always going on1     
whether the muscle be quiet and at rest1
 or whether     it be active and        
moving1--some of the capital of living  
material is     being spent1 changed    
into dead waste2 some of the new food is
 always     being raised into living    
capital4 ,but when the muscle is called 
upon     to do work1 when it is put into
 movement1 the expenditure is           
quickened1 there is a run upon the      
living capital1 the greater1 the        
more urgent the call for                
action4--,professor ,michael ,foster4   

,these ceaseless processes are greatly  
modified by the activity of the bodily  
functions4 ,every movement of a muscle1 
for instance1 involves change in its    
component cells4 ,and since the loss of 
every atom of the body is in direct     
relation to its activity1 a second      
process is necessary to repair this     
constant waste2 else the body would     
rapidly diminish in size and strength1  
and life itself would soon end4 ,this   
process of repair is accomplished1 as we
 shall learn in ,chapters ,,vi4 and     
,,vii41 by the organs of nutrition1     
which convert the food into blood4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,showing how 
the ,muscles of the ,back may be        
developed by a ,moderate ,amount of     
,dumb-,bell ,exercise at ,home4 7,from a
 photograph47  #hb4 ,effect of ,exercise
 upon the ,muscles4 ,systematic exercise
 influences the growth and structure of 
the muscles of the body in a manner     
somewhat remarkable4 ,muscular exercise 
makes muscular tissue2 from the lack of 

it1 muscles become soft and wasted4     
,muscles properly exercised not only    
increase in size1 both as a whole and in
 their individual structure1 but are    
better enabled to get rid of material   
which tends to hamper their movements4  
,thus muscular exercise helps to remove 
any needless accumulation of fat1 as    
well as useless waste matters1 which may
 exist in the tissues4 ,as fat forms no 
permanent structural part of the        
organism1 its removal is1 within limits1
 effected with no inconvenience4        
,muscular strength provides the joints  
with more powerful ligaments and better 
developed bony parts4 ,after long       
confinement to the bed from disease1 the
 joints have wasted ligaments1 thin     
cartilages1 and the bones are of smaller
 proportions4 ,duly exercised muscles   
influence the size of the bones upon    
which they act4 ,thus the bones of a    
well-developed man are stronger1 firmer1
 and larger than those of a feeble      
person4  ,he who has been physically    

well trained1 has both a more complete  
and a more intelligent use of his       
muscles4 ,he has acquired the art of    
causing his muscles to act in concert4  
,movements once difficult are now       
carried on with ease4 ,the power of     
cordination is increased1 so that a     
desired end is attained with the least  
amount of physical force and nervous    
energy4 ,in learning to row1 play       
baseball1 ride the bicycle1 or in any   
other exercises1 the beginner makes his 
movements in a stiff and awkward manner4
 ,he will use and waste more muscular   
force in playing one game of ball1 or in
 riding a mile on his wheel1 than an    
expert would in doing ten times the     
work4 ,he has not yet learned to balance
 one set of muscles against their       
antagonists4  ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#dj4--,the ,standard ,special ,chest    
,weight4  ,a convenient machine by means
 of which all the muscles of the body   
may be easily and pleasantly exercised  
with sufficient variations in the       

movements to relieve it of monotony4  ,a
 space #f ft wide1 #f ft deep1 and #g ft
 high nearly in front of the machine is 
required for exercise4  ,in time1       
however1 acts which were first done only
 with effort and by a conscious will1   
become automatic4 ,the will ceases to   
concern itself4 ,by what is called      
reflex action1 memory is developed in   
the spinal cord and the muscular centers
 7sec4 #bgc74 ,there is thus a great    
saving of actual brain work1 and one    
important cause of fatigue is removed4  
#hc4 ,effect of ,exercise on ,important 
,organs4 ,the importance of regular     
exercise is best understood by noting   
its effects upon the principal organs of
 the body4 ,as the action of the heart  
is increased both in force and frequency
 during exercise1 the flow of blood     
throughout the body is augmented4 ,this 
results from the force of the muscular  
contractions which play their part in   
pressing the blood in the veins onward  
towards the heart4 ,exercise also       

induces a more vigorous respiration1 and
 under increased breathing efforts the  
lung capacity is increased and the size 
of the chest is enlarged4 ,the amount of
 air inspired and expired in a given    
time is much larger than if the body    
were at rest4 ,the blood is thus        
supplied with a much larger amount of   
oxygen from the air inhaled1 and gives  
off to the air a corresponding excess of
 carbon dioxid and water4  ,again1      
exercise stimulates and strengthens the 
organs of digestion4 ,the appetite is   
improved1 as is especially noted after  
exercise in the open air4 ,the digestion
 is more complete1 absorption becomes   
more rapid1 the peristaltic movements of
 the bowels are promoted1 and the       
circulation through the liver is more   
vigorous4 ,more food is taken to supply 
the force necessary for the maintenance 
of the mechanical movements4 ,ample     
exercise also checks the tendency       
towards a torpid circulation in the     
larger digestive organs1 as the stomach 

and the liver1 so common with those who 
eat heartily1 but lead sedentary lives4 
,in short1 exercise may be regarded as a
 great regulator of nutrition4          
,exercise increases the flow of blood   
through the small vessels of the skin1  
and thus increases the radiation of heat
 from the surface4 ,if the exercise be  
vigorous and the weather hot1 a profuse 
sweat ensues1 the rapid evaporation of  
which cools the body4 ,the skin is thus 
a most important regulator of the bodily
 temperature1 and prevents any rise     
above the normal which would otherwise  
result from vigorous exercise4 7,see    
secs4 #bbf and #bda74  #hd4 ,effect of  
,exercise upon the ,personal            
,appearance4 ,judicious and systematic  
exercise1 if moderately employed1 soon  
gives a more upright and symmetrical    
figure1 and an easier and more graceful 
carriage4 ,rounded shoulders become     
square1 the awkward gait disappears1 and
 there is seen a graceful poise to the  
head and a bearing of the body which    

mark those whose muscles have been well 
trained4 ,a perfectly formed skeleton   
and well-developed muscles give the     
graceful contour and perfect outline to 
the human body4 ,the lean1 soft limbs of
 those who have never had any physical  
education1 often look as if they        
belonged to persons recovering from     
sickness4 ,the effects of sound physical
 exercise are well exhibited in the     
aspect of the neck1 shoulders1 and chest
 of one who has been well trained4 ,this
 is noticeable in gymnasts and others   
who practice upon the horizontal bar1   
with chest weights1 dumb-bells1 and     
other apparatus which develop more      
especially the muscles of the upper half
 of the trunk4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#da4--,young ,woman practicing at ,home 
with the ,whitely ,exerciser4 7,from a  
photograph7  ,exercise improves the     
condition of the tissues generally4     
,they become more elastic1 and in all   
respects sounder4 ,the skin becomes     
firm1 clear1 and wholesome4 ,hence1     

every part of the surface of the body   
rapidly takes on a change in contour1   
and soon assumes that appearance of     
vigor and soundness which marks those of
 firm physical condition4 ,the delicate1
 ruddy aspect of the complexion1 the    
swing about the body and the bearing of 
the head and shoulders1 of young women  
whose physical training has been        
efficient1 are in marked contrast with  
those characteristics in persons whose  
education in this respect has been      
neglected4  #he4 ,effect of ,unsuitable 
or ,excessive ,exercise4 ,but exercise1 
like everything else which contributes  
to our welfare1 may be carried to       
excess4 ,the words excessive and        
unsuitable1 when applied to muscular    
exertion1 are relative terms1 and apply 
to the individual rather than to amount 
of work done4 ,thus what may be         
excessive for one person1 might be      
suitable and beneficial to another4     
,then the condition of the individual1  
rather than the character of the        

muscular work1 is always a most         
important factor4  ,breathlessness is1  
perhaps1 the most common effect of undue
 exertion4 ,let a middle-aged person1   
who is out of practice1 run a certain   
distance1 and he is soon troubled with  
his breathing4 ,the respirations become 
irregular1 and there is a sense of      
oppression in his chest4 ,he pants1 and 
his strength gives out4 ,his chest1 and 
not his legs1 has failed him4 ,he is    
said to be out of breath4 ,he might have
 practiced dumb-bells or rowed for some 
time without inconvenience4  ,the heart 
is often overstrained1 and at times has 
been ruptured during violent exertion1  
as in lifting an immense weight4 ,the   
various forms of heart-disease are      
common with those whose occupations     
involve severe muscular effort1 as      
professional athletes and oarsmen4      
,hmorrhages of various kinds1 especially
 from the lungs1 or rupture of          
blood-vessels in the brain1 are not     
uncommon results of over-exertion4      

,excessive repetition of muscular       
movements may lead to permanent         
contractions of the parts involved4     
,thus sailors1 mechanics1 and others    
frequently develop a rigidity of the    
tendons of the hand which prevents the  
full extension of the fingers4 ,so      
stenographers1 telegraphers and writers 
occasionally suffer from permanent      
contractions of certain muscles of the  
arm1 known as writer's cramp1 due to    
their excessive use4 ,but the accidents 
which now and then may result from      
severe physical exertion1 should        
discourage no one from securing the     
benefits which accrue from moderate and 
reasonable exercise4  #hf4 ,muscular    
,fatigue4 ,we all know how tiresome it  
is to hold the arm outstretched         
horizontally even for a few moments4 ,a 
single muscle1 the deltoid1 in this case
 does most of the work4 ,even in a      
vigorous man1 this muscle can act no    
longer than four to six minutes before  
the arm drops helpless4 ,we may prolong 

the period by a strong effort of the    
will1 but a time soon comes when by no  
possible effort are we able to hold out 
the arm4 ,the muscle is said to be      
fatigued4 ,it has by no means lost its  
contractile power1 for if we apply a    
strong electric stimulus to it1 the     
fatigue seems to disappear4 ,thus we see
 the functional power of a muscle has a 
definite limit1 and in fatigue that     
limit is reached4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#db4--;,a ,well-,equipped ,gymnasium4   
7,from a photograph47  ,the strength of 
the muscle1 its physical condition1 the 
work it has done1 and the mental        
condition of the individual1 all modify 
the state of fatigue4 ,in those         
difficult acts which involve a special  
effort of the will1 the matter of nerve 
exhaustion is largely concerned4 ,thus1 
the incessant movements in ,st4 ,vitus' 
dance result in comparatively little    
fatigue1 because there is no association
 of the brain with the muscular action4 
,if a strong man should attempt to      

perform voluntarily the same movements1 
he would soon have to rest4 ,none of the
 movements which are performed          
independently of the will1 as the       
heart-beats and breathing movements1    
ever involve the sensation of fatigue4  
,as a result of fatigue the normal      
irritability of muscular tissue becomes 
weakened1 and its force of contraction  
is lessened4 ,there is1 also1 often     
noticed in fatigue a peculiar tremor of 
the muscles1 rendering their movements  
uncertain4 ,the stiffness of the muscles
 which comes on during severe exercise1 
or the day after1 are familiar results  
of fatigue4  ,this sense of fatigue     
should put us on guard against danger4  
,it is a kind of regulator which serves 
in the ordinary actions of life to warn 
us not to exceed the limits of useful   
exercise4 ,fatigue summons us to rest   
long before all the force of the motor  
organs has been expended1 just as the   
sensation of hunger warns us that we    
need food1 long before the body has     

become weak from the lack of            
nourishment4  ,we should never forget   
that it is highly essential to maintain 
an unused reserve of power1 just as a   
cautious merchant always keeps at the   
bank an unexpended balance of money4 ,if
 he overspends his money he is bankrupt1
 and the person who overspends his      
strength is for the time physically     
bankrupt4 ,in each case the process of  
recovery is slow and painful4  #hg4     
,rest for the ,muscles4 ,rest is        
necessary for the tissues1 that they may
 repair the losses sustained by work2   
that is1 a period of rest must alternate
 with a period of activity4 ,even the   
heart1 beating ceaselessly1 has its     
periods of absolute rest to alternate   
with those of work4 ,a steam-engine is  
always slowly1 but surely1 losing its   
fitness for work4 ,at last it stops from
 the need of repair4 ,unlike the engine1
 the body is constantly renewing itself 
and undergoing continual repair4 ,were  
it not for this power to repair and     

renew its various tissues1 the body     
would soon be worn out4  ,this repair is
 really a renovation of the structure4  
,rest and work are relative terms1      
directly opposed to each other4 ,work   
quickens the pulse and the respiration1 
while rest slows both4 ,during sleep the
 voluntary muscles are relaxed1 and     
those of organic life work with less    
energy4 ,the pulse and the respiration  
are less frequent1 and the temperature  
lower than when awake4 ,hence sleep1    
tired ,nature's sweet restorer1 may be  
regarded as a complete rest4  ,the      
periods of rest should vary with the    
kind of exercise4 ,thus exercise which  
produces breathlessness requires        
frequent but short rests4 ,the trained  
runner1 finding his respiration         
embarrassed1 stops a moment to regain   
his breath4 ,exercises of endurance     
cause fatigue less quickly than those of
 speed1 but require longer rest4 ,thus a
 man not used to long distances may walk
 a number of hours without stopping1 but

 while fatigue is slow to result1 it is 
also slow to disappear4 ,hence a lengthy
 period of rest is necessary before he  
is able to renew his journey4  #hh4     
,amount of ,physical ,exercise          
,required4 ,the amount of physical      
exercise that can be safely performed by
 each person1 is a most important and   
practical question4 ,no rule can be laid
 down1 for what one person bears well1  
may prove very injurious to another4 ,to
 a certain extent1 each must be guided  
by his own judgment4 ,if1 after taking  
exercise1 we feel fatigued and          
irritable1 are subject to headache and  
sleeplessness1 or find it difficult to  
apply the mind to its work1 it is plain 
that we have been taxing our strength   
unduly1 and the warnings should be      
heeded4  ,age is an important factor in 
the problem1 as a young man may do with 
ease and safety1 what might be injurious
 to an older person4 ,in youth1 when the
 body is making its most active         
development1 the judicious use of games1

 sports1 and gymnastics is most         
beneficial4 ,in advanced life1 both the 
power and the inclination for exercise  
fail1 but even then effort should be    
made to take a certain reasonable amount
 of exercise4  ,abundant evidence shows 
that physical development is most active
 from thirteen to seventeen years of    
age2 this manifests itself clearly by   
increase in weight4 ,hence this period  
of life is of great consequence4 ,if at 
this age a boy or girl is subjected to  
undue physical strain1 the development  
may suffer1 the growth be retarded1 and 
the foundation laid for future ill      
health4  ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#dc4--,student exercising in the ,school
 ,gymnasium on the ,rowing ,machine4    
7,from a photograph47  ,the proper      
amount of exercise must vary greatly    
with circumstances4 ,it may be laid down
 as a fairly safe rule1 that a person of
 average height and weight1 engaged in  
study or in any indoor or sedentary     
occupation1 should take an amount of    

exercise equivalent to walking five or  
six miles a day4 ,growing children1 as a
 rule1 take more exercise than this1    
while most men working indoors take far 
less1 and many women take less exercise 
than men4 ,exercise may be varied in    
many ways1 the more the better2 but for 
the most part it should always be taken 
in the open air4  #hi4 ,time for        
,exercise4 ,it is not prudent to do hard
 work or take severe exercise1 just     
before or just after a full meal4 ,the  
best time is one or two hours after a   
meal4 ,vigorous exercise while the      
stomach is busily digesting food1 may   
prove injurious1 and is apt to result   
sooner or later in dyspepsia4 ,on the   
other hand1 severe exercise should not  
be taken on an empty stomach4 ,those who
 do much work or study before breakfast1
 should first take a light lunch1 just  
enough to prevent any faint feeling4    
,with this precaution1 there is no      
better time for moderate exercise than  
the early morning4  ,in the case of     

children1 physical exercises should not 
be undertaken when they are overtired or
 hungry4 ,neither is it judicious for   
adults to take vigorous exercise in the 
evening1 after a long and arduous day's 
work4  #ij4 ,walking1 ,running1 and     
,jumping4 ,walking is generally regarded
 as the simplest and most convenient    
mode of taking exercise4 ,man is        
essentially a walking animal4 ,when     
taken with a special object in view1 it 
is the best and most pleasant of all    
physical activities4 ,it is suited for  
individuals of all ages and occupations1
 and for residents of every climate4    
,the child1 the athlete1 and the aged   
are all able to indulge in this simple  
and effective means of keeping the body 
in health4  ,in walking1 the muscles of 
the entire body are brought into action1
 and the movements of breathing and the 
circulation of the blood are increased4 
,the body should be erect1 the chest    
thrown out1 the head and shoulders held 
back1 and the stride long and elastic4  

,it is an excellent custom to add to the
 usefulness of this fine exercise1 by   
deep1 voluntary inhalations of pure air4
  ,running is an excellent exercise for 
children and young people1 but should be
 sparingly indulged in after the age of 
thirty-five4 ,if it be accompanied with 
a feeling of faintness1 breathlessness1 
and palpitation of the heart1 the       
exercise is too severe1 and its         
continuance may do serious harm4        
,running as an exercise is beneficial to
 those who have kept themselves in      
practice and in sound condition4 ,it    
brings into play nearly every muscle of 
the body1 and thus serves to develop the
 power of endurance1 as well as strength
 and capacity for rapid movement4       
,jumping may well be left to boys and   
young men under twenty1 but skipping    
with a rope1 allied to jumping1 is an   
admirable and beneficial form of        
exercise4 ,it brings into action many   
muscles without putting undue strain    
upon any particular group4  #ia4        

,skating1 ,swimming1 and ,rowing4       
,skating is a delightful and            
invigorating exercise4 ,it calls into   
play a great variety of muscles1 and is 
admirably adapted for almost all ages4  
,it strengthens the ankles and helps    
give an easy and graceful carriage to   
the body4 ,skating is especially        
valuable1 as it can be enjoyed when     
other out-door exercises are not        
convenient4  ,every child above ten     
years of age should be taught to swim4  
,the art1 once mastered1 is never       
forgotten4 ,it calls into use a wide    
combination of muscles4 ,this           
accomplishment1 so easily learned1      
should be a part of our education1 as   
well as baseball or bicycling1 as it may
 chance to any one to save his own life 
or that of a companion4  ,in many       
respects rowing is one of the most      
perfect exercises at our command4 ,it   
expands the chest1 strengthens the body1
 and gives tone to the muscles of the   
abdomen4 ,it is very suitable for girls 

and women1 as no other exercise is so   
well adapted to remedy the muscular     
defects so marked in their sex4 ,even   
elderly persons can row day after day   
without difficulty4 ,the degree of      
muscular effort required1 can be        
regulated so that those with weak hearts
 and weak lungs can adjust themselves to
 the exercise4  #ib4 ,bicycling as an   
,exercise4 ,the bicycle as a means of   
taking exercise has come into popular   
use with remarkable rapidity4 ,sharp    
competition bids fair to make the wheel 
more popular and less expensive than    
ever4 ,its phenomenal use by persons of 
all ages and in all stations of life1 is
 proof of the enthusiasm with which this
 athletic exercise is employed by women 
as well as by men4  ,mechanical skill   
has removed most of the risks to health 
and person which once existed4 ,a good  
machine1 used by its owner with         
judgment1 is the most convenient1 the   
safest1 and the least expensive means of
 traveling for pleasure or exercise4 ,it

 is doing more than any other form of   
exercise to improve the bodily condition
 of thousands whose occupations confine 
them all day to sedentary work4         
,dependent upon no one but himself1 the 
cyclist has his means of exercise always
 at hand4 ,no preparation is necessary  
to take a spin of ten miles or so on the
 road1 during a summer evening or before
 breakfast4  ,bicycling brings into     
active use the muscles of the legs as   
well as those of the trunk and arms4 ,it
 seems to benefit those who suffer from 
dyspepsia1 constipation1 and functional 
disorders of the liver4  ,a special     
caution must be used against overdoing  
in cycling1 for the temptation by       
rivalry1 making a record1 by social     
competition on the road1 is stronger in 
this form of exercise than in any other1
 especially for young folks4 ,many cases
 have occurred of permanent injury1 and 
even loss of life1 from collapse simply 
by excessive exertion and exhaustion4   
#ic4 ,outdoor ,games and ,physical      

,education4 ,while outdoor games are not
 necessary to maintain health1 yet we   
can scarcely overestimate the part that 
the great games of baseball1 football1  
tennis1 golf1 and croquet1 play in the  
physical development of young people4   
,when played in moderation and under    
suitable conditions1 they are most      
useful and beneficial exercises4 ,they  
are played in the open air1 and demand a
 great variety of vigorous muscular     
movement1 with a considerable amount of 
skill and adroitness of action4 ,these  
games not only involve healthful        
exercise1 but develop all those manly   
and wholesome qualities so essential to 
success in life4  ,a vigorous body is   
well-nigh essential to success1 but     
equally important are readiness of      
action1 sound judgment1 good temper1    
personal courage1 a sense of fair play1 
and above all1 a spirit of honor4       
,outdoor games1 when played in a        
reasonable and honorable manner1 are    
most efficient and practical means to   

develop these qualities in young people4
   #id4 ,the ,school and ,physical      
,education4 ,the advantages to be       
derived1 during the school period1 from 
the proper care and development of the  
body1 should be understood and          
appreciated by school officials1        
teachers1 and parents4 ,the school      
period is the best time to shape the    
lives of pupils1 not mentally or morally
 alone1 but physically as well4 ,this is
 the time1 by the use of a few daily    
exercises at school1 to draw back the   
rounding shoulders1 to form the habit of
 sitting and standing erect1 to build up
 strong and comely arms and chests1 and 
otherwise to train pupils to those      
methods which will serve to ripen them  
into vigorous and well-knit men and     
women4  ,teachers can by a little effort
 gain the knowledge requisite properly  
to instruct their pupils in a few       
systematic exercises4 ,gratifying       
results will follow just as the teacher 
and pupils evince interest and judgment 

in the work4 ,it is found by experience 
that pupils are not only quick to learn1
 but look forward eagerly to the        
physical exercises as an interesting    
change from the routine of school life4 
,there should be a stated time for these
 school exercises1 as for any other     
duty4 ,there can be practiced in the    
schoolroom a great variety of           
interesting and useful exercises1 which 
call for little or no expense for       
apparatus4 ,such exercises should no    
more interfere with the children's usual
 games than any other study does4 ,under
 no circumstances should the play hours 
be curtailed4  #ie4 ,physical ,exercises
 in ,school4 ,physical exercises of some
 sort1 then1 should be provided for     
pupils in our schools1 especially in    
large towns and cities1 where there is  
little opportunity for outdoor games1   
and they should form a part of the      
regular course of study4 ,the object    
should be the promotion of sound health 
rather than the development of muscle1  

or performing feats of agility or       
strength4 ,exercises with dumb-bells and
 wands1 or even without any apparatus1  
practiced a few times a day1 for five   
minutes at a time1 do a great deal of   
good4 ,they relax the tension of body   
and mind1 and introduce an element of   
pleasure into the routine of school     
life4 ,they increase the breathing power
 and quicken the action of the heart4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,physical    
,exercises as carried on in ,schools4   
7,from photographs47      ,,note4 ,in   
early boyhood and youth nothing can     
replace the active     sports so much   
enjoyed at this period2 and while no    
needless     restrictions should be     
placed upon them1 consideration should  
be paid     to the amount1 and          
especially to the character1 of the     
games pursued     by delicate youth4    
,for these it would be better to develop
 the     weakened parts by means of     
systematic physical exercises and by    
lighter sports4--,dr4 ,john ,m4 ,keating

 on ,physical ,development in           
,pepper's ,cyclopdia of the ,diseases of
 ,children4  ,if vigorously and         
systematically carried out1 these       
exercises invigorate all the tissues and
 organs of the body1 and stimulate them 
to renewed activity4 ,they serve to     
offset the lack of proper ventilation1  
faulty positions at the desks1 and the  
prolonged inaction of the muscles4 ,to  
secure the greatest benefit from        
physical training in school1 it is      
important that the pupils be interested 
in these exercises1 and consider them a 
recreation1 and not a task#ad4  #if4    
,practical ,points about ,physical      
,exercise4 ,the main object in          
undertaking systematic and graduated    
physical exercises is not to learn to do
 mere feats of strength and skill1 but  
the better to fit the individual for the
 duties and the work of life4 ,exercises
 should be considered with reference to 
their availability from the learner's   
standpoint4 ,the most beneficial        

exercises ordinarily are the gentle     
ones1 in which no strain is put upon the
 heart and the respiration4 ,the special
 aim is to secure the equal use of all  
the muscles1 not the development of a   
few4 ,the performance of feats of       
strength should never come within the   
scope of any educational scheme4        
,exercises which call for sustained     
effort1 violent exertion1 or sudden     
strain are best avoided by those who    
have had no preparation or training4    
,regular exercise1 not sudden and       
occasional prolonged exertion1 is       
necessary for health4 ,the man or woman 
who works in an office or store all the 
week1 and on ,sunday or a holiday       
indulges in a long spin on the bicycle1 
often receives more harm than good from 
the exertion4 ,exercise should be taken1
 so far as is convenient1 in the open   
air1 or in a large and well-ventilated  
room4#ae  ,after the more violent       
exercises1 as baseball1 football1 a long
 ride on the bicycle1 or even after a   

prolonged walk1 a warm bath should be   
taken at the first convenient           
opportunity4 ,care should be taken to   
rub down thoroughly1 and to change a    
part or all of the clothing4 ,exercise  
is comparatively valueless until the    
idea of taking it for health is quite   
forgotten in the interest and pleasure  
excited by the occasion4 ,no exercise   
should be carried to such a degree as to
 cause fatigue or exhaustion4 ,keep     
warmly clad after exercise1 avoid       
chills1 and always stop exercising as   
soon as fatigue is felt4  ,wear clothing
 which allows free play to all the      
muscles of the body4 ,the clothing      
should be light1 loose1 and made of     
wool4 ,care should be taken not to take 
cold by standing about in clothes which 
are damp with perspiration4 ,in brisk   
walking and climbing hills keep the     
mouth shut1 especially in cold weather1 
and breathe through the nose1 regulating
 the pace so that it can be done without
 discomfort4   #ig4 ,effect of          

,alcoholic ,liquors and ,tobacco upon   
,physical ,culture4 ,as a result of the 
unusual attention given to physical     
culture in the last few years1 hundreds 
of special instructors are now employed 
in training young people in the theory  
and practice of physical exercise4      
,these expert teachers1 to do their work
 with thoroughness and discipline1      
recognize the necessity of looking after
 the daily living of their students4    
,the time of rising and retiring1 the   
hours of sleep1 the dress1 the care of  
the diet1 and many other details of     
personal health become an important part
 of the training4  ,recognizing the fact
 that alcoholic drink and tobacco are so
 disastrous to efficiency in any system 
of physical training1 these instructors 
rigidly forbid the use of these drugs   
under all circumstances4 ,while this    
principle is perhaps more rigorously    
enforced in training for athletic       
contests1 it applies equally to those   
who have in view only the maintenance of

 health4  ,books on ,physical           
,education4 ,there are many excellent   
books on physical education1 which are  
easily obtained for reading or for      
reference4 ,among these one of the most 
useful and suggestive is ,blackie's     
well-known book1 ,how to ,get ,strong   
and how to ,stay so4 ,this little book  
is full of kindly advice and practical  
suggestions to those who may wish to    
begin to practice health exercises at   
home with inexpensive apparatus4 ,for   
more advanced work1 ,lagrange's         
,physiology of ,bodily ,exercise and the
 ,introduction to ,maclaren's ,physical 
,education may be consulted4 ,a notable 
article on ,physical ,training by       
,joseph ,h4 ,sears1 an ,ex-,captain of  
the ,harvard ,football ,team1 may be    
found in ,roosevelt's ,in ,sickness and 
in ,health4  ,price lists and catalogues
 of all kinds of gymnastic apparatus are
 easily obtained on application to firms
 handling such goods4  ,various ,systems
 of ,physical ,exercises4 ,the recent   

revival of popular interest in physical 
education has done much to call the     
attention of the public to the          
usefulness and importance of a more     
thorough and systematic use of physical 
exercises1 both at home and in the      
schools4 ,it is not within the scope of 
this book to describe the various       
systems of gymnastic and calisthenic    
exercises now in common use in this     
country4 ,for the most part they have   
been modified and rearranged from other 
sources1 notably from the two great     
systems1 i4e41 ,swedish and ,german4    
,for a most comprehensive work on the   
,swedish system1 the teacher is referred
 to the ,swedish ,system of ,educational
 ,gymnastics1 with #bfd illustrations1  
by ,baron ,nils ,posse4 ,there is also a
 small manual for teachers1 called      
,handbook of ,school ,gymnastics of the 
,swedish ,systems1 by the same author4  
,chapter ,v4  ,food and ,drink4    #ih4 
,why we need ,food4 ,the body is often  
compared to a steam-engine in good      

working order4 ,an engine uses up fuel  
and water to obtain from them the energy
 necessary to do its work4 ,so1 we      
consume within our bodies certain       
nutritious substances to obtain from    
them the energy necessary for our       
activities4 ,just as the energy for the 
working of the engine is obtained from  
steam by the combustion of fuel1 so the 
energy possessed by our bodies results  
from the combustion or oxidation within 
us of the food we eat4 ,unless this     
energy is provided for the body it will 
have but little power of doing work1 and
 like an engine without steam1 must soon
 become motionless4   #ii4 ,waste and   
,repair4 ,a steam-engine from the first 
stroke of its piston-rod begins to wear 
out1 and before long needs repair4 ,all 
work involves waste4 ,the engine1 unless
 kept in thorough repair1 would soon    
stop4 ,so with our bodies4 ,in their    
living cells chemical changes are       
constantly going on2 energy1 on the     
whole1 is running down2 complex         

substances are being broken up into     
simpler combinations4 ,so long as life  
lasts1 food must be brought to the      
tissues1 and waste products carried away
 from them4 ,it is impossible to move a 
single muscle1 or even to think for one 
moment1 without some minute part of the 
muscular or brain tissue becoming of no 
further use in the body4 ,the           
transformation of dead matter into      
living tissue is the ever-present       
miracle which life presents even in its 
lowest forms4  ,in childhood the waste  
is small1 and the amount of food taken  
is more than sufficient to repair the   
loss4 ,some of the extra food is used in
 building up the body1 especially the   
muscles4 ,as we shall learn in ,chapter 
,,viii41 food is also required to       
maintain the bodily heat4 ,food1 then1  
is necessary for the production of      
energy1 for the repair of the body1 for 
the building up of the tissues1 and for 
the maintenance of bodily heat4   #ajj4 
,nature of the ,waste ,material4 ,an    

ordinarily healthy person passes daily1 
on an average1 by the kidneys about #ej 
ounces of waste material1 of which #if  
per cent is water1 and from the         
intestines1 on an average1 #e ounces1 a 
large proportion of which is water4 ,by 
the skin1 in the shape of sweat and     
insensible perspiration1 there is cast  
out about #bc ounces1 of which #ii per  
cent is water2 and by the lungs about   
#cd ounces1 #aj of which are water and  
the remainder carbon dioxid4  ,now if we
 omit an estimate of the undigestible   
remains of the food1 we find that the   
main bulk of what daily leaves the body 
consists of water1 carbon dioxid1 and   
certain solid matters contained in      
solution in the renal secretion and the 
sweat4 ,the chief of these solid matters
 is urea1 a complex product made up of  
four elements1--carbon1 hydrogen1       
oxygen1 and nitrogen4 ,water contains   
only two elements1 hydrogen and oxygen2 
and carbon dioxid also has only two1    
carbon and oxygen4 ,hence1 what we daily

 cast out of our bodies consists        
essentially of these four elements in   
the form mainly of water1 carbon dioxid1
 and urea4  ,these waste products       
represent the oxidation that has taken  
place in the tissues in producing the   
energy necessary for the bodily         
activities1 just as the smoke1 ashes1   
clinkers1 and steam represent the       
consumption of fuel and water in the    
engine4 ,plainly1 therefore1 if we could
 restore to the body a supply of these  
four elements equivalent to that cast   
out1 we could make up for the waste4    
,the object of food1 then1 is to restore
 to the body an amount of the four      
elements equal to that consumed4 ,in    
other words1 and briefly3 ,the purpose  
of food is to supply the waste of the   
tissues and to maintain the normal      
composition of the blood4  #aja4        
,classification of ,foods4 ,foods may be
 conveniently divided into four great   
classes1 to which the name food-stuffs  
or alimentary principles has been given4

 ,they correspond to the chief proximate
 principles of which the body consists4 
,to one or the other of these classes   
all available foods belong#af4 ,the     
classification of food-stuffs usually   
given is as follows3      ,i4 ,proteids1
 or ,nitrogenous ,foods4    ,,ii4       
,starches and ,sugars1 or               
,carbohydrates4   ,,iii4 ,fats and      
,oils4    ,,iv4 ,inorganic or ,mineral  
,foods1--,water1 ,salt4  #ajb4          
,proteids2 or ,nitrogenous ,foods4 ,the 
proteids1 frequently spoken of as the   
nitrogenous foods1 are rich in one or   
more of the following organic           
substances3 albumen1 casein1 fibrin1    
gelatine1 myosin1 gluten1 and legumin4  
,the type of this class of foods is     
albumen1 well known as the white of an  
egg4 ,the serum of the blood is very    
rich in albumen1 as is lean meat4 ,the  
curd of milk consists mainly of casein4 
,fibrin exists largely in blood and     
flesh foods4 ,gelatine is obtained from 
the animal parts of bones and connective

 tissue by prolonged boiling4 ,one of   
the chief constituents of muscular fiber
 is myosin4 ,gluten exists largely in   
the cereals wheat1 barley1 oats1 and    
rye4 ,the proteid principle of peas and 
beans is legumin1 a substance resembling
 casein4  ,as the name implies1 the     
proteids1 or nitrogenous foods1 contain 
nitrogen2 carbohydrates and fats1 on the
 contrary1 do not contain nitrogen4 ,the
 principal proteid food-stuffs are milk1
 eggs1 flesh foods of all kinds1 fish1  
and the cereals among vegetable foods4  
,peas and beans are rich in proteids4   
,the essential use of the proteids to   
the tissues is to supply the material   
from which the new proteid tissue is    
made or the old proteid tissue is       
repaired4 ,they are also valuable as    
sources of energy to the body4 ,now1 as 
the proteid part of its molecule is the 
most important constituent of living    
matter1 it is evident that proteid food 
is an absolute necessity4 ,if our diet  
contained no proteids1 the tissues of   

the body would gradually waste away1 and
 death from starvation would result4    
,all the food-stuffs are necessary in   
one way or another to the preservation  
of perfect health1 but proteids1        
together with a certain proportion of   
water and inorganic salts1 are          
absolutely necessary for the bare       
maintenance of animal life--that is1 for
 the formation and preservation of      
living protoplasm4  #ajc4 ,starches and 
,sugars4 ,the starches1 sugars1 and     
gums1 also known as carbohydrates1 enter
 largely into the composition of foods  
of vegetable origin4 ,they contain no   
nitrogen1 but the three elements1       
carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 the last  
two in the same proportion as in water4 
,the starches are widely distributed    
throughout the vegetable kingdom4 ,they 
are abundant in potatoes and the        
cereals1 and in arrowroot1 rice1 sago1  
and tapioca4 ,starch probably stands    
first in importance among the various   
vegetable foods4  ,the sugars are also  

widely distributed substances1 and      
include the cane1 grape1 malt1 maple1   
and milk sugars4 ,here also belong the  
gums and cellulose found in fruit1      
cereals1 and all vegetables which form  
the basis of the plant cells and fibers4
 ,honey1 molasses1 and manna are        
included in this class4  ,the           
physiological value of the starches and 
sugars lies in the fact that they are   
oxidized in the body1 and a certain     
amount of energy is thereby liberated4  
,the energy of muscular work and of the 
heat of the body comes largely from the 
oxidation1 or destruction1 of this class
 of foods4 ,now1 inasmuch as we are     
continually giving off energy from the  
body1 chiefly in the form of muscular   
work and heat1 it is evident that       
material for the production of this     
energy must be taken in the food4 ,the  
carbohydrates constitute the bulk of our
 ordinary food4  #ajd4 ,fats and ,oils4 
,these include not only the ordinary    
fats of meat1 but many animal and       

vegetable oils4 ,they are alike in      
chemical composition1 consisting of     
carbon and hydrogen1 with a little      
oxygen and no nitrogen4 ,the principal  
kinds of fat used as food are the fat of
 meat1 butter1 suet1 and lard2 but in   
many parts of the world various         
vegetable oils are largely used1 as the 
olive1 palm1 cotton seed1 cocoanut1 and 
almond4  ,the use of the fats in the    
body is essentially the same as that of 
the starches and sugars4 ,weight for    
weight they are more valuable than the  
carbohydrates as sources of energy1 but 
the latter are more easily digested1 and
 more easily oxidized in the body4 ,an  
important use of fatty foods is for the 
maintenance of the bodily heat4 ,the    
inhabitants of ,arctic regions are thus 
enabled1 by large use of the fat and oil
 from the animals they devour1 to endure
 safely the severe cold4 ,then there is 
reason to believe that fat helps the    
digestion of other foods1 for it is     
found that the body is better nourished 

when the fats are used as food4 ,when   
more fat is consumed than is required to
 keep up the bodily heat and to yield   
working power1 the excess is stored up  
in various parts of the body1 making a  
sort of reserve fuel1 which may be drawn
 upon at any future time4  #aje4 ,saline
 or ,mineral ,foods4 ,all food contains1
 besides the substances having potential
 energy1 as described1 certain saline   
matters4 ,water and salts are not       
usually considered foods1 but the       
results of scientific research1 as well 
as the experience of life1 show that    
these substances are absolutely         
necessary to the body4 ,the principal   
mineral foods are salt1 lime1 iron1     
magnesia1 phosphorus1 potash1 and water4
 ,except common salt and water1 these   
substances are usually taken only in    
combination with other foods4  ,these   
saline matters are essential to health1 
and when not present in due proportion  
nutrition is disturbed4 ,if a dog be fed
 on food freed from all salines1 but    

otherwise containing proper nutrients1  
he soon suffers from weakness1 after a  
time amounting to paralysis1 and often  
dies in convulsions4  ,about #bjj grains
 of common salt are required daily by an
 adult1 but a large proportion of this  
is in our food4 ,phosphate of lime is   
obtained from milk and meats1 and       
carbonate of lime from the hard water we
 drink4 ,both are required for the bones
 and teeth4 ,the salts of potash1 which 
assist in purifying the blood1 are      
obtained from vegetables and fruits4 ,an
 iron salt is found in most foods1 and  
sulphur in the yolk of eggs4  #ajf4     
,water4 ,water is of use chiefly as a   
solvent1 and while not strictly a food1 
is necessary to life4 ,it enters into   
the construction of every tissue and is 
constantly being removed from the body  
by every channel of waste#ag4  ,as a    
solvent water aids digestion1 and as it 
forms about #hj per cent of the blood1  
it serves as a carrier of nutrient      
material to all the tissues of the body4

    ,important ,articles of ,diet4      
#ajg4 ,milk4 ,the value of milk as a    
food cannot be overestimated4 ,it       
affords nourishment in a very simple1   
convenient1 and perfect form4 ,it is the
 sole food provided for the young of all
 animals which nourish their young4 ,it 
is an ideal food containing1 in         
excellent proportions1 all the four     
elements necessary for growth and health
 in earlier youth4  ,table3 ,composition
 of ,food ,materials4 ,careful analyses 
have been made of the different articles
 of food1 mostly of the raw1 or uncooked
 foods4 ,as might be expected1 the      
analyses on record differ more or less  
in the percentages assigned to the      
various constituents1 but the following 
table will give a fair idea of the      
fundamental nutritive value of the more 
common foods3     ,in #ajj parts        
,water   ,proteid   ,fat                
,carbohydrate       ,ash                
,digestible ,cellulose   ,meat          
#gf4g    #bj4h      #a4e      #j4c      

--        #a4c   ,eggs            #gc4g 
#ab4f     #ab4a      --       --        
#a4a   ,cheese          #cf-fj   #be-cc 
#g-cj      #c-g      --        #c4d     
,cow's ,milk      #hg4g     #c4d        
#c4b      #d4h      --        #j4g      
,wheat ,flour     #ac4c    #aj4b        
#j4i     #gd4h      #j4c       #j4e     
,wheat ,bread     #ce4f     #g4a        
#j4b     #ee4e      #j4c       #a4a     
,rye ,flour       #ac4g    #aa4e        
#b4a     #fi4g      #a4f       #a4d     
,rye bread       #db4c     #f4a         
#j4d     #di4b      #j4e       #a4e     
,rice            #ac4a     #g4j         
#j4i     #gg4d      #j4f       #a4j     
,corn            #ac4a     #i4i         
#d4f     #fh4d      #b4e       #a4e     
,macaroni        #aj4a     #i4j         
#j4c     #gi4j      #j4c       #j4e     
,peas and ,beans  #ab-ae   #bc-bf       
#a-b     #di-ed     #d4g       #b-c     
,potatoes        #ge4e     #b4j         
#j4b     #bj4f      #j4g       #a4j     
,carrots         #hg4a     #a4j         

#j4b      #i4c      #a4d       #j4i     
,cabbage         #ij       #b4c         
#j4e      #d-f      #a-b       #a4c     
,fruit           #hd       #j4e      -- 
#aj        #d         #j4e   ,cheese is 
the nitrogenous part of milk1 which has 
been coagulated by the use of rennet4   
,the curd is then carefully dried1      
salted1 and pressed4 ,cheese is         
sometimes difficult of digestion1 as on 
account of its solid form it is not     
easily acted upon by the digestive      
fluids4  #ajh4 ,meats4 ,the flesh of    
animals is one of our main sources of   
food4 ,containing a large amount of     
proteid1 it is admirably adapted for    
building up and repairing the tissues of
 the body4 ,the proportion of water is  
also high1 varying from #ej to #ge per  
cent4 ,the most common meats used in    
this country are beef1 mutton1 veal1    
pork1 poultry1 and game4  ,beef contains
 less fat and is more nutritious than   
either mutton or pork4 ,mutton has a    
fine flavor and is easily digested4     

,veal and lamb1 though more tender1 are 
less easily digested4 ,pork contains    
much fat1 and its fiber is hard1 so that
 it is the most difficult to digest of  
all the meats4 ,poultry and game have   
usually a small proportion of fat1 but  
are rich in phosphates and are valued   
for their flavor4  #aji4 ,eggs4         
,consisting of about two-thirds water   
and the rest albumen and fat1 eggs are  
often spoken of as typical natural food4
 ,the white of an egg is chiefly        
albumen1 with traces of fat and salt2   
the yolk is largely fat and salts4 ,the 
yellow color is due partly to sulphur4  
,it is this which blackens a silver     
spoon4 ,eggs furnish a convenient and   
concentrated food1 and if properly      
cooked are readily digested4  #aaj4     
,fish4 ,fish forms an important and a   
most nutritious article of diet1 as it  
contains almost as much nourishment as  
butcher's meat4 ,the fish-eating races  
and classes are remarkably strong and   
healthy4 ,fish is less stimulating than 

meat1 and is thus valuable as a food for
 invalids and dyspeptics4 ,to be at its 
best1 fish should be eaten in its       
season4 ,as a rule shell-fish1 except   
oysters1 are not very digestible4 ,some 
persons are unable to eat certain kinds 
of fish1 especially shell-fish1 without 
eruptions on the skin and other symptoms
 of mild poisoning4  #aaa4 ,vegetable   
,foods4 ,this is a large and important  
group of foods1 and embraces a          
remarkable number of different kinds of 
diet4 ,vegetable foods include the      
cereals1 garden vegetables1 the fruits1 
and other less important articles4      
,these foods supply a certain quantity  
of albumen and fat1 but their chief use 
is to furnish starches1 sugars1 acids1  
and salts4 ,the vegetable foods         
indirectly supply the body with a large 
amount of water1 which they absorb in   
cooking4  #aab4 ,proteid ,vegetable     
,foods4 ,the most important proteid     
vegetable foods are those derived from  
the grains of cereals and certain       

leguminous seeds1 as peas and beans4    
,the grains when ground make the various
 flours or meals4 ,they contain a large 
quantity of starch1 a proteid substance 
peculiar to them called gluten1 and     
mineral salts1 especially phosphate of  
lime4 ,peas and beans contain a smaller 
proportion of starch1 but more proteid  
matter1 called legumin1 or vegetable    
casein4 ,of the cereal foods1 wheat is  
that most generally useful4 ,wheat1 and 
corn and oatmeal form most important    
articles of diet4 ,wheat flour has      
starch1 sugar1 and gluten--nearly       
everything to support life except fat4  
,oatmeal is rich in proteids4 ,in some  
countries1 as ,scotland1 it forms an    
important article of diet1 in the form  
of porridge or oatmeal cakes4  ,corn    
meal is not only rich in nitrogen1 but  
the proportion of fat is also large2    
hence it is a most important and        
nutritious article of food4 ,rice1 on   
the other hand1 contains less proteids  
than any other cereal grain1 and is the 

least nutritious4 ,where used as a      
staple article of food1 as in ,india1 it
 is commonly mixed with milk1 cheese1 or
 other nutritious substances4 ,peas and 
beans1 distinguished from all other     
vegetables by their large amount of     
proteids--excel in this respect even    
beef1 mutton1 and fish4 ,they take the  
place of meats with those who believe in
 a vegetable diet4  #aac4 ,non-proteid  
,vegetable ,foods4 ,the common potato is
 the best type of non-proteid vegetable 
food4 ,when properly cooked it is easily
 digested and makes an excellent food4  
,it contains about #ge per cent of      
water1 about #bj per cent of            
carbohydrates1 chiefly starch1 #b per   
cent of proteids1 and a little fat and  
saline matters4 ,but being deficient in 
flesh-forming materials1 it is unfit for
 an exclusive food1 but is best used    
with milk1 meat1 and other foods richer 
in proteid substances4 ,sweet potatoes1 
of late years extensively used as food1 
are rich in starch and sugar4           

,arrowroot1 sago1 tapioca1 and similar  
foods are nutritious1 and easily        
digested1 and with milk furnish         
excellent articles of diet1 especially  
for invalids and children4  ,explanation
 of the ,graphic ,chart4 ,the graphic   
chart1 on the next page1 presents in a  
succinct and easily understood form the 
composition of food materials as they   
are bought in the market1 including the 
edible and non-edible portions4 ,it has 
been condensed from ,dr4 ,w4 ,o4        
,atwater's valuable monograph on ,foods 
and ,diet4 ,this work is known as the   
,yearbook of the ,u4,s4 ,department of  
,agriculture for #ahid4  ,,key3 #a1     
percentage of nutrients2 #b1 fuel value 
of #a pound in calories4 ,the unit of   
heat1 called a calorie1 or              
gramme-degree1 is the amount of heat    
which is necessary to raise one gramme  
7#ae4dc grains7 of water one degree     
centigrade 7#a4h ,fahr474 ,a1 round     
beef2 ,b1 sirloin beef2 ,c1 rib beef2   
,d1 leg of mutton2 ,e1 spare rib of     

pork2 ,f1 salt pork2 ,g1 smoked ham2 ,h1
 fresh codfish2 ,i1 oysters2 ,j1 milk2  
,k1 butter2 ,l1 cheese2 ,m1 eggs2 ,n1   
wheat bread2 ,o1 corn meal2 ,p1 oatmeal2
 ,q1 dried beans2 ,r1 rice2 ,s1         
potatoes2 ,t1 sugar4  ,this table1 among
 other things1 shows that the flesh of  
fish contains more water than that of   
warm-blooded animals4 ,it may also be   
seen that animal foods contain the most 
water2 and vegetable foods1 except      
potatoes1 the most nutrients4 ,proteids 
and fats exist only in small proportions
 in most vegetables1 except beans and   
oatmeal4 ,vegetable foods are rich in   
carbohydrates while meats contain none4 
,the fatter the meat the less the amount
 of water4 ,thus very lean meat may be  
almost four-fifths water1 and fat pork  
almost one-tenth water4  ,illustration3 
,fig4 #de4--;,graphic ,chart of the     
,composition of ,food ,materials4       
,composition of ,food ,materials4       
,nutritive ingredients1 refuse1 and fuel
 value4   #aad4 ,non-proteid ,animal    

,foods4 ,butter is one of the most      
digestible of animal fats1 agreeable and
 delicate in flavor1 and is on this     
account much used as a wholesome food4  
,various substitutes have recently come 
into use4 ,these are all made from      
animal fat1 chiefly that of beef1 and   
are known as butterine1 oleomargarine1  
and by other trade names4 ,these        
preparations1 if properly made1 are     
wholesome1 and may be useful substitutes
 for butter1 from which they differ but 
little in composition4  #aae4 ,garden   
,vegetables4 ,various green1 fresh1 and 
succulent vegetables form an essential  
part of our diet4 ,they are of          
importance not so much on account of    
their nutritious elements1 which are    
usually small1 as for the salts they    
supply1 especially the salts of potash4 
,it is a well-known fact that the       
continued use of a diet from which fresh
 vegetables are excluded leads to a     
disease known as scurvy4 ,they are also 
used for the agreeable flavor possessed 

by many1 and the pleasant variety and   
relish they give to the food4 ,the      
undigested residue left by all green    
vegetables affords a useful stimulus to 
intestinal contraction1 and tends to    
promote the regular action of the       
bowels4  #aaf4 ,fruits4 ,a great variety
 of fruits1 both fresh and dry1 is used 
as food1 or as luxuries4 ,they are of   
little nutritive value1 containing1 as  
they do1 much water and only a small    
amount of proteid1 but are of use       
chiefly for the sugar1 vegetable acids1 
and salts they contain4  ,in moderate   
quantity1 fruits are a useful addition  
to our regular diet4 ,they are cooling  
and refreshing1 of agreeable flavor1 and
 tend to prevent constipation4 ,their   
flavor and juiciness serve to stimulate 
a weak appetite and to give variety to  
an otherwise heavy diet4 ,if eaten in   
excess1 especially in an unripe or an   
overripe state1 fruits may occasion a   
disturbance of the stomach and bowels1  
often of a severe form4  #aag4          

,condiments4 ,the refinements of cookery
 as well as the craving of the appetite1
 demand many articles which cannot be   
classed strictly as foods4 ,they are    
called condiments1 and as such may be   
used in moderation4 ,they give flavor   
and relish to food1 excite appetite and 
promote digestion4 ,condiments increase 
the pleasure of eating1 and by their    
stimulating properties promote          
secretions of the digestive fluids and  
excite the muscular contractions of the 
alimentary canal4  ,the well-known      
condiments are salt1 vinegar1 pepper1   
ginger1 nutmeg1 cloves1 and various     
substances containing ethereal oils and 
aromatics4 ,their excessive use is      
calculated to excite irritation and     
disorder of the digestive organs4  #aah4
 ,salt ,the most important and          
extensively used of the condiments is   
common salt4 ,it exists in all ordinary 
articles of diet1 but in quantities not 
sufficient to meet the wants of the     
bodily tissues4 ,hence it is added to   

many articles of food4 ,it improves     
their flavor1 promotes certain digestive
 secretions1 and meets the nutritive    
demands of the body4 ,the use of salt   
seems based upon an instinctive demand  
of the system for something necessary   
for the full performance of its         
functions4 ,food without salt1 however  
nutritious in other respects1 is taken  
with reluctance and digested with       
difficulty4  ,salt has always played an 
important and picturesque part in the   
history of dietetics4 ,reference to its 
worth and necessity abounds in sacred   
and profane history4 ,in ancient times1 
salt was the first thing placed on the  
table and the last removed4 ,the place  
at the long table1 above or below the   
salt1 indicated rank4 ,it was everywhere
 the emblem of hospitality4 ,in parts of
 ,africa it is so scarce that it is     
worth its weight in gold1 and is        
actually used as money4 ,torture was    
inflicted upon prisoners of state in    
olden times by limiting the food to     

water and bread1 without salt4 ,so      
intense may this craving for salt       
become1 that men have often risked their
 liberty and even their lives to obtain 
it4  #aai4 ,water4 ,the most important  
natural beverage is pure water2 in fact 
it is the only one required4 ,man has1  
however1 from the earliest times        
preferred and daily used a variety of   
artificial drinks1 among which are tea1 
coffee1 and cocoa4  ,all beverages      
except certain strong alcoholic liquors1
 consist almost entirely of water4 ,it  
is a large element of solid foods1 and  
our bodies are made up to a great extent
 of water4 ,everything taken into the   
circulating fluids of the body1 or      
eliminated from them1 is done through   
the agency of water4 ,as a solvent it is
 indispensable in all the activities of 
the body4  ,it has been estimated that  
an average-sized adult loses by means of
 the lungs1 skin1 and kidneys about     
eighty ounces of water every twenty-four
 hours4 ,to restore this loss about four

 pints must be taken daily4 ,about one  
pint of this is obtained from the food  
we eat1 the remaining three pints being 
taken as drink4 ,one of the best ways of
 supplying water to the body is by      
drinking it in its pure state1 when its 
solvent properties can be completely    
utilized4 ,the amount of water consumed 
depends largely upon the amount of work 
performed by the body1 and upon the     
temperature4  ,being one of the         
essential elements of the body1 it is   
highly important that water should be   
free from harmful impurities4 ,if it    
contain the germs of disease1 sickness  
may follow its use4 ,without doubt the  
most important factor in the spread of  
disease is1 with the exception of impure
 air1 impure water4 ,the chief agent in 
the spread of typhoid fever is impure   
water4 ,so with cholera1 the evidence is
 overwhelming that filthy water is an   
all-powerful agent in the spread of this
 terrible disease4  #abj4 ,tea1 ,coffee1
 and ,cocoa4 ,the active principle of   

tea is called theine2 that of coffee1   
caffeine1 and of cocoa1 theobromine4    
,they also contain an aromatic1 volatile
 oil1 to which they owe their           
distinctive flavor4 ,tea and coffee also
 contain an astringent called tannin1   
which gives the peculiar bitter taste to
 the infusions when steeped too long4   
,in cocoa1 the fat known as cocoa butter
 amounts to fifty per cent4  #aba4 ,tea4
 ,it has been estimated that one-half of
 the human race now use tea1 either     
habitually or occasionally4 ,its use is 
a prolific source of indigestion1       
palpitation of the heart1 persistent    
wakefulness1 and of other disorders4    
,when used at all it should be only in  
moderation4 ,persons who cannot use it  
without feeling its hurtful effects1    
should leave it alone4 ,it should not be
 taken on an empty stomach1 nor sipped  
after every mouthful of food4  #abb4    
,coffee4 ,coffee often disturbs the     
rhythm of the heart and causes          
palpitation4 ,taken at night1 coffee    

often causes wakefulness4 ,this effect  
is so well known that it is often       
employed to prevent sleep4 ,immoderate  
use of strong coffee may produce other  
toxic effects1 such as muscular tremors1
 nervous anxiety1 sick-headache1        
palpitation1 and various uncomfortable  
feelings in the cardiac region4 ,some   
persons cannot drink even a small amount
 of tea or coffee without these         
unpleasant effects4 ,these favorite     
beverages are unsuitable for young      
people4  #abc4 ,cocoa4 ,the beverage    
known as cocoa comes from the seeds of  
the cocoa-tree1 which are roasted like  
the coffee berries to develop the aroma4
 ,chocolate is manufactured             
cocoa1--sugar and flavors being added to
 the prepared seeds4 ,chocolate is a    
convenient and palatable form of highly 
nutritious food4 ,for those with whom   
tea and coffee disagree1 it may be an   
agreeable beverage4 ,the large quantity 
of fat which it contains1 however1 often
 causes it to be somewhat indigestible4 

#abd4 ,alcoholic ,beverages4 ,there is a
 class of liquids which are certainly   
not properly food or drink1 but being so
 commonly used as beverages1 they seem  
to require special notice in this       
chapter4 ,in view of the great variety  
of alcoholic beverages1 the prevalence  
of their use1 and the very remarkable   
deleterious effects they produce upon   
the bodily organism1 they imperatively  
demand our most careful attention1 both 
from a physiological and an hygienic    
point of view4  #abe4 ,nature of        
,alcohol4 ,the ceaseless action of      
minute forms of plant life1 in bringing 
about the decomposition of the          
elaborated products of organized plant  
or animal structures1 will be described 
in more detail 7secs4 #cid-cih74  ,all  
such work of vegetable organisms1       
whether going on in the moulding cheese1
 in the souring of milk1 in putrefying  
meat1 in rotting fruit1 or in           
decomposing fruit juice1 is essentially 
one of fermentation1 caused by these    

minute forms of plant life4 ,there are  
many kinds of fermentation1 each with   
its own special form of minute plant    
life or micro-organism4  ,in this       
section we are more especially concerned
 about that fermentation which results  
from the decomposition of sweet fruit1  
plant1 or other vegetable1 juices which 
are composed largely of water containing
 sugar and flavoring matters4  ,this    
special form of fermentation is known as
 alcoholic or vinous fermentation1 and  
the micro-organisms that cause it are   
familiarly termed alcoholic ferments4   
,the botanist classes them as           
,saccharomycetes1 of which there are    
several varieties4 ,germs of            
,saccharomycetes are found on the       
surfaces and stems of fruit as it is    
ripening4 ,while the fruit remains whole
 these germs have no power to invade the
 juice1 and even when the skins are     
broken the conditions are less favorable
 for their work than for that of the    
moulds1#ah which are the cause of the   

rotting of fruit4  ,but when fruit is   
crushed and its juice pressed out1 the  
,saccharomycetes are carried into it    
where they cannot get the oxygen they   
need from the air4 ,they are then able  
to obtain oxygen by taking it from the  
sugar of the juice4 ,by so doing they   
cause a breaking up of the sugar and a  
rearrangement of its elements4 ,two new 
substances are formed in this           
decomposition of sugar1 viz41 carbon    
dioxid1 which arises from the liquid in 
tiny bubbles1 and alcohol1 a poison     
which remains in the fermenting fluid4  
,now we must remember that fermentation 
entirely changes the nature of the      
substance fermented4 ,for all forms of  
decomposition this one law holds good4  
,before alcoholic fermentation1 the     
fruit juice was wholesome and           
beneficial2 after fermentation1 it      
becomes1 by the action of the minute    
germs1 a poisonous liquid known as      
alcohol1 and which forms an essential   
part of all intoxicating beverages4     

,taking advantage of this great law of  
fermentation which dominates the realm  
of nature1 man has devised means to     
manufacture various alcoholic beverages 
from a great variety of plant           
structures1 as ripe grapes1 pears1      
apples1 and other fruits1 cane juices1  
corn1 the malt of barley1 rye1 wheat1   
and other cereals4  ,the process differs
 according to the substance used and the
 manner in which it is treated1 but the 
ultimate outcome is always the same1    
viz41 the manufacture of a beverage     
containing a greater or less proportion 
of alcoholic poison4 ,by the process of 
distillation1 new and stronger liquor is
 made4 ,beverages thus distilled are    
known as ardent spirits4 ,brandy is     
distilled from wine1 rum from fermented 
molasses1 and commercial alcohol mostly 
from whiskey4  ,the poisonous element in
 all forms of intoxicating drinks1 and  
the one so fraught with danger to the   
bodily tissues1 is the alcohol they     
contain4 ,the proportion of the         

alcoholic ingredient varies1 being about
 #ej per cent in brandy1 whiskey1 and   
rum1 about #bj to #ae per cent in wines1
 down to #e per cent1 or less1 in the   
various beers and cider2 but whether the
 proportion of alcohol be more or less1 
the same element of danger is always    
present4  #abf4 ,effects of ,alcoholic  
,beverages upon the ,human ,system4 ,one
 of the most common alcoholic beverages 
is wine1 made from the juice of grapes4 
,as the juice flows from the crushed    
fruit the ferments are washed from the  
skins and stems into the vat4 ,here they
 bud and multiply rapidly1 producing    
alcohol4 ,in a few hours the juice that 
was sweet and wholesome while in the    
grape is changed to a poisonous liquid1 
capable of injuring whoever drinks it4  
,one of the gravest dangers of          
wine-drinking is the power which the    
alcohol in it has to create a thirst    
which demands more alcohol4 ,the spread 
of alcoholism in wine-making countries  
is an illustration of this fact4        

,another alcoholic beverage1 common in  
apple-growing districts1 is cider4      
,until the microscope revealed the      
ferment germ on the bloom of the        
apple-skin1 very little was known of the
 changes produced in cider during the   
mysterious process of working4 ,now1    
when we see the bubbles of gas in the   
glass of cider we know what has produced
 them1 and we know too that a poison    
which we do not see is there also in    
corresponding amounts4 ,we have learned1
 too1 to trace the wrecked hopes of many
 a farmer's family to the alcohol in the
 cider which he provided so freely1     
supposing it harmless4  ,beer and other 
malt liquors are made from grain4 ,by   
sprouting the grain1 which changes its  
starch to sugar1 and then dissolving out
 the sugar with water1 a sweet liquid is
 obtained which is fermented with yeast1
 one kind of alcoholic ferment4 ,some   
kinds of beer contain only a small      
percentage of alcohol1 but these are    
usually drunk in proportionately large  

amounts4 ,the life insurance company    
finds the beer drinker a precarious     
risk2 the surgeon finds him an          
unpromising subject2 the criminal court 
finds him conspicuous in its            
proceedings4 ,the united testimony from 
all these sources is that beer is       
demoralizing1 mentally1 morally1 and    
physically4  #abg4 ,cooking4 ,the       
process through which nearly all food   
used by civilized man has to pass before
 it is eaten is known as cooking4 ,very 
few articles indeed are consumed in     
their natural state1 the exceptions     
being eggs1 milk1 oysters1 fruit and a  
few vegetables4 ,man is the only animal 
that cooks his food4 ,although there are
 savage races that have no knowledge of 
cooking1 civilized man invariably cooks 
most of his food4 ,it seems to be true  
that as nations advance in civilization 
they make a proportionate advance in the
 art of cooking4  ,cooking answers most 
important purposes in connection with   
our food1 especially from its influence 

upon health4 ,it enables food to be more
 readily chewed1 and more easily        
digested4 ,thus1 a piece of meat when   
raw is tough and tenacious1 but if      
cooked the fibers lose much of their    
toughness1 while the connective tissues 
are changed into a soft and jelly-like  
mass4 ,besides1 the meat is much more   
readily masticated and acted upon by the
 digestive fluids4 ,so cooking makes    
vegetables and grains softer1 loosens   
their structure1 and enables the        
digestive juices readily to penetrate   
their substance4  ,cooking also improves
 or develops flavors in food1 especially
 in animal foods1 and thus makes them   
attractive and pleasant to the palate4  
,the appearance of uncooked meat1 for   
example1 is repulsive to our taste1 but 
by the process of cooking1 agreeable    
flavors are developed which stimulate   
the appetite and the flow of digestive  
fluids4  ,another important use of      
cooking is that it kills any minute     
parasites or germs in the raw food4 ,the

 safeguard of cooking thus effectually  
removes some important causes of        
disease4 ,the warmth that cooking       
imparts to food is a matter of no slight
 importance2 for warm food is more      
readily digested1 and therefore         
nourishes the body more quickly4  ,the  
art of cooking plays a very important   
part in the matter of health1 and thus  
of comfort and happiness4 ,badly cooked 
and ill-assorted foods are often the    
cause of serious disorders4 ,mere       
cooking is not enough1 but good cooking 
is essential4    ,experiments4          
,experiments with the ,proteids4        
,experiment #ca4 ,as a type of the group
 of proteids we take the white of egg1  
egg-white or egg-albumen4 ,break an egg 
carefully1 so as not to mix the white   
with the yolk4 ,drop about half a       
teaspoonful of the raw white of egg into
 half a pint of distilled water4 ,beat  
the mixture vigorously with a glass rod 
until it froths freely4 ,filter through 
several folds of muslin until a fairly  

clear solution is obtained4  ,experiment
 #cb4 ,to a small quantity of this      
solution in a test tube add strong      
nitric acid1 and boil4 ,note the        
formation of a white precipitate1 which 
turns yellow4 ,after cooling1 add       
ammonia1 and note that the precipitate  
becomes orange4  ,experiment #cc4 ,add  
to the solution of egg-albumen1 excess  
of strong solution of caustic soda 7or  
potash71 and then a drop or two of very 
dilute solution 7one per cent7 of copper
 sulphate4 ,a violet color is obtained  
which deepens on boiling4  ,experiment  
#cd4 ,boil a small portion of the       
albumen solution in a test tube1 adding 
drop by drop dilute acetic acid 7two per
 cent7 until a flaky coagulum of        
insoluble albumen separates4            
,experiments with ,starch4  ,experiment 
#ce4 ,wash a potato and peel it4 ,grate 
it on a nutmeg grater into a tall       
cylindrical glass full of water4 ,allow 
the suspended particles to subside1 and 
after a time note the deposit4 ,the     

lowest layer consists of a white powder1
 or starch1 and above it lie coarser    
fragments of cellulose and other        
matters4  ,experiment #cf4 ,examine     
under the microscope a bit of the above 
white deposit4 ,note that each starch   
granule shows an eccentric hilum with   
concentric markings4 ,add a few drops of
 very dilute solution of iodine4 ,each  
granule becomes blue1 while the markings
 become more distinct4  ,experiment #cg4
 ,examine a few of the many varieties of
 other kinds of starch granules1 as in  
rice1 arrowroot1 etc4 ,press some dry   
starch powder between the thumb and     
forefinger1 and note the peculiar       
crepitation4  ,experiment #ch4 ,rub a   
few bits of starch in a little cold     
water4 ,put a little of the mixture in a
 large test tube1 and then fill with    
boiling water4 ,boil until an imperfect 
opalescent solution is obtained4        
,experiment #ci4 ,add powdered dry      
starch to cold water4 ,it is insoluble4 
,filter and test the filtrate with      

iodine4 ,it gives no blue color4        
,experiment #dj4 ,boil a little starch  
with water2 if there is enough starch it
 sets on cooling and a paste results4   
,experiment #da4 ,moisten some flour    
with water until it forms a tough1      
tenacious dough2 tie it in a piece of   
cotton cloth1 and knead it in a vessel  
containing water until all the starch is
 separated4 ,there remains on the cloth 
a grayish white1 sticky1 elastic gluten1
 made up of albumen1 some of the ash1   
and fats4 ,draw out some of the gluten  
into threads1 and observe its tenacious 
character4  ,experiment #db4 ,shake up a
 little flour with ether in a test tube1
 with a tight-fitting cork4 ,allow the  
mixture to stand for an hour1 shaking it
 from time to time4 ,filter off the     
ether1 and place some of it on a        
perfectly clean watch glass4 ,allow the 
ether to evaporate1 when a greasy stain 
will be left1 thus showing the presence 
of fats in the flour4  ,experiment #dc4 
,secure a specimen of the various kinds 

of flour1 and meal1 peas1 beans1 rice1  
tapioca1 potato1 etc4 ,boil a small     
quantity of each in a test tube for some
 minutes4 ,put a bit of each thus cooked
 on a white plate1 and pour on it two or
 three drops of the tincture of iodine4 
,note the various changes of            
color1--blue1 greenish1 orange1 or      
yellowish4   ,experiments with ,milk4   
,experiment #dd4 ,use fresh cow's milk4 
,examine the naked-eye character of the 
milk4 ,test its reaction with litmus    
paper4 ,it is usually neutral or        
slightly alkaline4  ,experiment #de4    
,examine with the microscope a drop of  
milk1 noting numerous small1 highly     
refractive oil globules floating in a   
fluid4  ,experiment #df4 ,dilute one    
ounce of milk with ten times its volume 
of water4 ,add cautiously dilute acetic 
acid until there is a copious1          
granular-looking precipitate of the     
chief proteid of milk 7caseinogen71     
formerly regarded as a derived albumen4 
,this action is hastened by heating4    

,experiment #dg4 ,saturate milk with    
,epsom salts1 or common salt4 ,the      
proteid and fat separate1 rise to the   
surface1 and leave a clear fluid        
beneath4  ,experiment #dh4 ,place some  
milk in a basin2 heat it to about #ajj  
,f41 and add a few drops of acetic acid4
 ,the mass curdles and separates into a 
solid curd 7proteid and fat7 and a clear
 fluid 7the whey71 which contains the   
lactose4  ,experiment #di4 ,take one or 
two teaspoonfuls of fresh milk in a test
 tube2 heat it1 and add a small quantity
 of extract of rennet4 ,note that the   
whole mass curdles in a few minutes1 so 
that the tube can be inverted without   
the curd falling out4 ,soon the curd    
shrinks1 and squeezes out a clear1      
slightly yellowish fluid1 the whey4     
,experiment #ej4 ,boil the milk as      
before1 and allow it to cool2 then add  
rennet4 ,no coagulation will probably   
take place4 ,it is more difficult to    
coagulate boiled milk with rennet than  
unboiled milk4  ,experiment #ea4 ,test  

fresh milk with red litmus paper2 it    
should turn the paper pale blue1 showing
 that it is slightly alkaline4 ,place   
aside for a day or two1 and then test   
with blue litmus paper2 it will be found
 to be acid4 ,this is due to the fact   
that lactose undergoes the lactic acid  
fermentation4 ,the lactose is converted 
into lactic acid by means of a special  
ferment4  ,experiment #eb4 ,evaporate a 
small quantity of milk to dryness in an 
open dish4 ,after the dry residue is    
obtained1 continue to apply heat2       
observe that it chars and gives off     
pungent gases4 ,raise the temperature   
until it is red hot2 allow the dish then
 to cool2 a fine white ash will be left 
behind4 ,this represents the inorganic  
matter of the milk4   ,experiments with 
the ,sugars4  ,experiment #ec4 ,cane    
sugar is familiar as cooking and table  
sugar4 ,the little white grains found   
with raisins are grape sugar1 or        
glucose4 ,milk sugar is readily obtained
 of the druggist4 ,prepare a solution of

 the various sugars by dissolving a     
small quantity of each in water4 ,heat  
each solution with sulphuric acid1 and  
it is seen to darken or char slowly4    
,experiment #ed4 ,place some ,fehling   
solution 7which can be readily obtained 
at the drug store as a solution1 or     
tablets may be bought which answer the  
same purpose7 in a test tube1 and boil4 
,if no yellow discoloration takes place1
 it is in good condition4 ,add a few    
drops of the grape sugar solution and   
boil1 when the mixture suddenly turns to
 an opaque yellow or red color4         
,experiment #ee4 ,repeat same experiment
 with milk sugar4     ,chapter ,,vi4    
,digestion4    #abh4 ,the ,purpose of   
,digestion4 ,as we have learned1 our    
bodies are subject to continual waste1  
due both to the wear and tear of their  
substance1 and to the consumption of    
material for the production of their    
heat and energy4 ,the waste occurs in no
 one part alone1 but in all the tissues4
  ,now1 the blood comes into direct     

contact with every one of these tissues4
 ,the ultimate cells which form the     
tissues are constantly being bathed by  
the myriads of minute blood-vessels     
which bring to the cells the raw        
material needed for their continued     
renewal4 ,these cells are able to select
 from the nutritive fluid whatever they 
require to repair their waste1 and to   
provide for their renewed activity4 ,at 
the same time1 the blood1 as it bathes  
the tissues1 sweeps into its current and
 bears away the products of waste4      
,thus the waste occurs in the tissues   
and the means of repair are obtained    
from the blood4 ,the blood is thus      
continually being impoverished by having
 its nourishment drained away4 ,how1    
then1 is the efficiency of the blood    
maintained8 ,the answer is that while   
the ultimate purpose of the food is for 
the repair of the waste1 its immediate  
destination is the blood4#ai  #abi4     
,absorption of ,food by the ,blood4 ,how
 does the food pass from the cavity of  

the stomach and intestinal canal into   
the blood-vessels8 ,there are no visible
 openings which permit communication4   
,it is done by what in physics is known 
as endosmotic and exosmotic action4     
,that is1 whenever there are two        
solutions of different densities1       
separated only by an animal membrane1 an
 interchange will take place between    
them through the membrane4  ,to         
illustrate3 in the walls of the stomach 
and intestines there is a network of    
minute vessels filled with blood1--a    
liquid containing many substances in    
solution4 ,the stomach and intestinal   
canal also contain liquid food1 holding 
many substances in solution4 ,a         
membrane1 made up of the extremely thin 
walls of the blood-vessels and          
intestines1 separates the liquids4 ,an  
exchange takes place between the blood  
and the contents of the stomach and     
bowels1 by which the dissolved          
substances of food pass through the     
separating membranes into the blood4    

,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,cavities of
 the ,mouth1 ,pharynx1 etc4 7,section in
 the middle line designed to show the   
mouth in its relations to the nasal     
foss1 the pharynx1 and the larynx47     
,a1 sphenoidal sinus2   ,b1 internal    
orifice of ,eustachian tube2   ,c1 velum
 palati2   ,d1 anterior pillar of soft  
palate2   ,e1 posterior pillar of soft  
palate2   ,f1 tonsil2   ,h1 lingual     
portion of the pharynx2   ,k1 lower     
portion of the pharynx2   ,l1 larynx2   
,m1 section of hyoid bone2   ,n1        
epiglottis2   ,o1 palatine arch   ,this 
change1 by which food is made ready to  
pass into the blood1 constitutes        
food-digestion1 and the organs concerned
 in bringing about this change in the   
food are the digestive organs4  #acj4   
,the ,general ,plan of ,digestion4 ,it  
is evident that the digestive organs    
will be simple or complex1 according to 
the amount of change which is necessary 
to prepare the food to be taken up by   
the blood4 ,if the requisite change is  

slight1 the digestive organs will be    
few1 and their structure simple4 ,but if
 the food is varied and complex in      
composition1 the digestive apparatus    
will be complex4 ,this condition applies
 to the food and the digestion of man4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--;,diagram of 
the ,structure of ,secreting ,glands4   
,a1 simple tubular gland2   ,b1 gland   
with mouth shut and sac formed2   ,c1   
gland with a coiled tube2   ,d1 plan of 
part of a racemose gland   ,the         
digestive apparatus of the human body   
consists of the alimentary canal and    
tributary organs which1 although outside
 of this canal1 communicate with it by  
ducts4 ,the alimentary canal consists of
 the mouth1 the pharynx1 the sophagus1  
the stomach1 and the intestines4 ,other 
digestive organs which are tributary to 
this canal1 and discharge their         
secretions into it1 are the salivary    
glands1#bj the liver1 and the pancreas4 
,the digestive process is subdivided    
into three steps1 which take place in   

the mouth1 in the stomach1 and in the   
intestines4  #aca4 ,the ,mouth4 ,the    
mouth is the cavity formed by the lips1 
the cheeks1 the palate1 and the tongue4 
,its bony roof is made up of the upper  
jawbone on each side1 and the palate    
bones behind4 ,this is the hard palate1 
and forms only the front portion of the 
roof4 ,the continuation of the roof is  
called the soft palate1 and is made up  
of muscular tissue covered with mucous  
membrane4  ,the mouth continues behind  
into the throat1 the separation between 
the two being marked by fleshy pillars  
which arch up from the sides to form the
 soft palate4 ,in the middle of this    
arch there hangs from its free edge a   
little lobe called the uvula4 ,on each  
side where the pillars begin to arch is 
an almond-shaped body known as the      
tonsil4 ,when we take cold1 one or both 
of the tonsils may become inflamed1 and 
so swollen as to obstruct the passage   
into the throat4 ,the mouth is lined    
with mucous membrane1 which is          

continuous with that of the throat1     
sophagus1 stomach1 and intestines 7,fig4
 #ea74  #acb4 ,mastication1 or ,chewing4
 ,the first step of the process of      
digestion is mastication1 the cutting   
and grinding of the food by the teeth1  
effected by the vertical and lateral    
movements of the lower jaw4 ,while the  
food is thus being crushed1 it is moved 
to and fro by the varied movements of   
the tongue1 that every part of it may be
 acted upon by the teeth4 ,the advantage
 of this is obvious4 ,the more finely   
the food is divided1 the more easily    
will the digestive fluids reach every   
part of it1 and the more thoroughly and 
speedily will digestion ensue4  ,the act
 of chewing is simple and yet important1
 for if hurriedly or imperfectly done1  
the food is in a condition to cause     
disturbance in the digestive process4   
,thorough mastication is a necessary    
introduction to the more complicated    
changes which occur in the later        
digestion4  #acc4 ,the ,teeth4 ,the     

teeth are attached to the upper and     
lower maxillary bones by roots which    
sink into the sockets of the jaws4 ,each
 tooth consists of a crown1 the visible 
part1 and one or more fangs1 buried in  
the sockets4 ,there are in adults #cb   
teeth1 #af in each jaw4  ,teeth differ  
in name according to their form and the 
uses to which they are specially        
adapted4 ,thus1 at the front of the     
jaws1 the incisors1 or cutting teeth1   
number eight1 two on each side4 ,they   
have a single root and the crown is     
beveled behind1 presenting a chisel-like
 edge4 ,the incisors divide the food1   
and are well developed in rodents1 as   
squirrels1 rats1 and beavers4  ,next    
come the canine teeth1 or cuspids1 two  
in each jaw1 so called from their       
resemblance to the teeth of dogs and    
other flesh-eating animals4 ,these teeth
 have single roots1 but their crowns are
 more pointed than in the incisors4 ,the
 upper two are often called eye teeth1  
and the lower two1 stomach teeth4 ,next 

behind the canines follow1 on each side1
 two bicuspids4 ,their crowns are broad1
 and they have two roots4 ,the three    
hindmost teeth in each jaw are the      
molars1 or grinders4 ,these are broad   
teeth with four or five points on each1 
and usually each molar has three roots4 
,the last molars are known as the wisdom
 teeth1 as they do not usually appear   
until the person has reached the years  
of discretion4 ,all animals that live on
 grass1 hay1 corn1 and the cereals      
generally1 have large grinding teeth1 as
 the horse1 ox1 sheep1 and elephant4    
,the following table shows the teeth in 
their order3          ,mo4 ,bi4 ,ca4    
,in4     ,in4 ,ca4 ,bi4 ,mo4    ,upper  
#c   #b   #a   #b      #b   #a   #b   #c
   #af                                  
#cb   ,lower  #c   #b   #a   #b      #b 
#a   #b   #c   #af  ,the vertical line  
indicates the middle of the jaw1 and    
shows that on each side of each jaw     
there are eight teeth4  #acd4           
,development of the ,teeth4 ,the teeth  

just described are the permanent set1   
which succeeds the temporary or milk    
teeth4 ,the latter are twenty in number1
 ten in each jaw1 of which the four in  
the middle are incisors4 ,the tooth     
beyond on each side is an eye tooth1 and
 the next two on each side are          
bicuspids1 or premolars4  ,the milk     
teeth appear during the first and second
 years1 and last until about the sixth  
or seventh year1 from which time until  
the twelfth or thirteenth year1 they are
 gradually pushed out1 one by one1 by   
the permanent teeth4 ,the roots of the  
milk teeth are much smaller than those  
of the second set4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #dh4--,temporary and ,permanent ,teeth 
together4  ,temporary teeth3   ,a1      
central incisors2   ,b lateral incisors2
   ,c1 canines2   ,d1 anterior molars2  
,e1 posterior molars  ,permanent teeth3 
,f1 central incisors2   ,h1 lateral     
incisors2   ,k1 canines2   ,l1 first    
bicuspids2   ,m1 second biscuspids2     
,n1 first molars   ,the plan of a       

gradual succession of teeth is a        
beautiful provision of nature1          
permitting the jaws to increase in size1
 and preserving the relative position   
and regularity of the successive teeth4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,showing the 
,principal ,organs of the ,thorax and   
,abdomen in situ4 7,the principal       
muscles are seen on the left1 and       
superficial veins on the right47  #ace4 
,structure of the ,teeth4 ,if we should 
saw a tooth down through its center we  
would find in the interior a cavity4    
,this is the pulp cavity1 which is      
filled with the dental pulp1 a delicate 
substance richly supplied with nerves   
and blood-vessels1 which enter the tooth
 by small openings at the point of the  
root4 ,the teeth are thus nourished like
 other parts of the body4 ,the exposure 
of the delicate pulp to the air1 due to 
the decay of the dentine1 gives rise to 
the pain of toothache4  ,surrounding the
 cavity on all sides is the hard        
substance known as the dentine1 or tooth

 ivory4 ,outside the dentine of the root
 is a substance closely resembling bone1
 called cement4 ,in fact1 it is true    
bone1 but lacks the ,haversian canals4  
,the root is held in its socket by a    
dense fibrous membrane which surrounds  
the cement as the periosteum does bone4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,section of  
,face4 7,showing the parotid and        
submaxillary glands47  ,the crown of the
 tooth is not covered by cement1 but by 
the hard enamel1 which forms a strong   
protection for the exposed part4 ,when  
the teeth are first cut1 the surface of 
the enamel is coated with a delicate    
membrane which answers to the           
,scriptural phrase the skin of the      
teeth4 ,this is worn off in adult life4 
#acf4 ,insalivation4 ,the thorough      
mixture of the saliva with the food is  
called insalivation4 ,while the food is 
being chewed1 it is moistened with a    
fluid called saliva1 which flows into   
the mouth from six little glands4 ,there
 are on each side of the mouth three    

salivary glands1 which secrete the      
saliva from the blood4 ,the parotid is  
situated on the side of the face in     
front of the ear4 ,the disease1 common  
in childhood1 during which this gland   
becomes inflamed and swollen1 is known  
as the mumps4 ,the submaxillary gland is
 placed below and to the inner side of  
the lower jaw1 and the sublingual is on 
the floor of the mouth1 between the     
tongue and the gums4 ,each gland opens  
into the mouth by a little duct4 ,these 
glands somewhat resemble a bunch of     
grapes with a tube for a stalk4  ,the   
saliva is a colorless liquid without    
taste or smell4 ,its principal element1 
besides water1 is a ferment called      
ptyalin1 which has the remarkable       
property of being able to change starch 
into a form of cane-sugar1 known as     
maltose4  ,thus1 while the food is being
 chewed1 another process is going on by 
which starch is changed into sugar4 ,the
 saliva also moistens the food into a   
mass for swallowing1 and aids in speech 

by keeping the mouth moist4  ,the       
activity of the salivary glands is      
largely regulated by their abundant     
supply of nerves4 ,thus1 the saliva     
flows into the mouth1 even at the sight1
 smell1 or thought of food4 ,this is    
popularly known as making the mouth     
water4 ,the flow of saliva may be       
checked by nervous influences1 as sudden
 terror and undue anxiety4              
,experiment #ef4 ,to show the action of 
saliva on starch4 ,saliva for           
experiment may be obtained by chewing a 
piece of ,india rubber and   collecting 
the saliva in a test tube4 ,observe that
 it is colorless and   either           
transparent or translucent1 and when    
poured from one vessel to   another is  
glairy and more or less adhesive4 ,its  
reaction is alkaline to   litmus paper4 
,experiment #eg4 ,make a thin paste from
 pure starch or arrowroot4   ,dilute a  
little of the saliva with five volumes  
of water1 and filter it4   ,this is best
 done through a filter perforated at its

 apex by a pin-hole4   ,in this way all 
air-bubbles are avoided4 ,label three   
test tubes ,a1 ,b1   and ,c4 ,in ,a1    
place starch paste2 in ,b1 saliva2 and  
in ,c one   volume of saliva and three  
volumes of starch paste4 ,place them for
 ten   minutes in a water bath at about 
#ajd ,fahrenheit4    ,test portions of  
all three for a reducing sugar1 by means
 of ,fehling's   solution or tablets4#ba
 ,a and ,b give no evidence of sugar1   
while   ,c reduces the ,fehling1 giving 
a yellow or red deposit of cuprous      
oxide4 ,therefore1 starch is converted  
into a reducing sugar by the   saliva4  
,this is done by the ferment ptyalin    
contained in saliva4  #acg4 ,the        
,pharynx and sophagus4 ,the dilated     
upper part of the alimentary canal is   
called the pharynx4 ,it forms a blind   
sac above the level of the mouth4 ,the  
mouth opens directly into the pharynx1  
and just above it are two openings      
leading into the posterior passages of  
the nose4 ,there are also little        

openings1 one on each side1 from which  
begin the ,eustachian tubes1 which lead 
upward to the ear cavities4  ,the       
windpipe opens downward from the        
pharynx1 but this communication can be  
shut off by a little plate or lid of    
cartilage1 the epiglottis4 ,during the  
act of swallowing1 this closes down over
 the entrance to the windpipe1 like a   
lid1 and prevents the food from passing 
into the air-passages4 ,this tiny       
trap-door can be seen1 by the aid of a  
mirror1 if we open the mouth wide and   
press down the back of the tongue with  
the handle of a spoon 7,figs4 #df1 #hd1 
and #he74  ,thus1 there are six openings
 from the pharynx2 the sophagus being   
the direct continuation from it to the  
stomach4 ,if we open the mouth before a 
mirror we see through the fauces the    
rear wall of the pharynx4 ,in its lining
 membrane is a large number of glands1  
the secretion from which during a severe
 cold may be quite troublesome4  ,the   
sophagus1 or gullet1 is a tube about    

nine inches long1 reaching from the     
throat to the stomach4 ,it lies behind  
the windpipe1 pierces the diaphragm     
between the chest and abdomen1 and opens
 into the stomach4 ,it has in its walls 
muscular fibers1 which1 by their        
worm-like contractions1 grasp the       
successive masses of food swallowed1 and
 pass them along downwards into the     
stomach4  #ach4 ,deglutition1 or        
,swallowing4 ,the food1 having been well
 chewed and mixed with saliva1 is now   
ready to be swallowed as a soft1 pasty  
mass4 ,the tongue gathers it up and     
forces it backwards between the pillars 
of the fauces into the pharynx4  ,if we 
place the fingers on the ,adam's apple1 
and then pretend to swallow something1  
we can feel the upper part of the       
windpipe and the closing of its lid     
7epiglottis71 so as to cover the        
entrance and prevent the passage of food
 into the trachea4  ,there is only one  
pathway for the food to travel1 and that
 is down the sophagus4 ,the slow descent

 of the food may be seen if a horse or  
dog be watched while swallowing4 ,even  
liquids do not fall or flow down the    
food passage4 ,hence1 acrobats can drink
 while standing on their heads1 or a    
horse with its mouth below the level of 
the sophagus4 ,the food is under the    
control of the will until it has entered
 the pharynx2 all the later movements   
are involuntary4  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#ea4--;,a ,view into the ,back ,part of 
the ,adult ,mouth4 7,the head is        
represented as having been thrown back1 
and the tongue drawn forward47    ,a1   
,b1 incisors2   ,c1 canine2   ,d1 ,e1   
bicuspids2   ,f1 ,h1 ,k1 molars2   ,m1  
anterior pillar of the fauces2   ,n1    
tonsil2   ,l1 uvula2   ,o1 upper part of
 the pharynx2   ,p1 tongue drawn        
forward2   ,r1 linear ridge1 or raph4   
#aci4 ,the ,stomach4 ,the stomach is the
 most dilated portion of the alimentary 
canal and the principal organ of        
digestion4 ,its form is not easily      
described4 ,it has been compared to a   

bagpipe1 which it resembles somewhat1   
when moderately distended4 ,when empty  
it is flattened1 and in some parts its  
opposite walls are in contact4  ,we may 
describe the stomach as a pear-shaped   
bag1 with the large end to the left and 
the small end to the right4 ,it lies    
chiefly on the left side of the abdomen1
 under the diaphragm1 and protected by  
the lower ribs4 ,the fact that the large
 end of the stomach lies just beneath   
the diaphragm and the heart1 and is     
sometimes greatly distended on account  
of indigestion or gas1 may cause        
feelings of heaviness in the chest or   
palpitation of the heart4 ,the stomach  
is subject to greater variations in size
 than any other organ of the body1      
depending on its contents4 ,just after a
 moderate meal it averages about twelve 
inches in length and four in diameter1  
with a capacity of about four pints4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,the         
,stomach4 ,a1 cardiac end2 ,b1 pyloric  
end1 ,c1 lesser curvature1 ,d1 greater  

curvature  ,the orifice by which the    
food enters is called the cardiac       
opening1 because it is near the heart4  
,the other opening1 by which the food   
leaves the stomach1 and where the small 
intestine begins1 is the pyloric        
orifice1 and is guarded by a kind of    
valve1 known as the pylorus1 or         
gatekeeper4 ,the concave border between 
the two orifices is called the small    
curvature1 and the convex as the great  
curvature1 of the stomach4  #adj4 ,coats
 of ,stomach4 ,the walls of the stomach 
are formed by four coats1 known         
successively from without as serous1    
muscular1 sub-mucous1 and mucous4 ,the  
outer coat is the serous membrane which 
lines the abdomen1--the peritoneum      
7note1 p4 #ace74 ,the second coat is    
muscular1 having three sets of          
involuntary muscular fibers4 ,the outer 
set runs lengthwise from the cardiac    
orifice to the pylorus4 ,the middle set 
encircles all parts of the stomach1     
while the inner set consists of oblique 

fibers4 ,the third coat is the          
sub-mucous1 made up of loose connective 
tissues1 and binds the mucous to the    
muscular coat4 ,lastly there is the     
mucous coat1 a moist1 pink1 inelastic   
membrane1 which completely lines the    
stomach4 ,when the stomach is not       
distended1 the mucous layer is thrown   
into folds presenting a corrugated      
appearance4  ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#ec4--,pits in the ,mucous ,membrane of 
the ,stomach1 and ,openings of the      
,gastric ,glands4 7,magnified #bj       
diameters47  #ada4 ,the ,gastric        
,glands4 ,if we were to examine with a  
hand lens the inner surface of the      
stomach1 we would find it covered with  
little pits1 or depressions1 at the     
bottom of which would be seen dark dots4
 ,these dots are the openings of the    
gastric glands4 ,in the form of fine1   
wavy tubes1 the gastric glands are      
buried in the mucous membrane1 their    
mouths opening on the surface4 ,when the
 stomach is empty the mucous membrane is

 pale1 but when food enters1 it at once 
takes on a rosy tint4 ,this is due to   
the influx of blood from the large      
number of very minute blood-vessels     
which are in the tissue between the rows
 of glands4  ,the cells of the gastric  
glands are thrown into a state of       
greater activity by the increased       
quantity of blood supply4 ,as a result1 
soon after food enters the stomach1     
drops of fluid collect at the mouths of 
the glands and trickle down its walls to
 mix with the food4 ,thus these glands  
produce a large quantity of gastric     
juice1 to aid in the digestion of food4 
#adb4 ,digestion in the ,stomach4 ,when 
the food1 thoroughly mixed with saliva1 
reaches the stomach1 the cardiac end of 
that organ is closed as well as the     
pyloric valve1 and the muscular walls   
contract on the contents4 ,a spiral wave
 of motion begins1 becoming more rapid  
as digestion goes on4 ,every particle of
 food is thus constantly churned about  
in the stomach and thoroughly mixed with

 the gastric juice4 ,the action of the  
juice is aided by the heat of the parts1
 a temperature of about #ii ,fahrenheit4
  ,the gastric juice is a thin almost   
colorless fluid with a sour taste and   
odor4 ,the reaction is distinctly acid1 
normally due to free hydrochloric acid4 
,its chief constituents are two ferments
 called pepsin and rennin1 free         
hydrochloric acid1 mineral salts1 and   
#ie per cent of water4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ed4--;,a highly magnified view of
 a peptic or gastric gland1 which is    
represented as giving off branches4 ,it 
shows the columnar epithelium of the    
surface dipping down into the duct ,d of
 the gland1 from which two tubes branch 
off4 ,each tube is lined with columnar  
epithelial cells1 and there is a minute 
central passage with the neck at ,n4    
,here and there are seen other special  
cells called parietal cells1 ,p1 which  
are supposed to produce the acid of the 
gastric juice4 ,the principal cells are 
represented at ,c4  ,pepsin the         

important constituent of the gastric    
juice1 has the power1 in the presence of
 an acid1 of dissolving the proteid     
food-stuffs4 ,some of which is converted
 into what are called peptones1 both    
soluble and capable of filtering through
 membranes4 ,the gastric juice has no   
action on starchy foods1 neither does it
 act on fats1 except to dissolve the    
albuminous walls of the fat cells4 ,the 
fat itself is thus set free in the form 
of minute globules4 ,the whole contents 
of the stomach now assume the appearance
 and the consistency of a thick soup1   
usually of a grayish color1 known as    
chyme4  ,it is well known that rennet   
prepared from the calf's stomach has a  
remarkable effect in rapidly curdling   
milk1 and this property is utilized in  
the manufacture of cheese4 ,now1 a      
similar ferment is abundant in the      
gastric juice1 and may be called rennin4
 ,it causes milk to clot1 and does this 
by so acting on the casein as to make   
the milk set into a jelly4 ,mothers are 

sometimes frightened when their         
children1 seemingly in perfect health1  
vomit masses of curdled milk4 ,this     
curdling of the milk is1 however1 a     
normal process1 and the only noteworthy 
thing is its rejection1 usually due to  
overfeeding4    ,experiment #eh4 ,to    
show that pepsin and acid are necessary 
for   gastric digestion4 ,take three    
beakers1 or large test tubes2 label them
   ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,put into ,a water and a 
few grains of powdered pepsin4   ,fill  
,b two-thirds full of dilute            
hydrochloric acid 7one teaspoonful to   
a pint71 and fill ,c two-thirds full of 
hydrochloric acid and a few   grains of 
pepsin4 ,put into each a small quantity 
of well-washed fibrin1   and place them 
all in a water bath at #ajd ,fahrenheit 
for half an hour4    ,examine them4 ,in 
,a1 the fibrin is unchanged2 in ,b1 the 
fibrin is   clear and swollen up2 in ,c1
 it has disappeared1 having first become
   swollen and clear1 and completely    
dissolved1 being finally converted      

into peptones4 ,therefore1 both acid and
 ferment are required for gastric       
digestion4    ,experiment #ei4 ,half    
fill with dilute hydrochloric acid three
 large   test tubes1 labelled ,a1 ,b1   
,c4 ,add to each a few grains of pepsin4
   ,boil ,b1 and make ,c faintly        
alkaline with sodic carbonate4 ,the     
alkalinity may be noted by adding       
previously some neutral litmus          
solution4 ,add to each an equal         
amount--a few threads--of well-washed   
fibrin which has been previously steeped
 for some time in dilute   hydrochloric 
acid1 so that it is swollen and         
transparent4 ,keep the tubes   in a     
water-bath at about #ajd ,fahrenheit for
 an hour and examine them at   intervals
 of twenty minutes4    ,after five to   
ten minutes the fibrin in ,a is         
dissolved and the fluid   begins to be  
turbid4 ,in ,b and ,c there is no       
change4 ,even after long   exposure to  
#ajj ,fahrenheit there is no change in  
,b and ,c4    ,after a variable time1   

from one to four hours1 the contents of 
the   stomach1 which are now called     
chyme1 begin to move on in successive   
portions into the next part of the      
intestinal canal4 ,the ring-like        
muscles of the pylorus relax at         
intervals to allow the muscles of the   
stomach to force the partly digested    
mass into the small intestines4   ,this 
action is frequently repeated1 until    
even the indigestible masses   which the
 gastric juice cannot break down are    
crowded out of the stomach   into the   
intestines4 ,from three to four hours   
after a meal the stomach   is again     
quite emptied4  ,a certain amount of    
this semi-liquid mass1 especially the   
peptones1 with any saccharine fluids1   
resulting from the partial conversion of
 starch or otherwise1 is at once        
absorbed1 making its way through the    
delicate vessels of the stomach into the
 blood current1 which is flowing through
 the gastric veins to the portal vein of
 the liver4  ,illustration3 ,fig4       

#ee4--;,a ,small ,portion of the ,mucous
 ,membrane of the ,small ,intestine4    
7,villi are seen surrounded with the    
openings of the tubular glands47        
,magnified #bj diameters4  #adc4 ,the   
,small ,intestine4 ,at the pyloric end  
of the stomach the alimentary canal     
becomes again a slender tube called the 
small intestine4 ,this is about twenty  
feet long and one inch in diameter1 and 
is divided1 for the convenience of      
description1 into three parts4  ,the    
first #ab inches is called the duodenum4
 ,into this portion opens the bile duct 
from the liver with the duct from the   
pancreas1 these having been first united
 and then entering the intestine as a   
common duct4  ,the next portion of the  
intestine is called the jejunum1 because
 it is usually empty after death4  ,the 
remaining portion is named the ileum1   
because of the many folds into which it 
is thrown4 ,it is the longest part of   
the small intestine1 and terminates in  
the right iliac region1 opening into the

 large intestine4 ,this opening is      
guarded by the folds of the membrane    
forming the ileo-ccal valve1 which      
permits the passage of material from the
 small to the large intestine1 but      
prevents its backward movement4  #add4  
,the ,coats of the ,small ,intestine4   
,like the stomach1 the small intestine  
has four coats1 the serous1 muscular1   
sub-mucous1 and mucous4 ,the serous is  
the peritoneum4#bb ,the muscular        
consists of an outer layer of           
longitudinal1 and an inner layer of     
circular fibers1 by contraction of which
 the food is forced along the bowel4    
,the sub-mucous coat is made up of a    
loose layer of tissue in which the      
blood-vessels and nerves are            
distributed4 ,the inner1 or mucous1     
surface has a fine1 velvety feeling1 due
 to a countless number of tiny1         
thread-like projections1 called villi4  
,they stand up somewhat like the pile of
 velvet4 ,it is through these villi that
 the digested food passes into the      

blood4  ,illustration3 ,fig4            
#ef4--,sectional ,view of ,intestinal   
,villi4 7,black dots represent the      
glandular openings47  ,the inner coat of
 a large part of the small intestine is 
thrown into numerous transverse folds   
called valvul conniventes4 ,these seem  
to serve two purposes1 to increase the  
extent of the surface of the bowels and 
to delay mechanically the progress of   
the intestinal contents4 ,buried in the 
mucous layer throughout the length1 both
 of the small and large intestines1 are 
other glands which secrete intestinal   
fluids4 ,thus1 in the lower part of the 
ileum there are numerous glands in oval 
patches known as ,peyer's patches4      
,these are very prone to become inflamed
 and to ulcerate during the course of   
typhoid fever4  #ade4 ,the ,large       
,intestine4 ,the large intestine begins 
in the right iliac region and is about  
five or six feet long4 ,it is much      
larger than the small intestine1 joining
 it obliquely at short distance from its

 end4 ,a blind pouch1 or dilated pocket 
is thus formed at the place of junction1
 called the ccum4 ,a valvular           
arrangement called the ileo-ccal valve1 
which is provided with a button-hole    
slit1 forms a kind of movable partition 
between this part of the large intestine
 and the small intestine4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,tubular     
,glands of the ,small ,intestines4  ,a1 
,b1 tubular glands seen in vertical     
section with their orifices at ,c1      
opening upon the membrane between the   
villi1 ,d1 villus 7,magnified #dj       
diameters7  ,attached to the ccum is a  
worm-shaped tube1 about the size of a   
lead pencil1 and from three to four     
inches long1 called the vermiform       
appendix4 ,its use is unknown4 ,this    
tube is of great surgical importance1   
from the fact that it is subject to     
severe inflammation1 often resulting in 
an internal abscess1 which is always    
dangerous and may prove fatal4          
,inflammation of the appendix is known  

as appendicitis1--a name quite familiar 
on account of the many surgical         
operations performed of late years for  
its relief4  ,the large intestine passes
 upwards on the right side as the       
ascending colon1 until the under side of
 the liver is reached1 where it passes  
to the left side1 as the transverse     
colon1 below the stomach4 ,it there     
turns downward1 as the descending colon1
 and making an ,s-shaped curve1 ends in 
the rectum4 ,thus the large intestine   
encircles1 in the form of a horseshoe1  
the convoluted mass of small intestines4
  ,like the small intestine1 the large  
has four coats4 ,the mucous coat1       
however1 has no folds1 or villi1 but    
numerous closely set glands1 like some  
of those of the small intestine4 ,the   
longitudinal muscular fibers of the     
large intestine are arranged in three   
bands1 or bundles1 which1 being shorter 
than the canal itself1 produce a series 
of bulgings or pouches in its walls4    
,this sacculation of the large bowel is 

supposed to be designed for delaying the
 onward flow of its contents1 thus      
allowing more time for the absorption of
 the liquid material4 ,the blood-vessels
 and nerves of this part of the         
digestive canal are very numerous1 and  
are derived from the same sources as    
those of the small intestine4  #adf4    
,the ,liver4 ,the liver is a part of the
 digestive apparatus1 since it forms the
 bile1 one of the digestive fluids4 ,it 
is a large reddish-brown organ1 situated
 just below the diaphragm1 and on the   
right side4 ,the liver is the largest   
gland in the body1 and weighs from #ej  
to #fj ounces4 ,it consists of two      
lobes1 the right and the left1 the right
 being much the larger4 ,the upper1     
convex surface of the liver is very     
smooth and even2 but the under surface  
is irregular1 broken by the entrance and
 exit of the various vessels which      
belong to the organ4 ,it is held in its 
place by five ligaments1 four of which  
are formed by double folds of the       

peritoneum4  ,the thin front edge of the
 liver reaches just below the bony edge 
of the ribs2 but the dome-shaped        
diaphragm rises slightly in a horizontal
 position1 and the liver passes up and  
is almost wholly covered by the ribs4   
,in tight lacing1 the liver is often    
forced downward out from the cover of   
the ribs1 and thus becomes permanently  
displaced4 ,as a result1 other organs in
 the abdomen and pelvis are crowded     
together1 and also become displaced4    
#adg4 ,minute ,structure of the ,liver4 
,when a small piece of the liver is     
examined under a microscope it is found 
to be made up of masses of many-sided   
cells1 each about #a_/ajjj of an inch in
 diameter4 ,each group of cells is      
called a lobule4 ,when a single lobule  
is examined under the microscope it     
appears to be of an irregular1 circular 
shape1 with its cells arranged in rows1 
radiating from the center to the        
circumference4 ,minute1 hair-like       
channels separate the cells one from    

another1 and unite in one main duct     
leading from the lobule4 ,it is the     
lobules which give to the liver its     
coarse1 granular appearance1 when torn  
across4  ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#eh4--;,diagrammatic ,section of a      
,villus    ,a1 layer of columnar        
epithelium covering the villus2   ,b1   
central lacteal of villus2   ,c1        
unstriped muscular fibers2   ,d1 goblet 
cell   ,now there is a large vessel     
called the portal vein that brings to   
the liver blood full of nourishing      
material obtained from the stomach and  
intestines4 ,on entering the liver this 
great vein conducts itself as if it were
 an artery4 ,it divides and subdivides  
into smaller and smaller branches1      
until1 in the form of the tiniest       
vessels1 called capillaries1 it passes  
inward among the cells to the very      
center of the hepatic lobules4  #adh4   
,the ,bile4 ,we have in the liver1 on a 
grand scale1 exactly the same conditions
 as obtain in the smaller and simpler   

glands4 ,the thin-walled liver cells    
take from the blood certain materials   
which they elaborate into an important  
digestive fluid1 called the bile4#bc    
,this newly manufactured fluid is       
carried away in little canals1 called   
bile ducts4 ,these minute ducts         
gradually unite and form at last one    
main duct1 which carries the bile from  
the liver4 ,this is known as the hepatic
 duct4 ,it passes out on the under side 
of the liver1 and as it approaches the  
intestine1 it meets at an acute angle   
the cystic duct which proceeds from the 
gall bladder and forms with it the      
common bile duct4 ,the common duct opens
 obliquely into the horseshoe bend of   
the duodenum4  ,the cystic duct leads   
back to the under surface of the liver1 
where it expands into a sac capable of  
holding about two ounces of fluid1 and  
is known as the gall bladder4 ,thus the 
bile1 prepared in the depths of the     
liver by the liver cells1 is carried    
away by the bile ducts1 and may pass    

directly into the intestines to mix with
 the food4 ,if1 however1 digestion is   
not going on1 the mouth of the bile duct
 is closed1 and in that case the bile is
 carried by the cystic duct to the gall 
bladder4 ,here it remains until such    
time as it is needed4  #adi4 ,blood     
,supply of the ,liver4 ,we must not     
forget that the liver itself1 being a   
large and important organ1 requires     
constant nourishment for the work       
assigned to it4 ,the blood which is     
brought to it by the portal vein1 being 
venous1 is not fit to nourish it4 ,the  
work is done by the arterial blood      
brought to it by a great branch direct  
from the aorta1 known as the hepatic    
artery1 minute branches of which in the 
form of capillaries1 spread themselves  
around the hepatic lobules4  ,the blood1
 having done its work and now laden with
 impurities1 is picked up by minute     
veinlets1 which unite again and again   
till they at last form one great trunk  
called the hepatic vein4 ,this carries  

the impure blood from the liver1 and    
finally empties it into one of the large
 veins of the body4  ,after the blood   
has been robbed of its bile-making      
materials1 it is collected by the       
veinlets that surround the lobules1 and 
finds its way with other venous blood   
into the hepatic vein4 ,in brief1 blood 
is brought to the liver and distributed 
through its substance by two distinct   
channels1--the portal vein and the      
hepatic artery1 but it leaves the liver 
by one distinct channel1--the hepatic   
vein4  ,illustration3 ,fig4             
#ei--,showing the ,relations of the     
,duodenum and ,other ,intestinal        
,organs4 7,a portion of the stomach has 
been cut away47  #aej4 ,functions of the
 ,liver4 ,we have thus far studied the  
liver only as an organ of secretion1    
whose work is to elaborate bile for     
future use in the process of digestion4 
,this is1 however1 only one of its      
functions1 and perhaps not the most     
important4 ,in fact1 the functions of   

the liver are not single1 but several4  
,the bile is not wholly a digestive     
fluid1 but it contains1 also1 materials 
which are separated from the blood to be
 cast out of the body before they work  
mischief4 ,thus1 the liver ranks above  
all others as an organ of excretion1    
that is1 it separates material of no    
further use to the body4  ,of the       
various ingredients of the bile1 only   
the bile salts are of use in the work of
 digestion1 for they act upon the fats  
in the alimentary canal1 and aid somehow
 in their emulsion and absorption4 ,they
 appear to be themselves split up into  
other substances1 and absorbed with the 
dissolved fats into the blood stream    
again4  ,the third function of the liver
 is very different from those already   
described4 ,it is found that the liver  
of an animal well and regularly fed1    
when examined soon after death1 contains
 a quantity of a carbohydrate substance 
not unlike starch4 ,this substance1     
extracted in the form of a white powder1

 is really an animal starch4 ,it is     
called glycogen1 or liver sugar1 and is 
easily converted into grape sugar4  ,the
 hepatic cells appear to manufacture    
this glycogen and to store it up from   
the food brought by the portal blood4   
,it is also thought the glycogen thus   
deposited and stored up in the liver is 
little by little changed into sugar4    
,then1 as it is wanted1 the liver       
disposes of this stored-up material1 by 
pouring it1 in a state of solution1 into
 the hepatic vein4 ,it is thus steadily 
carried to the tissues1 as their needs  
demand1 to supply them with material to 
be transformed into heat and energy4    
#aea4 ,the ,pancreas4 ,the pancreas1 or 
sweetbread1 is much smaller than the    
liver4 ,it is a tongue-like mass from   
six to eight inches long1 weighing from 
three to four ounces1 and is often      
compared in appearance to a dog's       
tongue4 ,it is somewhat the shape of a  
hammer with the handle running to a     
point4  ,the pancreas lies behind the   

stomach1 across the body1 from right to 
left1 with its large head embraced in   
the horseshoe bend of the duodenum4 ,it 
closely resembles the salivary glands in
 structure1 with its main duct running  
from one end to the other4 ,this duct at
 last enters the duodenum in company    
with the common bile duct4  ,the        
pancreatic juice1 the most powerful in  
the body1 is clear1 somewhat viscid1    
fluid4 ,it has a decided alkaline       
reaction and is not unlike saliva in    
many respects4 ,combined with the bile1 
this juice acts upon the large drops of 
fat which pass from the stomach into the
 duodenum and emulsifies them4 ,this    
process consists partly in producing a  
fine subdivision of the particles of    
fat1 called an emulsion1 and partly in a
 chemical decomposition by which a kind 
of soap is formed4 ,in this way the oils
 and fats are divided into particles    
sufficiently minute to permit of their  
being absorbed into the blood4  ,again1 
this most important digestive fluid     

produces on starch an action similar to 
that of saliva1 but much more powerful4 
,during its short stay in the mouth1    
very little starch is changed into      
sugar1 and in the stomach1 as we have   
seen1 the action of the saliva is       
arrested4 ,now1 the pancreatic juice    
takes up the work in the small intestine
 and changes the greater part of the    
starch into sugar4 ,nor is this all1 for
 it also acts powerfully upon the       
proteids not acted upon in the stomach1 
and changes them into peptones that do  
not differ materially from those        
resulting from gastric digestion4 ,the  
remarkable power which the pancreatic   
juice possesses of acting on all the    
food-stuffs appears to be due mainly to 
the presence of a specific element or   
ferment1 known as trypsin4              
,experiment #fj4 ,to show the action of 
pancreatic juice upon oils or   fats4   
,put two grains of ,fairchild's extract 
of pancreas into a   four-ounce bottle4 
,add half a teaspoonful of warm water1  

and shake well   for a few minutes2 then
 add a tablespoonful of cod liver oil2  
shake   vigorously4    ,a creamy1 opaque
 mixture of the oil and water1 called an
 emulsion1 will   result4 ,this will    
gradually separate upon standing1 the   
pancreatic   extract settling in the    
water at the bottom4 ,when shaken it    
will again   form an emulsion4          
,experiment #fa4 ,to show the action of 
pancreatic juice on starch4   ,put two  
tablespoonfuls of smooth starch paste   
into a goblet1 and while   still so warm
 as just to be borne by the mouth1 stir 
into it two grains   of the extract of  
pancreas4 ,the starch paste will rapidly
 become   thinner1 and gradually change 
into soluble starch1 in a perfectly     
fluid   solution4 ,within a few minutes 
some of the starch is converted through 
intermediary stages into maltose4 ,use  
the ,fehling test for sugar4  #aeb4     
,digestion in the ,small ,intestines4   
,after digestion in the stomach has been
 going on for some time1 successive     

portions of the semi-digested food begin
 to pass into the duodenum4 ,the        
pancreas now takes on new activity1 and 
a copious flow of pancreatic juice is   
poured along its duct into the          
intestines4 ,as the food is pushed along
 over the common opening of the bile and
 pancreatic ducts1 a great quantity of  
bile from this reservoir1 the gall      
bladder1 is poured into the intestines4 
,these two digestive fluids are now     
mixed with the chyme1 and act upon it in
 the remarkable manner just described4  
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#fj4--;,diagrammatic ,scheme of         
,intestinal ,absorption4    ,a1         
mesentery2   ,b1 lacteals and mesentery 
glands2   ,c1 veins of intestines2      
,r4,c1 receptacle of the chyle          
7receptaculum chyli72   ,p ,v1 portal   
vein2   ,h ,v1 hepatic veins2           
,s4,v4,c1 superior vena cava2   ,r4,a1  
right auricle of the heart2   ,i4,v4,c1 
inferior vena cava4   ,the inner surface
 of the small intestine also secretes a 

liquid called intestinal juice1 the     
precise functions of which are not      
known4 ,the chyme1 thus acted upon by   
the different digestive fluids1         
resembles a thick cream1 and is now     
called chyle4 ,the chyle is propelled   
along the intestine by the worm-like    
contractions of its muscular walls4 ,a  
function of the bile1 not yet mentioned1
 is to stimulate these movements1 and at
 the same time by its antiseptic        
properties to prevent putrefaction of   
the contents of the intestine4  #aec4   
,digestion in the ,large ,intestines4   
,digestion does not occur to any great  
extent in the large intestines4 ,the    
food enters this portion of the         
digestive canal through the ileo-ccal   
valve1 and travels through it slowly4   
,time is thus given for the fluid       
materials to be taken up by the         
blood-vessels of the mucous membrane4   
,the remains of the food now become less
 fluid1 and consist of undigested matter
 which has escaped the action of the    

several digestive juices1 or withstood  
their influence4 ,driven onward by the  
contractions of the muscular walls1 the 
refuse materials at last reach the      
rectum1 from which they are voluntarily 
expelled from the body4    ,absorption4 
#aed4 ,absorption4 ,while food remains  
within the alimentary canal it is as    
much outside of the body1 so far as     
nutrition is concerned1 as if it had    
never been taken inside4 ,to be of any  
service the food must enter the blood2  
it must be absorbed4 ,the efficient     
agents in absorption are the            
blood-vessels1 the lacteals1 and the    
lymphatics4 ,the process through which  
the nutritious material is fitted to    
enter the blood1 is called absorption4  
,it is a process not confined1 as we    
shall see1 simply to the alimentary     
canal1 but one that is going on in every
 tissue4  ,the vessels by which the     
process of absorption is carried on are 
called absorbents4 ,the story1 briefly  
told1 is this3 certain food materials   

that have been prepared to enter the    
blood1 filter through the mucous        
membrane of the intestinal canal1 and   
also the thin walls of minute           
blood-vessels and lymphatics1 and are   
carried by these to larger vessels1 and 
at last reach the heart1 thence to be   
distributed to the tissues4  #aee4      
,absorption from the ,mouth and         
,stomach4 ,the lining of the mouth and  
sophagus is not well adapted for        
absorption4 ,that this does occur is    
shown by the fact that certain poisonous
 chemicals1 like cyanide of potash1 if  
kept in the mouth for a few moments will
 cause death4 ,while we are chewing and 
swallowing our food1 no doubt a certain 
amount of water and common salt1        
together with sugar which has been      
changed from starch by the action of the
 saliva1 gains entrance to the blood4   
,in the stomach1 however1 absorption    
takes place with great activity4 ,the   
semi-liquid food is separated from the  
enormous supply of blood-vessels in the 

mucous membrane only by a thin porous   
partition4 ,there is1 therefore1 nothing
 to prevent the exchange taking place   
between the blood and the food4 ,water1 
along with any substances in the food   
that have become dissolved1 will pass   
through the partition and enter the     
blood-current4 ,thus it is that a       
certain amount of starch that has been  
changed into sugar1 of salts in         
solution1 of proteids converted into    
peptones1 is taken up directly by the   
blood-vessels of the stomach4  #aef4    
,absorption by the ,intestines4         
,absorption by the intestines is a most 
active and complicated process4 ,the    
stomach is really an organ more for the 
digestion than the absorption of food1  
while the small intestines are          
especially constructed for absorption4  
,in fact1 the greatest part of          
absorption is accomplished by the small 
intestines4 ,they have not only a very  
large area of absorbing surface1 but    
also structures especially adapted to do

 this work4  #aeg4 ,the ,lacteals4 ,we  
have learned in ,section #add that the  
mucous lining of the small intestines is
 crowded with millions of little        
appendages called villi1 meaning tufts  
of hair4 ,these are only about #a_/cj of
 an inch long1 and a dime will cover    
more than five hundred of them4 ,each   
villus contains a loop of blood-vessels1
 and another vessel1 the lacteal1 so    
called from the ,latin word lac1 milk1  
because of the milky appearance of the  
fluid it contains4 ,the villi are       
adapted especially for the absorption of
 fat4 ,they dip like the tiniest fingers
 into the chyle1 and the minute         
particles of fat pass through their     
cellular covering and gain entrance to  
the lacteals4 ,the milky material sucked
 up by the lacteals is not in a proper  
condition to be poured at once into the 
blood current4 ,it is1 as it were1 in   
too crude a state1 and needs some       
special preparation4  ,the intestines   
are suspended to the posterior wall of  

the abdomen by a double fold of         
peritoneum called the mesentery4 ,in    
this membrane are some #aej glands about
 the size of an almond1 called          
mesenteric glands4 ,now the lacteals    
join these glands and pour in their     
fluid contents to undergo some important
 changes4 ,it is not unlikely that the  
mesenteric glands may intercept1 like a 
filter1 material which1 if allowed to   
enter the blood1 would disturb the whole
 body4 ,thus1 while the glands might    
suffer1 the rest of the body might      
escape4 ,this may account for the fact  
that these glands and the lymphatics may
 be easily irritated and inflamed1 thus 
becoming enlarged and sensitive1 as     
often occurs in the axilla4  ,having    
been acted upon by the mesenteric       
glands1 and passed through them1 the    
chyle flows onward until it is poured   
into a dilated reservoir for the chyle1 
known as the receptaculum chyli4 ,this  
is a sac-like expansion of the lower end
 of the thoracic duct4 ,into this       

receptacle1 situated at the level of the
 upper lumbar vertebr1 in front of the  
spinal column1 are poured1 not only the 
contents of the lacteals1 but also of   
the lymphatic vessels of the lower      
limbs4  #aeh4 ,the ,thoracic ,duct4     
,this duct is a tube from fifteen to    
eighteen inches long1 which passes      
upwards in front of the spine to reach  
the base of the neck1 where it opens at 
the junction of the great veins of the  
left side of the head with those of the 
left arm4 ,thus the thoracic duct acts  
as a kind of feeding pipe to carry along
 the nutritive material obtained from   
the food and to pour it into the blood  
current4 ,it is to be remembered that   
the lacteals are in reality             
lymphatics--the lymphatics of the       
intestines4  ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#fa4--,section of a ,lymphatic ,gland4  
,a1 strong fibrous capsule sending      
partitions into the gland2   ,b1        
partitions between the follicles or     
pouches of the cortical or      outer   

portion2   ,c1 partitions of the        
medullary or central portion2   ,d1 ,e1 
masses of protoplasmic matter in the    
pouches of the gland2   ,f1             
lymph-vessels which bring lymph to the  
gland1 passing into its      center2    
,g1 confluence of those leading to the  
efferent vessel2   ,h1 vessel which     
carries the lymph away from the gland4  
#aei4 ,the ,lymphatics4 ,in nearly every
 tissue and organ of the body there is a
 marvelous network of vessels1 precisely
 like the lacteals1 called the          
lymphatics4 ,these are busily at work   
taking up and making over anew waste    
fluids or surplus materials derived from
 the blood and tissues generally4 ,it is
 estimated that the quantity of fluid   
picked up from the tissues by the       
lymphatics and restored daily to the    
circulation is equal to the bulk of the 
blood in the body4 ,the lymphatics seem 
to start out from the part in which they
 are found1 like the rootlets of a plant
 in the soil4 ,they carry a turbid1     

slightly yellowish fluid1 called lymph1 
very much like blood without the red    
corpuscles4  ,now1 just as the chyle was
 not fit to be immediately taken up by  
the blood1 but was passed through the   
mesenteric glands to be properly worked 
over1 so the lymph is carried to the    
lymphatic glands1 where it undergoes    
certain changes to fit it for being     
poured into the blood4 ,nature1 like a  
careful housekeeper1 allows nothing to  
be wasted that can be of any further    
service in the animal economy 7,figs4   
#fc and #fd74  ,the lymphatics unite to 
form larger and larger vessels1 and at  
last join the thoracic duct1 except the 
lymphatics of the right side of the head
 and chest and right arm4 ,these open by
 the right lymphatic duct into the      
venous system on the right side of the  
neck4  ,the whole lymphatic system may  
be regarded as a necessary appendage to 
the vascular system 7,chapter ,,vii474  
,it is convenient1 however1 to treat it 
under the general topic of absorption1  

in order to complete the history of food
 digestion4  #afj4 ,the ,spleen and     
,other ,ductless ,glands4 ,with the     
lymphatics may be classified1 for       
convenience1 a number of organs called  
ductless or blood glands4 ,although they
 apparently prepare materials for use in
 the body1 they have no ducts or canals 
along which may be carried the result of
 their work4 ,again1 they are called    
blood glands because it is supposed they
 serve some purpose in preparing        
material for the blood4  ,the spleen is 
the largest of these glands4 ,it lies   
beneath the diaphragm1 and upon the left
 side of the stomach4 ,it is of a deep  
red color1 full of blood1 and is about  
the size and shape of the palm of the   
hand4  ,the spleen has a fibrous capsule
 from which partitions pass inwards1    
dividing it into spaces by a framework  
of elastic tissue1 with plain muscular  
fibers4 ,these spaces are filled with   
what is called the spleen pulp1 through 
which the blood filters from its artery1

 just as a fluid would pass through a   
sponge4 ,the functions of the spleen are
 not known4 ,it appears to take some    
part in the formation of blood          
corpuscles4 ,in certain diseases1 like  
malarial fever1 it may become remarkably
 enlarged4 ,it may be wholly removed    
from an animal without apparent injury4 
,during digestion it seems to act as a  
muscular pump1 drawing the blood onwards
 with increased vigor along its large   
vein to the liver4  ,the thyroid is     
another ductless gland4 ,it is situated 
beneath the muscles of the neck on the  
sides of ,adam's apple and below it4 ,it
 undergoes great enlargement in the     
disease called goitre4  ,the thymus is  
also a blood gland4 ,it is situated     
around the windpipe1 behind the upper   
part of the breastbone4 ,until about the
 end of the second year it increases in 
size1 and then it begins gradually to   
shrivel away4 ,like the spleen1 the     
thyroid and thymus glands are supposed  
to work some change in the blood1 but   

what is not clearly known4  ,the        
suprarenal capsules are two little      
bodies1 one perched on the top of each  
kidney1 in shape not unlike that of a   
conical hat4 ,of their functions nothing
 definite is known4    ,experiments4    
,the action produced by the tendency of 
fluids to mix1 or become equally        
diffused in contact with each other1 is 
known as osmosis1 a form of molecular   
attraction allied to that of adhesion4  
,the various physical processes by which
 the products of digestion are          
transferred from the digestive canal to 
the blood may be illustrated in a       
general way by the following simple     
experiments4  ,the student must1        
however1 understand that the necessarily
 crude experiments of the classroom may 
not conform in certain essentials to    
these great processes conducted in the  
living body1 which they are intended to 
illustrate and explain4  ,illustration3 
,fig4 #fb4    ,experiment #fb4 ,simple  
,apparatus for ,illustrating ,endosmotic

   ,action4 ,remove carefully a circular
 portion1 about an inch in   diameter1  
of the shell from one end of an egg1    
which may be done without   injuring the
 membranes1 by cracking the shell in    
small pieces1 which are   picked off    
with forceps4 ,a small glass tube is    
then introduced through   an opening in 
the shell and membranes of the other end
 of the egg1 and   is secured in a      
vertical position by wax or plaster of  
,paris1 the tube   penetrating the yelk4
 ,the egg is then placed in a wine-glass
 partly   filled with water4 ,in the    
course of a few minutes1 the water will 
have   penetrated the exposed membrane1 
and the yelk will rise in the           
tube4--,flint's ,human ,physiology1 page
 #bic4    ,experiment #fc4 ,stretch a   
piece of moist bladder across a glass   
tube1--a common lamp-chimney will do4   
,into this put a strong saline          
solution4 ,now suspend the tube in a    
wide mouthed vessel of water4 ,after   a
 short time it will be found that a part

 of the salt solution has   passed      
through into the water1 while a larger  
amount of water has passed   into the   
tube and raised the height of the liquid
 within it4  #afa4 ,the ,quantity of    
,food as ,affected by ,age4 ,the        
quantity of food required to keep the   
body in proper condition is modified to 
a great extent by circumstances4 ,age1  
occupation1 place of residence1 climate1
 and season1 as well as individual      
conditions of health and disease1 are   
always important factors in the problem4
 ,in youth the body is not only growing1
 but the tissue changes are active4 ,the
 restless energy and necessary growth at
 this time of life cannot be maintained 
without an abundance of wholesome food4 
,this food supply for young people      
should be ample enough to answer the    
demands of their keen appetite and      
vigorous digestion4  ,in adult life1    
when the processes of digestion and     
assimilation are active1 the amount of  
food may without harm1 be in excess of  

the actual needs of the body4 ,this is  
true1 however1 only so long as active   
muscular exercise is taken4  ,in        
advanced life the tissue changes are    
slow1 digestion is less active1 and the 
ability to assimilate food is greatly   
diminished4 ,growth has ceased1 the     
energy which induced activity is gone1  
and the proteids are no longer required 
to build up worn-out tissues4 ,hence1 as
 old age approaches1 the quantity of    
nitrogenous foods should be steadily    
diminished4    ,experiment #fd4 ,obtain 
a sheep's bladder and pour into it a    
heavy   solution of sugar or some       
colored simple elixir1 found at any drug
   store4 ,tie the bladder carefully and
 place it in a vessel containing        
water4 ,after a while it will be found  
that an interchange has occurred1       
water having passed into the bladder and
 the water outside having become        
sweet4    ,experiment #fe4 ,make a hole 
about as big as a five-cent piece in the
   large end of an egg4 ,that is1 break 

the shell carefully and snip the   outer
 shell membrane1 thus opening the space 
between the outer and inner   membranes4
 ,now put the egg into a glass of water1
 keeping it in an   upright position by 
resting on a napkin-ring4 ,there is only
 the inner   shell membrane between the 
liquid white of the egg 7albumen7 and   
the   water4    ,an interchange takes   
place1 and the water passes towards the 
albumen4 ,as   the albumen does not pass
 out freely towards the water1 the      
membrane   becomes distended1 like a    
little bag at the top of the egg4  #afb4
 ,ill ,effects of a too ,generous ,diet4
 ,a generous diet1 even of those who    
take active muscular exercise1 should be
 indulged in only with vigilance and    
discretion4 ,frequent sick or nervous   
headaches1 a sense of fullness1 bilious 
attacks1 and dyspepsia are some of the  
after-effects of eating more food than  
the body actually requires4 ,the excess 
of food is not properly acted upon by   
the digestive juices1 and is liable to  

undergo fermentation1 and thus to become
 a source of irritation to the stomach  
and the intestines4 ,if too much and too
 rich food be persistently indulged in1 
the complexion is apt to become muddy1  
the skin1 especially of the face1 pale  
and sallow1 and more or less covered    
with blotches and pimples2 the breath   
has an unpleasant odor1 and the general 
appearance of the body is unwholesome4  
,an excess of any one of the different  
classes of foods may lead to serious    
results4 ,thus a diet habitually too    
rich in proteids1 as with those who eat 
meat in excess1 often over-taxes the    
kidneys to get rid of the excess of     
nitrogenous waste1 and the organs of    
excretion are not able to rid the       
tissues of waste products which         
accumulate in the system4 ,from the     
blood1 thus imperfectly purified1 may   
result kidney troubles and various      
diseases of the liver and the stomach4  
#afc4 ,effect of ,occupation4           
,occupation has an important influence  

upon the quantity of food demanded for  
the bodily support4 ,those who work long
 and hard at physical labor1 need a     
generous amount of nutritious food4 ,a  
liberal diet of the cereals and lean    
meat1 especially beef1 gives that vigor 
to the muscles which enables one to     
undergo laborious and prolonged physical
 exertion4 ,on the other hand1 those who
 follow a sedentary occupation do not   
need so large a quantity of food4       
,brain-workers who would work well and  
live long1 should not indulge in too    
generous a diet4 ,the digestion of heavy
 meals involves a great expenditure of  
nervous force4 ,hence1 the forces of the
 brain-worker1 being required for mental
 exertion1 should not be expended to an 
unwarranted extent on the task of       
digestion4  #afd4 ,effect of ,climate4  
,climate also has a marked influence on 
the quantity of food demanded by the    
system4 ,much more food of all kinds is 
consumed in cold than in warm climates4 
,the accounts by travelers of the       

quantity of food used by the inhabitants
 of the frigid zone are almost beyond   
belief4 ,a ,russian admiral gives an    
instance of a man who1 in his presence1 
ate at a single meal #bh pounds of rice 
and butter4 ,dr4 ,hayes1 the ,arctic    
traveler1 states from personal          
observation that the daily ration of the
 ,eskimos is #ab to #ae pounds of meat4 
,with the thermometer ranging from #fj  
to #gj ,f4 below zero1 there was a      
persistent craving for strong animal    
diet1 especially fatty foods4#bd        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,lymphatics  
and ,lymphatic ,glands of the ,axilla4  
,the intense cold makes such a drain    
upon the heat-producing power of the    
body that only food containing the      
largest proportion of carbon is capable 
of making up for the loss4 ,in tropical 
countries1 on the other hand1 the       
natives crave and subsist mainly upon   
fruits and vegetables4  #afe4 ,the      
,kinds of ,food ,required4 ,an appetite 
for plain1 well-cooked food is a safe   

guide to follow4 ,every person in good  
health1 taking a moderate amount of     
daily exercise1 should have a keen      
appetite for three meals a day and enjoy
 them4 ,food should be both nutritious  
and digestible4 ,it is nutritious in    
proportion to the amount of material it 
furnishes for the nourishment of the    
tissues4 ,it is digestible in a greater 
or less degree in respect to the        
readiness with which it yields to the   
action of the digestive fluids1 and is  
prepared to be taken up by the blood4   
,this digestibility depends partly upon 
the nature of the food in its raw state1
 partly upon the effect produced upon it
 by cooking1 and to some extent upon its
 admixture with other foods4 ,certain   
foods1 as the vegetable albumens1 are   
both nutritious and digestible4 ,a      
hard-working man may grow strong and    
maintain vigorous health on most of     
them1 even if deprived of animal food4  
,while it is true that the vegetable    
albumens furnish all that is really     

needed for the bodily health1 animal    
food of some kind is an economical and  
useful addition to the diet4 ,races of  
men who endure prolonged physical       
exertion have discovered for themselves1
 without the teaching of science1 the   
great value of meat4 ,hence the common  
custom of eating meat with bread and    
vegetables is a sound one4 ,it is       
undoubtedly true that the people of this
 country1 as a rule1 eat meat too often 
and too much at a time4 ,the judicious  
admixture of different classes of foods 
greatly aids their digestibility4  ,the 
great abundance and variety of food in  
this country1 permit this principle to  
be put into practice4 ,a variety of     
mixed foods1 as milk1 eggs1 bread1 and  
meat1 are almost invariably associated  
to a greater or less extent at every    
meal4  ,oftentimes where there is of    
necessity a sameness of diet1 there     
arises a craving for special articles of
 food4 ,thus on long voyages1 and during
 long campaigns in war1 there is an     

almost universal craving for onions1 raw
 potatoes1 and other vegetables4  #aff4 
,hints about ,meals4 ,on an average1    
three meals each day1 from five to six  
hours apart1 is the proper number for   
adults4 ,five hours is by no means too  
long a time to intervene between        
consecutive meals1 for it is not        
desirable to introduce new food into the
 stomach1 until the gastric digestion of
 the preceding meal has been completed1 
and until the stomach has had time to   
rest1 and is in condition to receive    
fresh material4 ,the stomach1 like other
 organs1 does its work best at regular  
periods4#be  ,eating out of mealtimes   
should be strictly avoided1 for it robs 
the stomach of its needed rest4 ,food   
eaten when the body and mind are wearied
 is not well digested4 ,rest1 even for a
 few minutes1 should be taken before    
eating a full meal4 ,it is well to lie  
down1 or sit quietly and read1 fifteen  
minutes before eating1 and directly     
afterwards1 if possible4  ,severe       

exercise and hard study just after a    
full meal1 are very apt to delay or     
actually arrest digestion1 for after    
eating heartily1 the vital forces of the
 body are called upon to help the       
stomach digest its food4 ,if our bodily 
energies are compelled1 in addition to  
this1 to help the muscles or brain1     
digestion is retarded1 and a feeling of 
dullness and heaviness follows4         
,fermentative changes1 instead of the   
normal digestive changes1 are apt to    
take place in the food4  #afg4          
,practical ,points about ,eating4 ,we   
should not eat for at least two or three
 hours before going to bed4 ,when we are
 asleep1 the vital forces are at a low  
ebb1 the process of digestion is for the
 time nearly suspended1 and the         
retention of incompletely digested food 
in the stomach may cause bad dreams and 
troubled sleep4 ,but in many cases of   
sleeplessness1 a trifle of some simple  
food1 especially if the stomach seems to
 feel exhausted1 often appears to       

promote sleep and rest4      ,,note4    
,the table on the next page shows the   
results of many     experiments to      
illustrate the time taken for the       
gastric digestion of     a number of the
 more common solid foods4 ,there are a  
good many factors     of which the table
 takes no account1 such as the interval 
since the     last meal1 state of the   
appetite1 amount of work and exercise1  
method     of cooking1 and especially   
the quantity of food4      ,table       
,showing the ,digestibility of the ,more
 ,common ,solid ,foods4      ,food      
,how        ,time in                    
,cooked     ,stomach1                   
,hours                                  
----------------------------------------
---------     ,apples1 sweet and mellow 
,raw        #a     ,apples1 sour and    
hard                   #b     ,apple    
,dumpling                ,boiled     #c 
,bass1 striped1 fresh          ,broiled 
#c     ,beans1 pod                      
,boiled     #b     ,beef1 with salt only

                    #b          fresh1  
lean             ,raw        #c         
,fried      #d                          
,roasted    #c          old1 hard1      
salted       ,boiled     #d             
,beefsteak                     ,broiled 
#c     ,beets                           
,boiled     #c     ,bread1 corn         
,baked      #c           wheat1 fresh   
#c     ,butter                          
,melted     #c     ,cabbage1 with       
vinegar         ,raw        #b          
,boiled     #d             heads        
,raw        #b     ,carrots             
,boiled     #c     ,cheese1 old1 strong 
,raw        #c     ,chicken1 full-grown 
,fricassee  #b             soup         
,boiled     #c     ,codfish1 cured1     
dried                   #b     ,corncake
                      ,baked      #b    
,custard                                
#b     ,duck1 domestic                  
,roasted    #d          wild            
#d     ,eggs1 fresh1 whipped            
,raw        #a                          

#b          soft-boiled                 
,boiled     #c          hard-boiled     
#c                                      
,fried      #c     ,fowl1 domestic      
,boiled     #d                          
,roasted    #d     ,gelatin             
,boiled     #b     ,goose               
,roasted    #b     ,green corn and beans
          ,boiled     #c     ,hash1 meat
 and vegetables     ,warmed     #b      
,lamb                          ,broiled 
#b     ,liver                           
#b     ,milk                            
,boiled     #b                          
,raw        #b     ,mutton1 fresh       
,broiled    #c                          
,boiled     #c                          
,roasted    #c     ,oysters1 fresh      
,raw        #b                          
,roasted    #c                          
,stewed     #c     ,parsnips            
,boiled     #b     ,pig                 
,roasted    #b     ,pig's feet1 soused  
,boiled     #a     ,pork1 recently      
salted                   #d             

,fried      #d                          
,raw        #c          steaks          
,fried      #c                          
,stewed     #c          fat or lean     
,roasted    #e     ,potatoes            
,baked      #b                          
,boiled     #c                          
,roasted    #b     ,rice                
,boiled     #a     ,sago                
#a     ,salmon1 salted                  
#d     ,soup1 barley                    
#a          beans                       
#c          beef1 vegetables1 bread     
#d          marrow bone                 
#d          mutton                      
#c     ,sponge ,cake                    
,baked      #b     ,suet1 beef1 fresh   
,boiled     #e          mutton          
#d     ,tapioca                         
#b     ,tripe1 soused                   
#a     ,trout1 salmon1 fresh            
#a                                ,fried
      #a     ,turkey1 wild              
,roasted    #b            domestic      
,boiled     #b                          

,roasted    #b     ,turnips             
,boiled     #c     ,veal                
,roasted    #d                          
,fried      #d     ,venison1 steaks     
,broiled    #a  ,the state of mind has  
much to do with digestion4 ,sudden fear 
or joy1 or unexpected news1 may destroy 
the appetite at once4 ,let a hungry     
person be anxiously awaiting a hearty   
meal1 when suddenly a disastrous        
telegram is brought him2 all appetite   
instantly disappears1 and the tempting  
food is refused4 ,hence we should laugh 
and talk at our meals1 and drive away   
anxious thoughts and unpleasant topics  
of discussion4  ,the proper chewing of  
the food is an important element in     
digestion4 ,hence1 eat slowly1 and do   
not bolt large fragments of food4 ,if   
imperfectly chewed1 it is not readily   
acted upon by the gastric juice1 and    
often undergoes fermentative changes    
which result in sour stomach1 gastric   
pain1 and other digestive disturbance4  
,if we take too much drink with our     

meals1 the flow of the saliva is        
checked1 and digestion is hindered4 ,it 
is not desireable to dilute the gastric 
juice1 nor to chill the stomach with    
large amount of cold liquid4  ,do not   
take food and drink too hot or too cold4
 ,if they are taken too cold1 the       
stomach is chilled1 and digestion       
delayed4 ,if we drink freely of         
ice-water1 it may require half an hour  
or more for the stomach to regain its   
natural heat4  ,it is a poor plan to    
stimulate a flagging appetite with      
highly spiced food and bitter drinks4   
,an undue amount of pepper1 mustard1    
horseradish1 pickles1 and highly        
seasoned meat-sauces may stimulate      
digestion for the time1 but they soon   
impair it4      ,,note4 ,the process of 
gastric digestion was studied many years
 ago by     ,dr4 ,beaumont and others1  
in the remarkable case of ,alexis ,st4  
,martin1     a ,french-,canadian1 who   
met with a gun-shot wound which left a  
permanent opening into his stomach1     

guarded by a little valve of     mucous 
membrane4 ,through this opening the     
lining of the stomach could     be seen1
 the temperature ascertained1 and       
numerous experiments made as     to the 
digestibility of various kinds of food4 
,it was by these careful and convincing 
experiments that the foundation     of  
our exact knowledge of the composition  
and action of gastric juice     was     
laid4 ,the modest book in which ,dr4    
,beaumont published his results     is  
still counted among the classics of     
physiology4 ,the production of          
artificial fistul in animals1 a method  
that has since proved so     fruitful1  
was first suggested by his work4  ,it   
cannot be too strongly stated that food 
of a simple character1 well cooked and  
neatly served1 is more productive of    
healthful living than a great variety of
 fancy dishes which unduly stimulate the
 digestive organs1 and create a craving 
for food in excess of the bodily needs4 
#afh4 ,the ,proper ,care of the ,teeth4 

,it is our duty not only to take the    
very best care of our teeth1 but to     
retain them as long as possible4 ,teeth1
 as we well know1 are prone to decay4   
,we may inherit poor and soft teeth3 our
 mode of living may make bad teeth      
worse4 ,if an ounce of prevention is    
ever worth a pound of cure1 it is in    
keeping the teeth in good order4 ,bad   
teeth and toothless gums mean imperfect 
chewing of the food and1 hence1 impaired
 digestion4 ,to attain a healthful old  
age1 the power of vigorous mastication  
must be preserved4  ,one of the most    
frequent causes of decay of the teeth is
 the retention of fragments of food     
between and around them4 ,the warmth and
 moisture of the mouth make these       
matters decompose quickly4 ,the acid    
thus generated attacks the enamel of the
 teeth1 causing decay of the dentine4   
,decayed teeth are often the cause of an
 offensive breath and a foul stomach4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,lymphatics  
on the ,inside of the ,right ,hand4  ,to

 keep the teeth clean and wholesome1    
they should be thoroughly cleansed at   
bedtime and in the morning with a soft  
brush and warm water4 ,castile soap1 and
 some prepared tooth-powder without     
grit1 should be used1 and the brush     
should be applied on both sides of the  
teeth4  ,the enamel1 once broken        
through1 is never renewed4 ,the tooth   
decays1 slowly but surely3 hence we must
 guard against certain habits which     
injure the enamel1 as picking the teeth 
with pins and needles4 ,we should never 
crack nuts1 crush hard candy1 or bite   
off stout thread with the teeth4 ,stiff 
tooth-brushes1 gritty and cheap         
tooth-powders1 and hot food and drink1  
often injure the enamel4  ,to remove    
fragments of food which have lodged     
between adjacent teeth1 a quill or      
wooden toothpick should be used4 ,even  
better than these is the use of         
surgeon's floss1 or silk1 which when    
drawn between the teeth1 effectually    
dislodges retained particles4 ,if the   

teeth are not regularly cleansed they   
become discolored1 and a hard coating   
known as tartar accumulates on them and 
tends to loosen them4 ,it is said that  
after the age of thirty more teeth are  
lost from this deposit than from all    
other causes combined4 ,in fact decay   
and tartar are the two great agents that
 furnish work for the dentist4#bf  #afi4
 ,hints about ,saving ,teeth4 ,we should
 exercise the greatest care in saving   
the teeth4 ,the last resort of all is to
 lose a tooth by extraction4 ,the       
skilled dentist will save almost        
anything in the shape of a tooth4       
,people are often urged and consent to  
have a number of teeth extracted which1 
with but little trouble and expense1    
might be kept and do good service for   
years4 ,the object is to replace the    
teeth with an artificial set4 ,very few 
plates1 either partial or entire1 are   
worn with real comfort4 ,they should    
always be removed before going to sleep1
 as there is danger of their being      

swallowed4  ,the great majority of drugs
 have no injurious effect upon the      
teeth4 ,some medicines1 however1 must be
 used with great care4 ,the acids used  
in the tincture of iron have a great    
affinity for the lime salts of the      
teeth4 ,as this form of iron is often   
used1 it is not unusual to see teeth    
very badly stained or decayed from the  
effects of this drug4 ,the acid used in 
the liquid preparations of quinine may  
destroy the teeth in a comparatively    
short time4 ,after taking such medicines
 the mouth should be thoroughly rinsed  
with a weak solution of common soda1 and
 the teeth cleansed4  #agj4 ,alcohol and
 ,digestion4 ,the influence of alcoholic
 drinks upon digestion is of the utmost 
importance4 ,alcohol is not1 and cannot 
be regarded from a physiological point  
of view as a true food4 ,the reception  
given to it by the stomach proves this  
very plainly4 ,it is obviously an       
unwelcome intruder4 ,it cannot1 like    
proper foods1 be transformed into any   

element or component of the human body1 
but passes on1 innutritious and for the 
most part unappropriated4 ,taken even   
into the mouth1 by any person not       
hardened to its use1 its effect is so   
pungent and burning as at once to demand
 its rejection4 ,but if allowed to pass 
into the stomach1 that organ immediately
 rebels against its intrusion1 and not  
unfrequently ejects it with indignant   
emphasis4 ,the burning sensation it     
produces there1 is only an appeal for   
water to dilute it4  ,the stomach       
meanwhile1 in response to this fiery    
invitation1 secretes from its myriad    
pores its juices and watery fluids1 to  
protect itself as much as possible from 
the invading liquid4 ,it does not digest
 alcoholic drinks2 we might say it does 
not attempt to1 because they are not    
material suitable for digestion1 and    
also because no organ can perform its   
normal work while smarting under an     
unnatural irritation4  ,even if the     
stomach does not at once eject the      

poison1 it refuses to adopt it as food1 
for it does not pass along with the     
other food material1 as chyme1 into the 
intestines1 but is seized by the        
absorbents1 borne into the veins1 which 
convey it to the heart1 whence the      
pulmonary artery conveys it to the      
lungs1 where its presence is announced  
in the breath4 ,but wherever alcohol is 
carried in the tissues1 it is always an 
irritant1 every organ in turn           
endeavoring to rid itself of the noxious
 material4  #aga4 ,effect of ,alcoholic 
,liquor upon the ,stomach4 ,the methods 
by which intoxicating drinks impair and 
often ruin digestion are various4 ,we   
know that a piece of animal food1 as    
beef1 if soaked in alcohol for a few    
hours1 becomes hard and tough1 the      
fibers having been compacted together   
because of the abstraction of their     
moisture by the alcohol1 which has a    
marvelous affinity for water4 ,in the   
same way alcohol hardens and toughens   
animal food in the stomach1 condensing  

its fibers1 and rendering it            
indigestible1 thus preventing the       
healthful nutrition of the body4 ,so1 if
 alcohol be added to the clear1 liquid  
white of an egg1 it is instantly        
coagulated and transformed into hard    
albumen4 ,as a result of this hardening 
action1 animal food in contact with     
alcoholic liquids in the stomach remains
 undigested1 and must either be detained
 there so long as to become a source of 
gastric disturbance1 or else be allowed 
to pass undigested through the pyloric  
gate1 and then may become a cause of    
serious intestinal disturbance4#bg      
,this peculiar property of alcohol1 its 
greedy absorption of water from objects 
in contact with it1 acts also by        
absorbing liquids from the surface of   
the stomach itself1 thus hardening the  
delicate glands1 impairing their ability
 to absorb the food-liquids1 and so     
inducing gastric dyspepsia4 ,this local 
injury inflicted upon the stomach by all
 forms of intoxicants1 is serious and   

protracted4 ,this organ is1 with        
admirable wisdom1 so constructed as to  
endure a surprising amount of abuse1 but
 it was plainly not intended to thrive  
on alcoholic liquids4 ,the application  
of fiery drinks to its tender surface   
produces at first a marked congestion of
 its blood-vessels1 changing the natural
 pink color1 as in the mouth1 to a      
bright or deep red4  ,if the irritation 
be not repeated1 the lining membrane    
soon recovers its natural appearance4   
,but if repeated and continued1 the     
congestion becomes more intense1 the red
 color deeper and darker2 the entire    
surface is the subject of chronic       
inflammation1 its walls are thickened1  
and sometimes ulcerated4 ,in this       
deplorable state1 the organ is quite    
unable to perform its normal work of    
digestion4#bh  #agb4 ,alcohol and the   
,gastric ,juice4 ,but still another     
destructive influence upon digestion    
appears in the singular fact that       
alcohol diminishes the power of the     

gastric juice to do its proper work4    
,alcohol coagulates the pepsin1 which is
 the dissolving element in this         
important gastric fluid4 ,a very simple 
experiment will prove this4 ,obtain a   
small quantity of gastric juice from the
 fresh stomach of a calf or pig1 by     
gently pressing it in a very little     
water4 ,pour the milky juice into a     
clear glass vessel1 add a little        
alcohol1 and a white deposit will       
presently settle to the bottom4 ,this   
deposit contains the pepsin of the      
gastric juice1 the potent element by    
which it does its special work of       
digestion4 ,the ill effect of alcohol   
upon it is one of the prime factors in  
the long series of evil results from the
 use of intoxicants4  #agc4 ,the ,final 
,results upon ,digestion4 ,we have thus 
explained three different methods by    
which alcoholic drinks exercise a       
terrible power for harm2 they act upon  
the food so as to render it less        
digestible2 they injure the stomach so  

as seriously to impair its power of     
digestion2 and they deprive the gastric 
juice of the one principal ingredient   
essential to its usefulness4  ,alcoholic
 drinks forced upon the stomach are a   
foreign substance2 the stomach treats   
them as such1 and refuses to go on with 
the process of digestion till it first  
gets rid of the poison4 ,this irritating
 presence and delay weaken the stomach1 
so that when proper food follows1 the   
enfeebled organ is ill prepared for its 
work4 ,after intoxication1 there occurs 
an obvious reaction of the stomach1 and 
digestive organs1 against the violent   
and unnatural disturbance4 ,the appetite
 is extinguished or depraved1 and       
intense headache racks the frame1 the   
whole system is prostrated1 as from a   
partial paralysis 7all these results    
being the voice of ,nature's sharp      
warning of this great wrong71 and a rest
 of some days is needed before the      
system fully recovers from the injury   
inflicted4  ,it is altogether an error  

to suppose the use of intoxicants is    
necessary or even desirable to promote  
appetite or digestion4 ,in health1 good 
food and a stomach undisturbed by       
artificial interference furnish all the 
conditions required4 ,more than these is
 harmful4 ,if it may sometimes seem as  
if alcoholic drinks arouse the appetite 
and invigorate digestion1 we must not   
shut our eyes to the fact that this is  
only a seeming1 and that their continued
 use will inevitably ruin both4 ,in     
brief1 there is no more sure foe to good
 appetite and normal digestion than the 
habitual use of alcoholic liquors4      
#agd4 ,effect of ,alcoholic ,drinks upon
 the ,liver4 ,it is to be noted that the
 circulation of the liver is peculiar2  
that the capillaries of the hepatic     
artery unite in the lobule with those of
 the portal vein1 and thus the blood    
from both sources is combined2 and that 
the portal vein brings to the liver the 
blood from the stomach1 the intestines1 
and the spleen4 ,from the fact that     

alcohol absorbed from the stomach enters
 the portal vein1 and is borne directly 
to the liver1 we would expect to find   
this organ suffering the full effects of
 its presence4 ,and all the more would  
this be true1 because we have just      
learned that the liver acts as a sort of
 filter to strain from the blood its    
impurities4 ,so the liver is especially 
liable to diseases produced by          
alcoholics4 ,post mortems of those who  
have died while intoxicated show a      
larger amount of alcohol in the liver   
than in any other organ4 ,next to the   
stomach the liver is an early and late  
sufferer1 and this is especially the    
case with hard drinkers1 and even more  
moderate drinkers in hot climates4      
,yellow fever occurring in inebriates is
 always fatal4  ,the effects produced in
 the liver are not so much functional as
 organic2 that is1 not merely a         
disturbed mode of action1 but a         
destruction of the fabric of the organ  
itself4 ,from the use of intoxicants1   

the liver becomes at first irritated1   
then inflamed1 and finally seriously    
diseased4 ,the fine bands1 or septa1    
which serve as partitions between the   
hepatic lobules1 and so maintain the    
form and consistency of the organ1 are  
the special subjects of the             
inflammation4 ,though the liver is at   
first enlarged1 it soon becomes         
contracted2 the secreting cells are     
compressed1 and are quite unable to     
perform their proper work1 which indeed 
is a very important one in the round of 
the digestion of food and the           
purification of the blood4 ,this        
contraction of the septa in time gives  
the whole organ an irregularly puckered 
appearance1 called from this fact a     
hob-nail liver or1 popularly1 gin liver4
 ,the yellowish discoloration1 usually  
from retained or perverted bile1 gives  
the disease the medical name of         
cirrhosis4#bi ,it is usually accompanied
 with dropsy in the lower extremities1  
caused by obstruction to the return of  

the circulation from the parts below the
 liver4 ,this disease is always fatal4  
#age4 ,fatty ,degeneration ,due to      
,alcohol4 ,another form of destructive  
disease often occurs4 ,there is an      
increase of fat globules deposited in   
the liver1 causing notable enlargement  
and destroying its function4 ,this is   
called fatty degeneration1 and is not   
limited to the liver1 but other organs  
are likely to be similarly affected4 ,in
 truth1 this deposition of fat is a most
 significant occurrence1 as it means    
actual destruction of the liver         
tissues1--nothing less than progressive 
death of the organ4 ,this condition     
always leads to a fatal issue4 ,still   
other forms of alcoholic disease of the 
liver are produced1 one being the       
excessive formation of sugar1           
constituting what is known as a form of 
diabetes4  #agf4 ,effect of ,tobacco on 
,digestion4 ,the noxious influence of   
tobacco upon the process of digestion is
 nearly parallel to the effects of      

alcohol1 which it resembles in its      
irritant and narcotic character4        
,locally1 it stimulates the secretion of
 saliva to an unnatural extent1 and this
 excess of secretion diminishes the     
amount available for normal digestion4  
,tobacco also poisons the saliva        
furnished for the digestion of food1 and
 thus at the very outset impairs1 in    
both of these particulars1 the general  
digestion1 and especially the digestion 
of the starchy portions of the food4    
,for this reason the amount of food     
taken1 fails to nourish as it should1   
and either more food must be taken1 or  
the body becomes gradually impoverished4
  ,the poisonous nicotine1 the active   
element of tobacco1 exerts a destructive
 influence upon the stomach digestion1  
enfeebling the vigor of the muscular    
walls of that organ4 ,these effects     
combined produce dyspepsia1 with its    
weary train of baneful results4  ,the   
tobacco tongue never presents the       
natural1 clear1 pink color1 but rather a

 dirty yellow1 and is usually heavily   
coated1 showing a disordered stomach and
 impaired digestion4 ,then1 too1 there  
is dryness of the mouth1 an unnatural   
thirst that demands drink4 ,but pure    
water is stale and flat to such a mouth3
 something more emphatic is needed4     
,thus comes the unnatural craving for   
alcoholic liquors1 and thus are taken   
the first steps on the downward grade4  
,there is no doubt that tobacco         
predisposes to neuralgia1 vertigo1      
indigestion1 and other affections of the
 nervous1 circulatory and digestive     
organs4--,w4 ,h4 ,hammond1 the eminent  
surgeon of ,new ,york city and formerly 
,surgeon ,general1 ,u4,s4,a4  ,drs4     
,seaver of ,yale ,university and        
,hitchcock of ,amherst ,college1        
instructors of physical education in    
these two colleges1 have clearly        
demonstrated by personal examination and
 recorded statistics that the use of    
tobacco among college students checks   
growth in weight1 height1 chest-girth1  

and1 most of all1 in lung capacity4     
,additional ,experiments4    ,experiment
 #ff4 ,test a portion of ,c 7,experiment
 #eg7 with solution   of iodine2 no blue
 color is obtained1 as all the starch   
has disappeared1   having been converted
 into a reducing sugar1 or maltose4     
,experiment #fg4 ,make a thick starch   
paste2 place some in test tubes1        
labeled ,a and ,b4 ,keep ,a for         
comparison1 and to ,b add saliva1 and   
expose both to about #ajd ,f4 ,a is     
unaffected1 while ,b soon becomes       
fluid --within two minutes--and loses   
its opalescence2 this liquefaction   is 
a process quite antecedent to the       
saccharifying process which   follows4  
,experiment #fh4 ,to show the action of 
gastric juice on milk4 ,mix   two       
teaspoonfuls of fresh milk in a test    
tube with a few drops of   neutral      
artificial gastric juice2#cj keep at    
about #ajj ,f4 ,in a short   time the   
milk curdles1 so that the tube can be   
inverted without the curd   falling out4

 ,by and by whey is squeezed out of the 
clot4 ,the curdling   of milk by the    
rennet ferment present in the gastric   
juice1 is quite   different from that   
produced by the souring of milk1 or by  
the   precipitation of caseinogen by    
acids4 ,here the casein 7carrying with  
it   most of the fats7 is precipitated  
in a neutral fluid4    ,experiment #fi4 
,to the test tube in the preceding      
experiment1 add   two teaspoonfuls of   
dilute hydrochloric acid1 and keep at   
#ajj ,f4 for   two hours4 ,the pepsin in
 the presence of the acid digests the   
casein1   gradually dissolving it1      
forming a straw-colored fluid containing
   peptones4 ,the peptonized milk has a 
peculiar odor and bitter taste4         
,experiment #gj4 ,to show the action of 
rennet on milk4 ,place milk   in a test 
tube1 add a drop or two of commercial   
rennet1 and place the   tube in a       
water-bath at about #ajj ,f4 ,the milk  
becomes solid in a few   minutes1       
forming a curd1 and by and by the curd  

of casein contracts1   and presses out a
 fluid1--the whey4    ,experiment #ga4  
,repeat the experiment1 but previously  
boil the   rennet4 ,no such result is   
obtained as in the preceding experiment1
   because the rennet ferment is        
destroyed by heat4    ,experiment #gb4  
,to show the effect of the pancreatic   
ferment   7trypsin7 upon albuminous     
matter4 ,half fill three test tubes1 ,a1
 ,b1   ,c1 with one-per-cent solution of
 sodium carbonate1 and add #e drops of  
liquor pancreaticus1 or a few grains of 
,fairchild's extract of pancreas1   in  
each4 ,boil ,b1 and make ,c acid with   
dilute hydrochloric acid4   ,place in   
each tube an equal amount of well-washed
 fibrin1 plug the tubes   with absorbent
 cotton1 and place all in a water-bath  
at about #ajj ,f4    ,experiment #gc4   
,examine from time to time the three    
test tubes in   the preceding           
experiment4 ,at the end of one1 two1 or 
three hours1 there   is no change in ,b 
and ,c1 while in ,a the fibrin is       

gradually being   eroded1 and finally   
disappears2 but it does not swell up1   
and the   solution at the same time     
becomes slightly turbid4 ,after three   
hours1   still no change is observable  
in ,b and ,c4    ,experiment #gd4       
,filter ,a1 and carefully neutralize the
 filtrate   with very dilute            
hydrochloric or acetic acid1 equal to a 
precipitate of   alkali-albumen4 ,filter
 off the precipitate1 and on testing the
 filtrate1   peptones are found4 ,the   
intermediate bodies1 the albumoses1 are 
not   nearly so readily obtained from   
pancreatic as from gastric digests4     
,experiment #ge4 ,filter ,b and ,c1 and 
carefully neutralize the   filtrates4   
,they give no precipitate4 ,no peptones 
are found4    ,experiment #gf4 ,to show 
the action of pancreatic juice upon the 
albuminous ingredients 7casein7 of milk4
 ,into a four-ounce bottle put   two    
tablespoonfuls of cold water2 add one   
grain of ,fairchild's extract   of      
pancreas1 and as much baking soda as can

 be taken up on the point of   a        
penknife4 ,shake well1 and add four     
tablespoonfuls of cold1 fresh milk4     
,shake again4    ,now set the bottle    
into a basin of hot water 7as hot as one
 can bear the   hand in71 and let it    
stand for about forty-five minutes4     
,while the milk   is digesting1 take a  
small quantity of milk in a goblet1 and 
stir in ten   drops or more of vinegar4 
,a thick curd of casein will be seen4   
,upon applying the same test to the     
digested milk1 no curd will be made4    
,this is because the pancreatic ferment 
7trypsin7 has digested the casein   into
 peptone1 which does not curdle4 ,this  
digested milk is therefore   called     
peptonized milk4    ,experiment #gg4 ,to
 show the action of bile4 ,obtain from  
the   butcher some ox bile4 ,note its   
bitter taste1 peculiar odor1 and        
greenish   color4 ,it is alkaline or    
neutral to litmus paper4 ,pour it from  
one   vessel to another1 and note that  
strings of mucin 7from the lining       

membrane of the gall bladder7 connect   
one vessel with the other4 ,it is   best
 to precipitate the mucin by acetic acid
 before making experiments2   and to    
dilute the clear liquid with a little   
distilled water4    ,experiment #gh4    
,test for bile pigments4 ,place a few   
drops of bile   on a white porcelain    
slab4 ,with a glass rod place a drop or 
two of   strong nitric acid containing  
nitrous acid near the drop of bile2     
bring   the acid and bile into contact4 
,notice the succession of colors1       
beginning with green and passing into   
blue1 red1 and yellow4    ,experiment   
#gi4 ,to show the action of bile on     
fats4 ,mix three   teaspoonfuls of bile 
with one-half a teaspoonful of almond   
oil1 to which   some oleic acid is      
added4 ,shake well1 and keep the tube in
 a water-bath   at about #ajj ,f4 ,a    
very good emulsion is obtained4         
,experiment #hj4 ,to show that bile     
favors filtration and the   absorption  
of fats4 ,place two small funnels of    

exactly the same size in   a filter     
stand1 and under each a beaker4 ,into   
each funnel put a filter   paper2       
moisten the one with water 7,a7 and the 
other with bile 7,b74   ,pour into each 
an equal volume of almond oil2 cover    
with a slip of glass   to prevent       
evaporation4 ,set aside for twelve      
hours1 and note that the   oil passes   
through ,b1 but scarcely any through ,a4
 ,the oil filters   much more readily   
through the one moistened with bile1    
than through the   one moistened with   
water4   ,experiments with the ,fats4   
,experiment #ha4 ,use olive oil or lard4
 ,show by experiment that they   are    
soluble in ether1 chloroform and hot    
water1 but insoluble in water   alone4  
,experiment #hb4 ,dissolve a few drops  
of oil or fat in a teaspoonful   of     
ether4 ,let a drop of the solution fall 
on a piece of tissue or rice   paper4   
,note the greasy stain1 which does not  
disappear with the heat4    ,experiment 
#hc4 ,pour a little cod-liver oil into a

 test tube2 add a   few drops of a      
dilute solution of sodium carbonate4    
,the whole mass   becomes white1 making 
an emulsion4    ,experiment #hd4 ,shake 
up olive oil with a solution of albumen 
in a   test tube4 ,note that an emulsion
 is formed4     ,chapter ,,vii4  ,the   
,blood and ,its ,circulation4    #agg4  
,the ,circulation4 ,all the tissues of  
the body are traversed by exceedingly   
minute tubes called capillaries1 which  
receive the blood from the arteries1 and
 convey it to the veins4 ,these         
capillaries form a great system of      
networks1 the meshes of which are filled
 with the elements of the various       
tissues4 ,that is1 the capillaries are  
closed vessels1 and the tissues lie     
outside of them1 as asbestos packing may
 be used to envelop hot-water pipes4    
,the space between the walls of the     
capillaries and the cells of the tissues
 is filled with lymph4 ,as the blood    
flows along the capillaries1 certain    
parts of the plasma of the blood filter 

through their walls into the lymph1 and 
certain parts of the lymph filter       
through the cell walls of the tissues   
and mingle with the blood current4 ,the 
lymph thus acts as a medium of exchange1
 in which a transfer of material takes  
place between the blood in the          
capillaries and the lymph around them4  
,a similar exchange of material is      
constantly going on between the lymph   
and the tissues themselves4  ,this1     
then1 we must remember1--that in every  
tissue1 so long as the blood flows1 and 
life lasts1 this exchange takes place   
between the blood within the capillaries
 and the tissues without4  ,the stream  
of blood to the tissues carries to them 
the material1 including the             
all-important oxygen1 with which they   
build themselves up and do their work4  
,the stream from the tissues carries    
into the blood the products of certain  
chemical changes which have taken place 
in these tissues4 ,these products may   
represent simple waste matter to be cast

 out or material which may be of use to 
some other tissue4  ,in brief1 the      
tissues by the help of the lymph live on
 the blood4 ,just as our bodies1 as a   
whole1 live on the things around us1 the
 food and the air1 so do the bodily     
tissues live on the blood which bathes  
them in an unceasing current1 and which 
is their immediate air and food4   #agh4
 ,physical ,properties of ,blood4 ,the  
blood has been called the life of the   
body from the fact that upon it depends 
our bodily existence4 ,the blood is so  
essentially the nutrient element that it
 is called sometimes very aptly liquid  
flesh4 ,it is a red1 warm1 heavy1       
alkaline fluid1 slightly salt in taste1 
and has a somewhat fetid odor4 ,its     
color varies from bright red in the     
arteries and when exposed to the air1 to
 various tints from dark purple to red  
in the veins4 ,the color of the blood is
 due to the coloring constituent of the 
red corpuscles1 hmoglobin1 which is     
brighter or darker as it contains more  

or less oxygen4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#fe4--;,blood ,corpuscles of ,various   
,animals4 7,magnified to the same       
scale47    ,a1 from proteus1 a kind of  
newt2   ,b1 salamander2   ,c1 frog2     
,d1 frog after addition of acetic acid1 
showing the central nucleus2   ,e1 bird2
   ,f1 camel2   ,g1 fish2   ,h1 crab or 
other invertebrate animal   ,the        
temperature of the blood varies slightly
 in different parts of the circulation4 
,its average heat near the surface is in
 health about the same1 viz4 #ih ,f4    
,blood is alkaline1 but outside of the  
body it soon becomes neutral1 then acid4
 ,the chloride of sodium1 or common     
salt1 which the blood contains1 gives it
 a salty taste4 ,in a hemorrhage from   
the lungs1 the sufferer is quick to     
notice in the mouth the warm and saltish
 taste4 ,the total amount of the blood  
in the body was formerly greatly        
overestimated4 ,it is about #a_/ac of   
the total weight of the body1 and in a  
person weighing #aef pounds would amount

 to about #ab pounds4  #agi4 ,blood     
,corpuscles4 ,if we put a drop of blood 
upon a glass slide1 and place upon it a 
cover of thin glass1 we can flatten it  
out until the color almost disappears4  
,if we examine this thin film with a    
microscope1 we see that the blood is not
 altogether fluid4 ,we find that the    
liquid part1 or plasma1 is of a light   
straw color1 and has floating in it a   
multitude of very minute bodies1 called 
corpuscles4 ,these are of two kinds1 the
 red and the colorless4 ,the former are 
much more numerous1 and have been       
compared somewhat fancifully to         
countless myriads of tiny fishes in a   
swiftly flowing stream4  #ahj4 ,red     
,corpuscles4 ,the red corpuscles are    
circular disks about #a_/cbjj of an inch
 in diameter1 and double concave in     
shape4 ,they tend to adhere in long     
rolls like piles of coins4 ,they are    
soft1 flexible1 and elastic1 readily    
squeezing through openings and passages 
narrower than their own diameter1 then  

at once resuming their own shape4  ,the 
red corpuscles are so very small1 that  
rather more than ten millions of them   
will lie on a surface one inch square4  
,their number is so enormous that1 if   
all the red corpuscles in a healthy     
person could be arranged in a continuous
 line1 it is estimated that they would  
reach four times around the earth6 ,the 
principal constituent of these          
corpuscles1 next to water1 and that     
which gives them color is hmoglobin1 a  
compound containing iron4 ,as all the   
tissues are constantly absorbing oxygen1
 and giving off carbon dioxid1 a very   
important office of the red corpuscles  
is to carry oxygen to all parts of the  
body4  #aha4 ,colorless ,corpuscles4    
,the colorless corpuscles are larger    
than the red1 their average diameter    
being about #a_/bejj of an inch4 ,while 
the red corpuscles are regular in shape1
 and float about1 and tumble freely over
 one another1 the colorless are of      
irregular shape1 and stick close to the 

glass slide on which they are placed4   
,again1 while the red corpuscles are    
changed only by some influence from     
without1 as pressure and the like1 the  
colorless corpuscles spontaneously      
undergo active and very curious changes 
of form1 resembling those of the amba1 a
 very minute organism found in stagnant 
water 7,fig4 #b74  ,the number of both  
red and colorless corpuscles varies a   
great deal from time to time4 ,for      
instance1 the number of the latter      
increases after meals1 and quickly      
diminishes4 ,there is reason to think   
both kinds of corpuscles are continually
 being destroyed1 their place being     
supplied by new ones4 ,while the action 
of the colorless corpuscles is important
 to the lymph and the chyle1 and in the 
coagulation of the blood1 their real    
function has not been ascertained4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4--;,blood      
,corpuscles of ,man4    ,a1 red         
corpuscles2   ,b1 the same seen         
edgeways2   ,c1 the same arranged in    

rows2   ,d1 white corpuscles with       
nuclei4     ,experiment #he4 ,to show   
the blood corpuscles4 ,a moderately     
powerful microscope is necessary to     
examine blood corpuscles4 ,let a   small
 drop of blood 7easily obtained by      
pricking the finger with a   needle7 be 
placed upon a clean slip of glass1 and  
covered with thin   glass1 such as is   
ordinarily used for microscopic         
purposes4    ,the blood is thus spread  
out into a film and may be readily      
examined4 ,at   first the red corpuscles
 will be seen as pale1 disk-like bodies 
floating   in the clear fluid4 ,soon    
they will be observed to stick to each  
other by   their flattened faces1 so as 
to form rows4 ,the colorless corpuscles 
are   to be seen among the red ones1 but
 are much less numerous4  #ahb4 ,the    
,coagulation of the ,blood4 ,blood when 
shed from the living body is as fluid as
 water4 ,but it soon becomes viscid1 and
 flows less readily from one vessel to  
another4 ,soon the whole mass becomes a 

nearly solid jelly called a clot4 ,the  
vessel containing it even can be turned 
upside down1 without a drop of blood    
being spilled4 ,if carefully shaken out1
 the mass will form a complete mould of 
the vessel4  ,at first the clot includes
 the whole mass of blood1 takes the     
shape of the vessel in which it is      
contained1 and is of a uniform color4   
,but in a short time a pale yellowish   
fluid begins to ooze out1 and to collect
 on the surface4 ,the clot gradually    
shrinks1 until at the end of a few hours
 it is much firmer1 and floats in the   
yellowish fluid4 ,the white corpuscles  
become entangled in the upper portion of
 clot1 giving it a pale yellow look on  
the top1 known as the buffy coat4 ,as   
the clot is attached to the sides of the
 vessel1 the shrinkage is more          
pronounced toward the center1 and thus  
the surface of the clot is hollowed or  
cupped1 as it is called4 ,this          
remarkable process is known as          
coagulation1 or the clotting of blood2  

and the liquid which separates from the 
clot is called serum4 ,the serum is     
almost entirely free from corpuscles1   
these being entangled in the fibrin4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--;,diagram of 
,clot with ,buffy ,coat4    ,a1 serum2  
,b1 cupped upper surface of clot2   ,c1 
white corpuscles in upper layer of clot2
   ,d1 lower portion of clot with red   
corpuscles4   ,this clotting of the     
blood is due to the formation in the    
blood1 after it is withdrawn from the   
living body1 of a substance called      
fibrin4#ca ,it is made up of a network  
of fine white threads1 running in every 
direction through the plasma1 and is a  
proteid substance4 ,the coagulation of  
the blood may be retarded1 and even     
prevented1 by a temperature below #dj   
,f41 or a temperature above #abj ,f4    
,the addition of common salt also       
prevents coagulation4 ,the clotting of  
the blood may be hastened by free access
 to air1 by contact with roughened      
surfaces1 or by keeping it at perfect   

rest4  ,this power of coagulation is of 
the most vital importance4 ,but for     
this1 a very small cut might cause      
bleeding sufficient to empty the        
blood-vessels1 and death would speedily 
follow4 ,in slight cuts1 ,nature plugs  
up the wound with clots of blood1 and   
thus prevents excessive bleeding4 ,the  
unfavorable effects of the want of      
clotting are illustrated in some persons
 in whom bleeding from even the         
slightest wounds continues till life is 
in danger4 ,such persons are called     
bleeders1 and surgeons hesitate to      
perform on them any operation1 however  
trivial1 even the extraction of a tooth 
being often followed by an alarming loss
 of blood4    ,experiment #hf4 ,a few   
drops of fresh blood may be easily      
obtained to   illustrate important      
points in the physiology of blood1 by   
tying a   string tight around the       
finger1 and piercing it with a clean    
needle4 ,the   blood runs freely1 is red
 and opaque4 ,put two or three drops of 

fresh   blood on a sheet of white paper1
 and observe that it looks yellowish4   
,experiment #hg4 ,put two or three drops
 of fresh blood on a white   individual 
butter plate inverted in a saucer of    
water4 ,cover it with an   inverted     
goblet4 ,take off the cover in five     
minutes1 and the drop has   set into a  
jelly-like mass4 ,take it off in half an
 hour1 and a little   clot will be seen 
in the watery serum4    ,experiment #hh4
 ,to show the blood-clot4 ,carry to the 
slaughter   house a clean1 six or eight 
ounce1 wide-mouthed bottle4 ,fill it    
with   fresh blood4 ,carry it home with 
great care1 and let it stand over night4
   ,the next day the clot will be seen  
floating in the nearly colorless        
serum4    ,experiment #hi4 ,obtain a    
pint of fresh blood2 put it into a bowl1
   and whip it briskly for five minutes1
 with a bunch of dry twigs4 ,fine       
white threads of fibrin collect on the  
twigs1 the blood remaining fluid4       
,this is whipped or defibrinated blood1 

which has lost the power of             
coagulating spontaneously4  #ahc4       
,general ,plan of ,circulation4 ,all the
 tissues of the body depend upon the    
blood for their nourishment4 ,it is     
evident then that this vital fluid must 
be continually renewed1 else it would   
speedily lose all of its life-giving    
material4 ,some provision1 then1 is     
necessary not only to have the blood    
renewed in quantity and quality1 but    
also to enable it to carry away         
impurities4  ,so we must have an        
apparatus of circulation4 ,we need first
 a central pump from which branch off   
large pipes1 which divide into smaller  
and smaller branches until they reach   
the remotest tissues4 ,through these    
pipes the blood must be pumped and      
distributed to the whole body4 ,then we 
must have a set of return pipes by which
 the blood1 after it has carried        
nourishment to the tissues1 and received
 waste matters from them1 shall be      
brought back to the central pumping     

station1 to be used again4 ,we must have
 also some apparatus to purify the blood
 from the waste matter it has collected4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4--;,anterior 
,view of the ,heart4    ,a1 superior    
vena cava2   ,b1 right auricle2   ,c1   
right ventricle2   ,d1 left ventricle2  
,e1 left auricle2   ,f1 pulmonary vein2 
,h1 pulmonary artery2   ,k1 aorta2   ,l1
 right subclavian artery2   ,m1 right   
common carotid artery2   ,n1 left common
 carotid artery4   ,this central pump is
 the heart4 ,the pipes leading from it  
and gradually growing smaller and       
smaller are the arteries4 ,the very     
minute vessels into which they are at   
last subdivided are capillaries4 ,the   
pipes which convey the blood back to the
 heart are the veins4 ,thus1 the        
arteries end in the tissues in fine1    
hair-like vessels1 the capillaries2 and 
the veins begin in the tissues in       
exceedingly small tubes1--the           
capillaries4 ,of course1 there can be no
 break in the continuity between the    

arteries and the vein4 ,the apparatus of
 circulation is thus formed by the      
heart1 the arteries1 the capillaries1   
and the veins4  #ahd4 ,the ,heart4 ,the 
heart is a pear-shaped1 muscular organ  
roughly estimated as about the size of  
the persons closed fist4 ,it lies in the
 chest behind the breastbone1 and is1   
lodged between the lobes of the lungs1  
which partly cover it4 ,in shape the    
heart resembles a cone1 the base of     
which is directed upwards1 a little     
backwards1 and to the right side1 while 
the apex is pointed downwards1 forwards1
 and to the left side4 ,during life1 the
 apex of the heart beats against the    
chest wall in the space between the     
fifth and sixth ribs1 and about an inch 
and a half to the left of the middle    
line of the body4 ,the beating of the   
heart can be readily felt1 heard1 and   
often seen moving the chest wall as it  
strikes against it4  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #fi4--;,diagram illustrating the  
,structure of a ,serous ,membrane4      

,a1 the viscus1 or organ1 enveloped by  
serous membrane2   ,b1 layer of membrane
 lining cavity2   ,c1 membrane reflected
 to envelop viscus2   ,d1 outer layer of
 viscus1 with blood-vessels at   ,e     
communicating with the general          
circulation4   ,the heart does not hang 
free in the chest1 but is suspended and 
kept in position to some extent by the  
great vessels connected with it4 ,it is 
enclosed in a bell-shaped covering      
called the pericardium4 ,this is really 
double1 with two layers1 one over       
another4 ,the inner or serous layer     
covers the external surface of the      
heart1 and is reflected back upon itself
 in order to form1 like all membranes of
 this kind1 a sac without an opening4#cb
 ,the heart is thus covered by the      
pericardial sac1 but is not contained   
inside its cavity4 ,the space between   
the two membranes is filled with serous 
fluid4 ,this fluid permits the heart and
 the pericardium to glide upon one      
another with the least possible amount  

of friction4#cc  ,the heart is a hollow 
organ1 but the cavity is divided into   
two parts by a muscular partition       
forming a left and a right side1 between
 which there is no communication4 ,these
 two cavities are each divided by a     
horizontal partition into an upper and a
 lower chamber4 ,these partitions1      
however1 include a set of valves which  
open like folding doors between the two 
rooms4 ,if these doors are closed there 
are two separate rooms1 but if open     
there is practically only one room4 ,the
 heart thus has four chambers1 two on   
each side4 ,the two upper chambers are  
called auricles from their supposed     
resemblance to the ear4 ,the two lower  
chambers are called ventricles1 and     
their walls form the chief portion of   
the muscular substance of the organ4    
,there are1 therefore1 the right and    
left auricles1 with their thin1 soft    
walls1 and the right and left           
ventricles1 with their thick and strong 
walls4  #ahe4 ,the ,valves of the       

,heart4 ,the heart is a valvular pump1  
which works on mechanical principles1   
the motive power being supplied by the  
contraction of its muscular fibers4     
,regarding the heart as a pump1 its     
valves assume great importance4 ,they   
consist of thin1 but strong1 triangular 
folds of tough membrane which hang down 
from the edges of the passages into the 
ventricles4 ,they may be compared to    
swinging curtains which1 by opening only
 one way1 allow the blood to flow from  
the auricles to the ventricles1 but by  
instantly folding back prevent its      
return4  ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#gj4--,lateral ,section of the ,right   
,chest4 7,showing the relative position 
of the heart and its great vessels1 the 
sophagus and trachea47    ,a1 inferior  
constrictor muscle 7aids in conveying   
food down the      sophagus72   ,b1     
sophagus2   ,c1 section of the right    
bronchus2   ,d1 two right pulmonary     
veins2   ,e1 great azygos vein crossing 
sophagus and right bronchus to empty    

into the superior vena cava2   ,f1      
thoracic duct2   ,h1 thoracic aorta2    
,k1 lower portion of sophagus passing   
through the diaphragm2   ,l1 diaphragm  
as it appears in sectional view1        
enveloping the heart2   ,m1 inferior    
vena cava passing through diaphragm and 
emptying into      auricle2   ,n1 right 
auricle2   ,o1 section of right branch  
of the pulmonary artery2   ,p1 aorta2   
,r1 superior vena cava2   ,s1 trachea4  
,the valve on the right side is called  
the tricuspid1 because it consists of   
three little folds which fall over the  
opening and close it1 being kept from   
falling too far by a number of slender  
threads called chord tendin4 ,the valve 
on the left side1 called the mitral1    
from its fancied resemblance to a       
bishop's mitre1 consists of two folds   
which close together as do those of the 
tricuspid valve4  ,the slender cords    
which regulate the valves are only just 
long enough to allow the folds to close 
together1 and no force of the blood     

pushing against the valves can send them
 farther back1 as the cords will not    
stretch ,the harder the blood in the    
ventricles pushes back against the      
valves1 the tighter the cords become and
 the closer the folds are brought       
together1 until the way is completely   
closed4  ,from the right ventricle a    
large vessel called the pulmonary artery
 passes to the lungs1 and from the left 
ventricle a large vessel called the     
aorta arches out to the general         
circulation of the body4 ,the openings  
from the ventricles into these vessels  
are guarded by the semilunar valves4    
,each valve has three folds1 each       
half-moon-shaped1 hence the name        
semilunar4 ,these valves1 when shut1    
prevent any backward flow of the blood  
on the right side between the pulmonary 
artery and the right ventricle1 and on  
the left side between the aorta and the 
left ventricle4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ga4--,right ,cavities of the ,heart4   
,a1 aorta2   ,b1 superior vena cava2    

,c1 ,c1 right pulmonary veins2   ,d1    
inferior vena cava2   ,e1 section of    
coronary vein2   ,f1 right ventricular  
cavity2   ,h1 posterior curtain of the  
tricuspid valve2   ,k1 right auricular  
cavity2   ,m1 fossa ovalis1 oval        
depression1 partition between the       
auricles formed      after birth4       
#ahf4 ,general ,plan of the             
,blood-vessels ,connected with the      
,heart4 ,there are numerous             
blood-vessels connected with the heart1 
the relative position and the use of    
which must be understood4 ,the two      
largest veins in the body1 the superior 
vena cava and the inferior vena cava1   
open into the right auricle4 ,these two 
veins bring venous blood from all parts 
of the body1 and pour it into the right 
auricle1 whence it passes into the right
 ventricle4  ,from the right ventricle  
arises one large vessel1 the pulmonary  
artery1 which soon divides into two     
branches of nearly equal size1 one for  
the right lung1 the other for the left4 

,each branch1 having reached its lung1  
divides and subdivides again and again1 
until it ends in hair-like capillaries1 
which form a very fine network in every 
part of the lung4 ,thus the blood is    
pumped from the right ventricle into the
 pulmonary artery and distributed       
throughout the two lungs 7,figs4 #hf and
 #hh74  ,we will now turn to the left   
side of the heart1 and notice the       
general arrangement of its great        
vessels4 ,four veins1 called the        
pulmonary veins1 open into the left     
auricle1 two from each lung4 ,these     
veins start from very minute vessels the
 continuation of the capillaries of the 
pulmonary artery4 ,they form larger and 
larger vessels until they become two    
large veins in each lung1 and pour their
 contents into the left auricle4 ,thus  
the pulmonary artery carries venous     
blood from the right ventricle to the   
lungs1 as the pulmonary veins carry     
arterial blood from the lungs to the    
left auricle4  ,from the left ventricle 

springs the largest arterial trunk in   
the body1 over one-half of an inch in   
diameter1 called the aorta4 ,from the   
aorta other arteries branch off to carry
 the blood to all parts of the body1    
only to be again brought back by the    
veins to the right side1 through the    
cavities of the ventricles4 ,we shall   
learn in ,chapter ,,viii4 that the main 
object of pumping the blood into the    
lungs is to have it purified from       
certain waste matters which it has taken
 up in its course through the body1     
before it is again sent on its journey  
from the left ventricle4   #ahg4 ,the   
,arteries4 ,the blood-vessels are       
flexible tubes through which the blood  
is borne through the body4 ,there are   
three kinds1--the arteries1 the veins1  
and the capillaries1 and these differ   
from one another in various ways4  ,the 
arteries are the highly elastic and     
extensible tubes which carry the pure1  
fresh blood outwards from the heart to  
all parts of the body4 ,they may all be 

regarded as branches of the aorta4      
,after the aorta leaves the left        
ventricle it rises towards the neck1 but
 soon turns downwards1 making a curve   
known as the arch of the aorta4  ,from  
the arch are given off the arteries     
which supply the head and arms with     
blood4 ,these are the two carotid       
arteries1 which run up on each side of  
the neck to the head1 and the two       
subclavian arteries1 which pass beneath 
the collar bone to the arms4 ,this great
 arterial trunk now passes down in front
 of the spine to the pelvis1 where it   
divides into two main branches1 which   
supply the pelvis and the lower limbs4  
,the descending aorta1 while passing    
downwards1 gives off arteries to the    
different tissues and organs4 ,of these 
branches the chief are the coeliac      
artery1 which subdivides into three     
great branches1--one each to supply the 
stomach1 the liver1 and the spleen2 then
 the renal arteries1 one to each kidney2
 and next two others1 the mesenteric    

arteries1 to the intestines4 ,the aorta 
at last divides into two main branches1 
the common iliac arteries1 which1 by    
their subdivisions1 furnish the arterial
 vessels for the pelvis and the lower   
limbs4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,left
 ,cavities of the ,heart4    ,a1 ,b1    
right pulmonary veins2   with ,s1       
openings of the veins2   ,e1 ,d1 ,c1    
aortic valves2   ,r1 aorta2   ,p1       
pulmonary artery2   ,o1 pulmonic valves2
   ,h1 mitral valve2   ,k1 column       
carnoe2   ,m1 right ventricular cavity2 
,n1 interventricular septum4   ,the flow
 of blood in the arteries is caused by  
the muscular force of the heart1 aided  
by the elastic tissues and muscular     
fibers of the arterial walls1 and to a  
certain extent by the muscles           
themselves4 ,most of the great arterial 
trunks lie deep in the fleshy parts of  
the body2 but their branches are so     
numerous and become so minute that1 with
 a few exceptions1 they penetrate all   
the tissues of the body1--so much so1   

that the point of the finest needle     
cannot be thrust into the flesh anywhere
 without wounding one or more little    
arteries and thus drawing blood4   #ahh4
 ,the ,veins4 ,the veins are the        
blood-vessels which carry the impure    
blood from the various tissues of the   
body to the heart4 ,they begin in the   
minute capillaries at the extremities of
 the four limbs1 and everywhere         
throughout the body1 and passing onwards
 toward the heart1 receive constantly   
fresh accessions on the way from myriad 
other veins bringing blood from other   
wayside capillaries1 till the central   
veins gradually unite into larger and   
larger vessels until at length they form
 the two great vessels which open into  
the right auricle of the heart4  ,these 
two great venous trunks are the inferior
 vena cava1 bringing the blood from the 
trunk and the lower limbs1 and the      
superior vena cava1 bringing the blood  
from the head and the upper limbs4      
,these two large trunks meet as they    

enter the right auricle4 ,the four      
pulmonary veins1 as we have learned1    
carry the arterial blood from the lungs 
to the left auricle4  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #gc4    ,a1 part of a vein laid   
open1 with two pairs of valves2   ,b1   
longitudinal section of a vein1 showing 
the valves closed4   ,a large vein      
generally accompanies its corresponding 
artery1 but most veins lie near the     
surface of the body1 just beneath the   
skin4 ,they may be easily seen under the
 skin of the hand and forearm1          
especially in aged persons4 ,if the arm 
of a young person is allowed to hang    
down a few moments1 and then tightly    
bandaged above the elbow to retard the  
return of the blood1 the veins become   
large and prominent4  ,the walls of the 
larger veins1 unlike arteries1 contain  
but little of either elastic or muscular
 tissue2 hence they are thin1 and when  
empty collapse4 ,the inner surfaces of  
many of the veins are supplied with     
pouch-like folds1 or pockets1 which act 

as valves to impede the backward flow of
 the blood1 while they do not obstruct  
blood flowing forward toward the heart4 
,these valves can be shown by letting   
the forearm hang down1 and sliding the  
finger upwards over the veins 7,fig4    
#gc74  ,the veins have no force-pump1   
like the arteries1 to propel their      
contents towards their destination4 ,the
 onward flow of the blood in them is due
 to various causes1 the chief being the 
pressure behind of the blood pumped into
 the capillaries4 ,then as the          
pocket-like valves prevent the backward 
flow of the blood1 the pressure of the  
various muscles of the body urges along 
the blood1 and thus promotes the onward 
flow4  ,the forces which drive the blood
 through the arteries are sufficient to 
carry the blood on through the          
capillaries4 ,it is calculated that the 
onward flow in the capillaries is about 
#a_/ej to #a_/cc of an inch in a second1
 while in the arteries the blood current
 flows about #af inches in a second1 and

 in the great veins about #d inches     
every second4  ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#gd4--,the ,structure of ,capillaries4  
,capillaries of various sizes1 showing  
cells with nuclei  #ahi4 ,the           
,capillaries4 ,the capillaries are the  
minute1 hair-like tubes1 with very thin 
walls1 which form the connection between
 the ending of the finest arteries and  
the beginning of the smallest veins4    
,they are distributed through every     
tissue of the body1 except the epidermis
 and its products1 the epithelium1 the  
cartilages1 and the substance of the    
teeth4 ,in fact1 the capillaries form a 
network of the tiniest blood-vessels1 so
 minute as to be quite invisible1 at    
least one-fourth smaller than the finest
 line visible to the naked eye4  ,the   
capillaries serve as a medium to        
transmit the blood from the arteries to 
the veins2 and it is through them that  
the blood brings nourishment to the     
surrounding tissues4 ,in brief1 we may  
regard the whole body as consisting of  

countless groups of little islands      
surrounded by ever-flowing streams of   
blood4 ,the walls of the capillaries are
 of the most delicate structure1        
consisting of a single layer of cells   
loosely connected4 ,thus there is       
allowed the most free interchange       
between the blood and the tissues1      
through the medium of the lymph4  ,the  
number of the capillaries is            
inconceivable4 ,those in the lungs      
alone1 placed in a continuous line1     
would reach thousands of miles4 ,the    
thin walls of the capillaries are       
admirably adapted for the important     
interchanges that take place between the
 blood and the tissues4  #aij4 ,the     
,circulation of the ,blood4 ,it is now  
well to study the circulation as a      
whole1 tracing the course of the blood  
from a certain point until it returns to
 the same point4 ,we may conveniently   
begin with the portion of blood         
contained at any moment in the right    
auricle4 ,the superior and inferior ven 

cav are busily filling the auricle with 
dark1 impure blood4 ,when it is full1 it
 contracts4 ,the passage leading to the 
right ventricle lies open1 and through  
it the blood pours till the ventricle is
 full4 ,instantly this begins1 in its   
turn1 to contract4 ,the tricuspid valve 
at once closes1 and blocks the way      
backward4 ,the blood is now forced      
through the open semilunar valves into  
the pulmonary artery4  ,the pulmonary   
artery1 bringing venous blood1 by its   
alternate expansion and recoil1 draws   
the blood along until it reaches the    
pulmonary capillaries4 ,these tiny tubes
 surround the air cells of the lungs1   
and here an exchange takes place4 ,the  
impure1 venous blood here gives up its  
dbris in the shape of carbon dioxid and 
water1 and in return takes up a large   
amount of oxygen4 ,thus the blood       
brought to the lungs by the pulmonary   
arteries leaves the lungs entirely      
different in character and appearance4  
,this part of the circulation is often  

called the lesser or pulmonic           
circulation4  ,the four pulmonary veins 
bring back bright1 scarlet blood1 and   
pour it into the left auricle of the    
heart1 whence it passes through the     
mitral valve into the left ventricle4   
,as soon as the left ventricle is full1 
it contracts4 ,the mitral valve         
instantly closes and blocks the passage 
backward into the auricle2 the blood1   
having no other way open1 is forced     
through the semilunar valves into the   
aorta4 ,now red in color from its fresh 
oxygen1 and laden with nutritive        
materials1 it is distributed by the     
arteries to the various tissues of the  
body4 ,here it gives up its oxygen1 and 
certain nutritive materials to build up 
the tissues1 and receives certain       
products of waste1 and1 changed to a    
purple color1 passes from the           
capillaries into the veins4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4--;,diagram    
illustrating the ,circulation4    #a1   
right auricle2   #b1 left auricle2   #c1

 right ventricle2   #d1 left ventricle2 
#e1 vena cava superior2   #f1 vena cava 
inferior2   #g1 pulmonary arteries2     
#h1 lungs2   #i1 pulmonary veins2   #aj1
 aorta2   #aa1 alimentary canal2   #ab1 
liver2   #ac1 hepatic artery2   #ad1    
portal vein2   #ae1 hepatic vein4       
,all the veins of the body1 except those
 from the lungs and the heart itself1   
unite into two large veins1 as already  
described1 which pour their contents    
into the right auricle of the heart1 and
 thus the grand round of circulation is 
continually maintained4 ,this is called 
the systemic circulation4 ,the whole    
circuit of the blood is thus divided    
into two portions1 very distinct from   
each other4  #aia4 ,the ,portal         
,circulation4 ,a certain part of the    
systemic or greater circulation is often
 called the portal circulation1 which   
consists of the flow of the blood from  
the abdominal viscera through the portal
 vein and liver to the hepatic vein4    
,the blood brought to the capillaries of

 the stomach1 intestines1 spleen1 and   
pancreas is gathered into veins which   
unite into a single trunk called the    
portal vein4 ,the blood1 thus laden with
 certain products of digestion1 is      
carried to the liver by the portal vein1
 mingling with that supplied to the     
capillaries of the same organ by the    
hepatic artery4 ,from these capillaries 
the blood is carried by small veins     
which unite into a large trunk1 the     
hepatic vein1 which opens into the      
inferior vena cava4 ,the portal         
circulation is thus not an independent  
system1 but forms a kind of loop on the 
systemic circulation4  ,the             
lymph-current is in a sense a slow and  
stagnant side stream of the blood       
circulation2 for substances are         
constantly passing from the             
blood-vessels into the lymph spaces1 and
 returning1 although after a            
comparatively long interval1 into the   
blood by the great lymphatic trunks4    
,experiment #ij4 ,to illustrate the     

action of the heart1 and how it   pumps 
the blood in only one direction4 ,take a
 ,davidson or ,household   rubber       
syringe4 ,sink the suction end into     
water1 and press the bulb4 ,as   you let
 the bulb expand1 it fills with water2  
as you press it again1 a   valve        
prevents the water from flowing back1   
and it is driven out in a   jet along   
the other pipe4 ,the suction pipe       
represents the veins2 the   bulb1 the   
heart2 and the tube end1 out of which   
the water flows1 the   arteries4        
,,note4 ,the heart is not nourished by  
the blood which passes through     it4  
,the muscular substance of the heart    
itself is supplied with     nourishment 
by two little arteries called the       
coronary arteries1     which start from 
the aorta just above two of the         
semilunar valves4 ,the     blood is     
returned to the right auricle 7not to   
either of the ven     cav7 by the       
coronary vein4  ,the longest route a    
portion of blood may take from the      

moment it leaves the left ventricle to  
the moment it returns to it1 is through 
the portal circulation4 ,the shortest   
possible route is through the substance 
of the heart itself4 ,the mean time     
which the blood requires to make a      
complete circuit is about #bc seconds4  
#aib4 ,the ,rhythmic ,action of the     
,heart4 ,to maintain a steady flow of   
blood throughout the body the action of 
the heart must be regular and           
methodical4 ,the heart does not contract
 as a whole4 ,the two auricles contract 
at the same time1 and this is followed  
at once by the contraction of the two   
ventricles4 ,while the ventricles are   
contracting1 the auricles begin to      
relax1 and after the ventricles contract
 they also relax4 ,now comes a pause1 or
 rest1 after which the auricles and     
ventricles contract again in the same   
order as before1 and their contractions 
are followed by the same pause as       
before4 ,these contractions and         
relaxations of the various parts of the 

heart follow one another so regularly   
that the result is called the rhythmic  
action of the heart4  ,the average      
number of beats of the heart1 under     
normal conditions1 is from #fe to #ge   
per minute4 ,now the time occupied from 
the instant the auricles begin to       
contract until after the contraction of 
the ventricles and the pause1 is less   
than a second4 ,of this time one-fifth  
is occupied by the contraction of the   
auricles1 two-fifths by the contraction 
of the ventricles1 and the time during  
which the whole heart is at rest is     
two-fifths of the period4  #aic4        
,impulse and ,sounds of the ,heart4 ,the
 rhythmic action of the heart is        
attended with various occurrences worthy
 of note4 ,if the hand be laid flat over
 the chest wall on the left1 between the
 fifth and sixth ribs1 the heart will be
 felt beating4 ,this movement is known  
as the beat or impulse of the heart1 and
 can be both seen and felt on the left  
side4 ,the heart-beat is unusually      

strong during active bodily exertion1   
and under mental excitement4  ,the      
impulse of the heart is due to the      
striking of the lower1 tense part of the
 ventricles--the apex of the            
heart--against the chest wall at the    
moment of their vigorous contraction4   
,it is important for the physician to   
know the exact place where the          
heart-beat should be felt1 for the heart
 may be displaced by disease1 and its   
impulse would indicate its new position4
  ,sounds also accompany the heart's    
action4 ,if the ear be applied over the 
region of the heart1 two distinct sounds
 will be heard following one another    
with perfect regularity4 ,their         
character may be tolerably imitated by  
pronouncing the syllables lubb1 dp4 ,one
 sound is heard immediately after the   
other1 then there is a pause1 then come 
the two sounds again4 ,the first is a   
dull1 muffled sound1 known as the first 
sound1 followed at once by a short and  
sharper sound1 known as the second sound

 of the heart4  ,the precise cause of   
the first sound is still doubtful1 but  
it is made at the moment the ventricles 
contract4 ,the second sound is1 without 
doubt1 caused by the sudden closure of  
the semilunar valves of the pulmonary   
artery and the aorta1 at the moment when
 the contraction of the ventricles is   
completed4  ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#gf4--,muscular ,fibers of the          
,ventricles4    ,a1 superficial fibers  
common to both ventricles2   ,b1 fibers 
of the left ventricle2   ,c1 deep fibers
 passing upwards toward the base of the 
heart2   ,d1 fibers penetrating the left
 ventricle   ,the sounds of the heart   
are modified or masked by blowing       
murmurs when the cardiac orifices or    
valves are roughened1 dilated1 or       
otherwise affected as the result of     
disease4 ,hence these new sounds may    
often afford indications of the greatest
 importance to physicians in the        
diagnosis of heart-disease4  #aid4 ,the 
,nervous ,control of the ,heart4 ,the   

regular1 rhythmic movement of the heart 
is maintained by the action of certain  
nerves4 ,in various places in the       
substance of the heart are masses of    
nerve matter1 called ganglia4 ,from     
these ganglia there proceed1 at regular 
intervals1 discharges of nerve energy1  
some of which excite movement1 while    
others seem to restrain it4 ,the heart  
would quickly become exhausted if the   
exciting ganglia had it all their own   
way1 while it would stand still if the  
restraining ganglia had full sway4 ,the 
influence of one1 however1 modifies the 
other1 and the result is a moderate and 
regular activity of the heart4  ,the    
heart is also subject to other nerve    
influences1 but from outside of itself4 
,two nerves are connected with the      
heart1 the pneumogastric and the        
sympathetic 7secs4 #bga and #bfe74 ,the 
former appears to be connected with the 
restraining ganglia2 the latter with the
 exciting ganglia4 ,thus1 if a person   
were the subject of some emotion which  

caused fainting1 the explanation would  
be that the impression had been conveyed
 to the brain1 and from the brain to the
 heart by the pneumogastric nerves4 ,the
 result would be that the heart for an  
instant ceases to beat4 ,death would be 
the result if the nerve influence were  
so great as to restrain the movements of
 the heart for any appreciable time4    
,again1 if the person were the subject  
of some emotion by which the heart were 
beating faster than usual1 it would mean
 that there was sent from the brain to  
the heart by the sympathetic nerves the 
impression which stimulated it to       
increased activity4  #aie4 ,the ,nervous
 ,control of the ,blood-vessels4 ,the   
tone and caliber of the blood-vessels   
are controlled by certain vaso-motor    
nerves1 which are distributed among the 
muscular fibers of the walls4 ,these    
nerves are governed from a center in the
 medulla oblongata1 a part of the brain 
7sec4 #bgj74 ,if the nerves are         
stimulated more than usual1 the muscular

 walls contract1 and the quantity of the
 blood flowing through them and the     
supply to the part are diminished4      
,again1 if the stimulus is less than    
usual1 the vessels dilate1 and the      
supply to the part is increased4  ,now  
the vaso-motor center may be excited to 
increased activity by influences        
reaching it from various parts of the   
body1 or even from the brain itself4 ,as
 a result1 the nerves are stimulated1   
and the vessels contract4 ,again1 the   
normal influence of the vaso-motor      
center may be suspended for a time by   
what is known as the inhibitory or      
restraining effect4 ,the result is that 
the tone of the blood-vessels becomes   
diminished1 and their channels widen4   
,the effect of this power of the nervous
 system is to give it a certain control 
over the circulation in particular      
parts4 ,thus1 though the force of the   
heart and the general average           
blood-pressure remain the same1 the     
state of the circulation may be very    

different in different parts of the     
body4 ,the importance of this local     
control over the circulation is of the  
utmost significance4 ,thus an organ at  
work needs to be more richly supplied   
with blood than when at rest4 ,for      
example1 when the salivary glands need  
to secrete saliva1 and the stomach to   
pour out gastric juice1 the arteries    
that supply these organs are dilated1   
and so the parts are flushed with an    
extra supply of blood1 and thus are     
aroused to greater activity4  ,again1   
the ordinary supply of blood to a part  
may be lessened1 so that the organ is   
reduced to a state of inactivity1 as    
occurs in the case of the brain during  
sleep4 ,we have in the act of blushing a
 visible example of sudden enlargement  
of the smaller arteries of the face and 
neck1 called forth by some mental       
emotion which acts on the vaso-motor    
center and diminishes its activity4 ,the
 reverse condition occurs in the act of 
turning pale4 ,then the result of the   

mental emotion is to cause the          
vaso-motor nerves to exercise a more    
powerful control over the capillaries1  
thereby closing them1 and thus shutting 
off the flow of blood4    ,experiment   
#ia4 ,hold up the ear of a white rabbit 
against the light   while the animal is 
kept quiet and not alarmed4 ,the red    
central artery   can be seen coursing   
along the translucent organ1 giving off 
branches   which by subdivision become  
too small to be separately visible1 and 
the   whole ear has a pink color and is 
warm from the abundant blood flowing    
through it4 ,attentive observation will 
show also that the caliber of the   main
 artery is not constant2 at somewhat    
irregular periods of a minute   or more 
it dilates and contracts a little4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,some of the 
,principal ,organs of the ,chest and    
,abdomen4 7,blood vessels on the left1  
muscles on the right47  ,in brief1 all  
over the body1 the nervous system1 by   
its vaso-motor centers1 is always       

supervising and regulating the          
distribution of blood in the body1      
sending now more and now less to this or
 that part4  ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#gh4--;,capillary ,blood-,vessels in the
 ,web of a ,frog's ,foot1 as seen with  
the ,microscope4  #aif4 ,the ,pulse4    
,when the finger is placed on any part  
of the body where an artery is located  
near the surface1 as1 for example1 on   
the radial artery near the wrist1 there 
is felt an intermittent pressure1       
throbbing with every beat of the heart4 
,this movement1 frequently visible to   
the eye1 is the result of the alternate 
expansion of the artery by the wave of  
blood1 and the recoil of the arterial   
walls by their elasticity4 ,in other    
words1 it is the wave produced by       
throwing a mass of blood into the       
arteries already full4 ,the blood-wave  
strikes upon the elastic walls of the   
arteries1 causing an increased          
distention1 followed at once by         
contraction4 ,this regular dilatation   

and rigidity of the elastic artery      
answering to the beats of the heart1 is 
known as the pulse4  ,the pulse may be  
easily found at the wrist1 the temple1  
and the inner side of the ankle4 ,the   
throb of the two carotid arteries may be
 plainly felt by pressing the thumb and 
finger backwards on each side of the    
larynx4 ,the progress of the pulse-wave 
must not be confused with the actual    
current of the blood itself4 ,for       
instance1 the pulse-wave travels at the 
rate of about #cj feet a second1 and    
takes about #a_/aj of a second to reach 
the wrist1 while the blood itself is    
from #c to #e seconds in reaching the   
same place4  ,the pulse-wave may be     
compared to the wave produced by a stiff
 breeze on the surface of a slowly      
moving stream1 or the jerking throb sent
 along a rope when shaken4 ,the rate of 
the pulse is modified by age1 fatigue1  
posture1 exercise1 stimulants1 disease1 
and many other circumstances4 ,at birth 
the rate is about #adj times a minute1  

in early infancy1 #abj or upwards1 in   
the healthy adult between #fe and #ge1  
the most common number being #gb4 ,in   
the same individual1 the pulse is       
quicker when standing than when lying   
down1 is quickened by excitement1 is    
faster in the morning1 and is slowest at
 midnight4 ,in old age the pulse is     
faster than in middle life2 in children 
it is quicker than in adults4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4--;,circulation
 in the ,capillaries1 as seen with the  
,microscope4  ,as the pulse varies much 
in its rate and character in disease1 it
 is to the skilled touch of the         
physician an invaluable help in the     
diagnosis of the physical condition of  
his patient4    ,experiment #ib4 ,to    
find the pulse4 ,grasp the wrist of a   
friend1   pressing with three fingers   
over the radius4 ,press three fingers   
over   the radius in your own wrist1 to 
feel the pulse4    ,count by a watch the
 rate of your pulse per minute1 and do  
the same with   a friend's pulse4       

,compare its characters with your own   
pulse4    ,observe how the character and
 frequency of the pulse are altered by  
posture1 muscular exercise1 a prolonged1
 sustained1 deep inspiration1           
prolonged expiration1 and other         
conditions4  #aig4 ,effect of ,alcoholic
 ,liquors upon the ,organs of           
,circulation4 ,alcoholic drinks exercise
 a destructive influence upon the heart1
 the circulation1 and the blood itself4 
,these vicious liquids can reach the    
heart only indirectly1 either from the  
stomach by the portal vein to the liver1
 and thence to the heart1 or else by way
 of the lacteals1 and so to the blood   
through the thoracic duct4 ,but by      
either course the route is direct       
enough1 and speedy enough to accomplish 
a vast amount of ruinous work4  ,the    
influence of alcohol upon the heart and 
circulation is produced mainly through  
the nervous system4 ,the inhibitory     
nerves1 as we have seen1 hold the heart 
in check1 exercise a restraining control

 over it1 very much as the reins control
 an active horse4 ,in health this       
inhibitory influence is protective and  
sustaining4 ,but now comes the narcotic 
invasion of alcoholic drinks1 which     
paralyze the inhibitory nerves1 with the
 others1 and at once the uncontrolled   
heart1 like the unchecked steed1 plunges
 on to violent and often destructive    
results4  ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#hj4--,two ,principal ,arteries of the  
,front of the ,leg 7,anterior ,tibial   
and ,dorsalis ,pedis74  ,this action1   
because it is quicker1 has been         
considered also a stronger action1 and  
the alcohol has therefore been supposed 
to produce a stimulating effect4 ,but   
later researches lead to the conclusion 
that the effect of alcoholic liquors is 
not properly that of a stimulant1 but of
 a narcotic paralyzant1 and that while  
it indeed quickens1 it also really      
weakens the heart's action4 ,this view  
would seem sustained by the fact that   
the more the intoxicants are pushed1 the

 deeper are the narcotic and paralyzing 
effects4 ,after having obstructed the   
nutritive and reparative functions of   
the vital fluid for many years1 their   
effects at last may become fatal4  ,this
 relaxing effect involves not only the  
heart1 but also the capillary system1 as
 is shown in the complexion of the face 
and the color of the hands4 ,in moderate
 drinkers the face is only flushed1 but 
in drunkards it is purplish4 ,the flush 
attending the early stages of drinking  
is1 of course1 not the flush of health1 
but an indication of disease4#cd  #aih4 
,effect upon the ,heart4 ,this forced   
overworking of the heart which drives it
 at a reckless rate1 cuts short its     
periods of rest and inevitably produces 
serious heart-exhaustion4 ,if repeated  
and continued1 it involves grave changes
 of the structure of the heart4 ,the    
heart muscle1 endeavoring to compensate 
for the over-exertion1 may become much  
thickened1 making the ventricles        
smaller1 and so fail to do its duty in  

properly pumping forward the blood which
 rushes in from the auricle4 ,or the    
heart wall may by exhaustion become     
thinner1 making the ventricles much too 
large1 and unable to send on the        
current4 ,in still other cases1 the     
heart degenerates with minute particles 
of fat deposited in its structures1 and 
thus loses its power to propel the      
nutritive fluid4 ,all three of these    
conditions involve organic disease of   
the valves1 and all three often produce 
fatal results4  #aii4 ,effect of        
,alcohol on the ,blood-vessels4         
,alcoholic liquors injure not only the  
heart1 but often destroy the            
blood-vessels1 chiefly the larger       
arteries1 as the arch of the aorta or   
the basilar artery of the brain4 ,in the
 walls of these vessels may be gradually
 deposited a morbid product1 the result 
of disordered nutrition1 sometimes      
chalky1 sometimes bony1 with usually a  
dangerous dilatation of the tube4  ,in  
other cases the vessels are weakened by 

an unnatural fatty deposit4 ,though     
these disordered conditions differ      
somewhat1 the morbid results in all are 
the same4 ,the weakened and stiffened   
arterial walls lose the elastic spring  
of the pulsing current4 ,the blood fails
 to sweep on with its accustomed vigor4 
,at last1 owing perhaps to the pressure1
 against the obstruction of a clot of   
blood1 or perhaps to some unusual strain
 of work or passion1 the enfeebled      
vessel bursts1 and death speedily ensues
 from a form of apoplexy4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4--,showing the 
,carotid ,artery and ,jugular ,vein on  
the ,right ,side1 with ,some of their   
,main ,branches4 7,some branches of the 
cervical plexus1 and the hypoglossal    
nerve are also shown47      ,,note4 ,an 
alcoholic heart loses its contractile   
and resisting power1     both through   
morbid changes in its nerve ganglia and 
in its muscle     fibers4 ,in typhoid   
fever1 muscle changes are evidently the 
cause of     the heart-enfeeblement2    

while in diphtheria1 disturbances in    
innervation cause the heart             
insufficiency4 ',if the habitual use of 
alcohol causes the loss of contractile  
and resisting power by     impairment of
 both the nerve ganglia and muscle      
fibers of the heart1     how can it act 
as a heart tonic8'--,dr4 ,alfred ,l4    
,loomis1 ,professor of     ,medicine in 
the ,medical ,department of the         
,university of the ,city of     ,new    
,york4  #bjj4 ,other ,results from the  
,use of ,intoxicants4 ,other disastrous 
consequences follow the use of          
intoxicants1 and these upon the blood4  
,when any alcohol is present in the     
circulation1 its greed for water induces
 the absorption of moisture from the red
 globules of the blood1 the             
oxygen-carriers4 ,in consequence they   
contract and harden1 thus becoming      
unable to absorb1 as theretofore1 the   
oxygen in the lungs4 ,then1 in turn1 the
 oxidation of the waste matter in the   
tissues is prevented2 thus the          

corpuscles cannot convey carbon dioxid  
from the capillaries1 and this fact     
means that some portion of refuse       
material1 not being thus changed and    
eliminated1 must remain in the blood1   
rendering it impure and unfit for its   
proper use in nutrition4 ,thus1 step by 
step1 the use of alcoholics impairs the 
functions of the blood corpuscles1      
perverts nutrition1 and slowly poisons  
the blood4  ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#hb4--,the ,right ,axillary and         
,brachial ,arteries1 with ,some of their
 ,main ,branches4      ,,note4 ,destroy 
or paralyze the inhibitory nerve center1
 and instantly     its controlling      
effect on the heart mechanism is lost1  
and the     accelerating agent1 being no
 longer under its normal restraint1 runs
     riot4 ,the heart's action is       
increased1 the pulse is quickened1 an   
excess of blood is forced into the      
vessels1 and from their becoming        
engorged and dilated the face gets      
flushed1 all the usual concomitants     

of a general engorgement of the         
circulation being the result4--,dr4     
,george ,harley1 ,f4,r4,s41 an eminent  
,english medical author4      ,the      
habitual use of alcohol produces a      
deleterious influence upon the     whole
 economy4 ,the digestive powers are     
weakened1 the appetite is     impaired1 
and the muscular system is enfeebled4   
,the blood is     impoverished1 and     
nutrition is imperfect and disordered1  
as shown by     the flabbiness of the   
skin and muscles1 emaciation1 or an     
abnormal     accumulation of fat4--,dr4 
,austin ,flint1 ,senior1 formerly       
,professor of     the ,practice of      
,medicine in ,bellevue ,medical         
,college1 and author of     many        
standard medical works4      ,the       
immoderate use of the strong kind of    
tobacco1 which soldiers     affect1 is  
often very injurious to them1 especially
 to very young     soldiers4 ,it renders
 them nervous and shaky1 gives rise to  
palpitation1 and is a factor in the     

production of the irritable or          
so-called trotting-heart and tends to   
impair the appetite and                 
digestion4--,london ,lancet4      ,i    
never smoke because ,i have seen the    
most efficient proofs of the            
injurious effects of tobacco on the     
nervous system4--,dr4                   
,brown-,sequard1 the eminent ,french    
physiologist4      ,tobacco1 and        
especially cigarettes1 being a          
depressant upon the     heart1 should be
 positively forbidden4--,dr4 ,j4 ,m4    
,keating1 on     ,physical ,development1
 in ,cyclopdia of the ,diseases of      
,children4  #bja4 ,effect of ,tobacco   
upon the ,heart4 ,while tobacco poisons 
more or less almost every organ of the  
body1 it is upon the heart that it works
 its most serious wrong4 ,upon this most
 important organ its destructive effect 
is to depress and paralyze4 ,especially 
does this apply to the young1 whose     
bodies are not yet knit into the vigor  
that can brave invasion4  ,the nicotine 

of tobacco acts through the nerves that 
control the heart's action4 ,under its  
baneful influence the motions of the    
heart are irregular1 now feeble and     
fluttering1 now thumping with apparently
 much force3 but both these forms of    
disturbed action indicate an abnormal   
condition4 ,frequently there is severe  
pain in the heart1 often dizziness with 
gasping breath1 extreme pallor1 and     
fainting4  ,the condition of the pulse  
is a guide to this state of the heart4  
,in this the physician reads plainly the
 existence of the tobacco heart1 an     
affection as clearly known among medical
 men as croup or measles4 ,there are few
 conditions more distressing than the   
constant and impending suffering        
attending a tumultuous and fluttering   
heart4 ,it is stated that one in every  
four of tobacco-users is subject1 in    
some degree1 to this disturbance4 ,test 
examinations of a large number of lads  
who had used cigarettes showed that only
 a very small percentage escaped cardiac

 trouble4 ,of older tobacco-users there 
are very few but have some warning of   
the hazard they invoke4 ,generally they 
suffer more or less from the tobacco    
heart1 and if the nervous system or the 
heart be naturally feeble1 they suffer  
all the more speedily and intensely4    
,additional ,experiments4    ,experiment
 #ic4 ,touch a few drops of blood fresh 
from the finger1   with a strip of dry1 
smooth1 neutral litmus paper1 highly    
glazed to   prevent the red corpuscles  
from penetrating into the test paper4   
,allow   the blood to remain a short    
time2 then wash it off with a stream of 
distilled water1 when a blue spot upon a
 red or violet ground will be   seen1   
indicating its alkaline reaction1 due   
chiefly to the sodium   phosphate and   
sodium carbonate4    ,experiment #id4   
,place on a glass slide a thin layer of 
defibrinated   blood2 try to read       
printed matter through it4 ,this cannot 
be done4    ,experiment #ie4 ,to make   
blood transparent or laky4 ,place in    

each   of three test tubes two or three 
teaspoonfuls of defibrinated blood1     
obtained from ,experiment #hi1 labeled  
,a1 ,b1 and ,c4 ,a is for   comparison4 
,to ,b add five volumes of water1 and   
warm slightly1 noting   the change of   
color by reflected and transmitted      
light4 ,by reflected   light it is much 
darker1--it looks almost black2 but by  
transmitted   light it is transparent4  
,test this by looking at printed matter 
as in   ,experiment #id4    ,experiment 
#if4 ,to fifteen or twenty drops of     
defibrinated blood in   a test tube     
7labeled ,d7 add five volumes of a      
#aj-per-cent solution of   common salt4 
,it changes to a very bright1 florid1   
brick-red color4   ,compare its color   
with ,a1 ,b1 and ,c4 ,it is opaque4     
,experiment #ig4 ,wash away the coloring
 matter from the twigs 7see             
,experiment #hi7 with a stream of water 
until the fibrin becomes quite   white4 
,it is white1 fibrous1 and elastic4     
,stretch some of the fibers to   show   

their extensibility2 on freeing them1   
they regain their elasticity4           
,experiment #ih4 ,take some of the serum
 saved from ,experiment #hh and   note  
that it does not coagulate              
spontaneously4 ,boil a little in a test 
tube over a spirit lamp1 and the albumen
 will coagulate4    ,experiment #ii4 ,to
 illustrate in a general way that blood 
is   really a mass of red bodies which  
give the red color to the fluid in      
which they float4 ,fill a clean white   
glass bottle two-thirds full of   little
 red beads1 and then fill the bottle    
full of water4 ,at a short   distance   
the bottle appears to be rilled with a  
uniformly red liquid4    ,experiment    
#ajj4 ,to show how blood holds a mineral
 substance in   solution4 ,put an       
egg-shell crushed fine1 into a glass of 
water made   acid by a teaspoonful of   
muriatic acid4 ,after an hour or so the 
egg-shell will disappear1 having been   
dissolved in the acid water4 ,in   like 
manner the blood holds various minerals 

in solution4    ,experiment #aja4 ,to   
hear the sounds of the heart4 ,locate   
the heart   exactly4 ,note its beat4    
,borrow a stethoscope from some         
physician4 ,listen   to the heart-beat  
of some friend4 ,note the sounds of your
 own heart in   the same way4           
,experiment #ajb4 ,to show how the pulse
 may be studied4 ,the   movements of the
 artery in the human body as the        
pulse-wave passes   through it may be   
shown to consist in a sudden dilatation1
 followed by a   slow contraction1      
interrupted by one or more secondary    
dilatations4 ,this   demonstration may  
be made by pressing a small piece of    
looking-glass   about one centimeter    
square 7 of an inch7 upon the wrist over
 the   radial artery1 in such a way that
 with each pulse beat the mirror may be 
slightly tilted4 ,if the wrist be now   
held in such a position that   sunlight 
will fall upon the mirror1 a spot of    
light will be reflected on   the        
opposite side of the room1 and its      

motion upon the wall will show   that   
the expansion of the artery is a sudden 
movement1 while the   subsequent        
contraction is slow and                 
interrupted4--,bowditch's ,hints for    
,teachers of ,physiology4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4--;,how the    
,pulse may be studied by ,pressing a    
,mirror over the ,radial ,artery4       
,experiment #ajc4 ,to illustrate the    
effect of muscular exercise in          
quickening the pulse4 ,run up and down  
stairs several times4 ,count the   pulse
 both before and after4 ,note the effect
 upon the rate4    ,experiment #ajd4 ,to
 show the action of the elastic walls of
 the   arteries4 ,take a long glass or  
metal tube of small caliber4 ,fasten one
   end to the faucet of a water-pipe    
7one in a set bowl preferred7 by a      
very short piece of rubber tube4 ,turn  
the water on and off alternately   and  
rapidly1 to imitate the intermittent    
discharge of the ventricles4   ,the     
water will flow from the other end of   

the rubber pipe in jets1 each   jet     
ceasing the moment the water is shut    
off4    ,the experiment will be more    
successful if the rubber bulb attached  
to an   ordinary medicine-dropper be    
removed1 and the tapering glass tube be 
slipped on to the outer end of the      
rubber tube attached to the faucet4     
,experiment #aje4 ,substitute a piece of
 rubber tube for the glass   tube1 and  
repeat the preceding experiment4 ,now it
 will be found that a   continuous      
stream flows from the tube4 ,the        
pressure of water stretches   the       
elastic tube1 and when the stream is    
turned off1 the rubber recoils   on the 
water1 and the intermittent flow is     
changed into a continuous   stream4     
,experiment #ajf4 ,to illustrate some of
 the phenomena of   circulation4 ,take a
 common rubber bulb syringe1 of the     
,davidson1   ,household1 or any other   
standard make4 ,attach a piece of rubber
 tube   about six or eight feet long to 
the delivery end of the syringe4    ,to 

represent the resistance made by the    
capillaries to the flow of   blood1 slip
 the large end of a common glass        
medicine-dropper into the   outer end of
 the rubber tube4 ,this dropper has one 
end tapered to a fine   point4    ,place
 the syringe flat1 without kinks or     
bends1 on a desk or table4   ,press the 
bulb slowly and regularly4 ,the water is
 thus pumped into the   tube in an      
intermittent manner1 and yet it is      
forced out of the tapering   end of the 
glass tube in a steady flow4            
,experiment #ajg4 ,take off the tapering
 glass tube1 or1 in the place   of one  
long piece of rubber tube1 substitute   
several pieces of glass   tubing        
connected together by short pieces of   
rubber tubes4 ,the obstacle   to the    
flow has thus been greatly lessened1 and
 the water flows out in   intermittent  
jets to correspond to the compression of
 the bulb4     ,chapter ,,viii4         
,respiration4    #bjb4 ,nature and      
,object of ,respiration4 ,the blood1 as 

we have learned1 not only provides      
material for the growth and activity of 
all the tissues of the body1 but also   
serves as a means of removing from them 
the products of their activity4 ,these  
are waste products1 which if allowed to 
remain1 would impair the health of the  
tissues4 ,thus the blood becomes        
impoverished both by the addition of    
waste material1 and from the loss of its
 nutritive matter4  ,we have shown1 in  
the preceding chapter1 how the blood    
carries to the tissues the nourishment  
it has absorbed from the food4 ,we have 
now to consider a new source of         
nourishment to the blood1 viz41 that    
which it receives from the oxygen of the
 air4 ,we are also to learn one of the  
methods by which the blood gets rid of  
poisonous waste matters4 ,in brief1 we  
are to study the set of processes known 
as respiration1 by which oxygen is      
supplied to the various tissues1 and by 
which the principal waste matters1 or   
chief products of oxidation1 are        

removed4  ,now1 the tissues are         
continually feeding on the life-giving  
oxygen1 and at the same time are        
continually producing carbon dioxid and 
other waste products4 ,in fact1 the life
 of the tissues is dependent upon a     
continual succession of oxidations and  
deoxidations4 ,when the blood leaves the
 tissues1 it is poorer in oxygen1 is    
burdened with carbon dioxid1 and has had
 its color changed from bright scarlet  
to purple red4 ,this is the change from 
the arterial to venous conditions which 
has been described in the preceding     
chapter4  ,now1 as we have seen1 the    
change from venous to arterial blood    
occurs in the capillaries of the lungs1 
the only means of communication between 
the pulmonary arteries and the pulmonary
 veins4 ,the blood in the pulmonary     
capillaries is separated from the air   
only by a delicate tissue formed of its 
own wall and the pulmonary membrane4    
,hence a gaseous interchange1 the       
essential step in respiration1 very     

readily takes place between the blood   
and the air1 by which the latter gains  
moisture and carbon dioxid1 and loses   
its oxygen4 ,these changes in the lungs 
also restore to the dark blood its rosy 
tint4  ,the only condition absolutely   
necessary to the purification of the    
blood is an organ having a delicate     
membrane1 on one side of which is a thin
 sheet of blood1 while the other side is
 in such contact with the air that an   
interchange of gases can readily take   
place4 ,the demand for oxygen is1       
however1 so incessant1 and the          
accumulation of carbon dioxid is so     
rapid in every tissue of the human body1
 that an ,all-,wise ,creator has        
provided a most perfect but complicated 
set of machinery to effect this         
wonderful purification of the blood4    
,we are now ready to begin the study of 
the arrangement and working of the      
respiratory apparatus4 ,with its        
consideration1 we complete our view of  
the sources of supply to the blood1 and 

begin our study of its purification4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--,the         
,epiglottis4  #bjc4 ,the ,trachea1 or   
,windpipe4 ,if we look into the mouth of
 a friend1 or into our own with a       
mirror1 we see at the back part an arch 
which is the boundary line of the mouth 
proper4 ,there is just behind this a    
similar limit for the back part of the  
nostrils4 ,the funnel-shaped cavity     
beyond1 into which both the mouth and   
the posterior nasal passages open1 is   
called the pharynx4 ,in its lower part  
are two openings2 the trachea1 or       
windpipe1 in front1 and the sophagus    
behind4  ,the trachea is surmounted by a
 box-like structure of cartilage1 about 
four and one-half inches long1 called   
the larynx4 ,the upper end of the larynx
 opens into the pharynx or throat1 and  
is provided with a lid1-- the           
epiglottis1--which closes under certain 
circumstances 7secs4 #acg and #cdi74    
,the larynx contains the organ of voice1
 and is more fully described in ,chapter

 ,,xii4  ,the continuation of the larynx
 is the trachea1 a tube about           
three-fourths of an inch in diameter1   
and about four inches long4 ,it extends 
downwards along the middle line of the  
neck1 where it may readily be felt in   
front1 below the ,adam's apple4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--,larynx1     
,trachea1 and the ,bronchi4 7,front     
view47    ,a1 epiglottis2   ,b1 thyroid 
cartilage2   ,c1 cricoid-thyroid        
membrane1 connecting with the cricoid   
cartilage below1      all forming the   
larynx2   ,d1 one of the rings of the   
trachea4   ,the walls of the windpipe   
are strengthened by a series of         
cartilaginous rings1 each somewhat the  
shape of a horseshoe or like the letter 
,c1 being incomplete behind1 where they 
come in contact with the sophagus4 ,thus
 the trachea1 while always open for the 
passage of air1 admits of the distention
 of the food-passage4  #bjd4 ,the       
,bronchial ,tubes4 ,the lower end of the
 windpipe is just behind the upper part 

of the sternum1 and there it divides    
into two branches1 called bronchi4 ,each
 branch enters the lung of its own side1
 and breaks up into a great number of   
smaller branches1 called bronchial      
tubes4 ,these divide into smaller tubes1
 which continue subdividing till the    
whole lung is penetrated by the         
branches1 the extremities of which are  
extremely minute4 ,to all these branches
 the general name of bronchial tubes is 
given4 ,the smallest are only about     
one-fiftieth of an inch in diameter4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4--,relative    
,position of the ,lungs1 ,heart1 and its
 ,great ,vessels4    ,a1 left ventricle2
   ,b1 right ventricle2   ,c1 left      
auricle2   ,d1 right auricle2   ,e1     
superior vena cava2   ,f1 pulmonary     
artery2   ,g1 aorta2   ,h1 arch of the  
aorta2   ,k1 innominate artery2   ,l1   
right common carotid artery2   ,m1 right
 subclavian artery2   ,n1 thyroid       
cartilage forming upper portion of the  
larynx2   ,o1 trachea4   ,now the walls 

of the windpipe1 and of the larger      
bronchial tubes would readily collapse1 
and close the passage for air1 but for a
 wise precaution4 ,the horseshoe-shaped 
rings of cartilage in the trachea and   
the plates of cartilage in the bronchial
 tubes keep these passages open4 ,again1
 these air passages have elastic fibers 
running the length of the tubes1 which  
allow them to stretch and bend readily  
with the movements of the neck4  #bje4  
,the ,cilia of the ,air ,passages4 ,the 
inner surfaces of the windpipe and      
bronchial tubes are lined with mucous   
membrane1 continuous with that of the   
throat1 the mouth1 and the nostrils1 the
 secretion from which serves to keep the
 parts moist4  ,delicate1 hair-like     
filaments1 not unlike the pile on       
velvet1 called cilia1 spring from the   
epithelial lining of the air tubes4     
,their constant wavy movement is always 
upwards and outwards1 towards the mouth4
 ,thus any excessive secretion1 as of   
bronchitis or catarrh1 is carried       

upwards1 and finally expelled by        
coughing4 ,in this way1 the lungs are   
kept quite free from particles of       
foreign matter derived from the air4    
,otherwise we should suffer1 and often  
be in danger from the accumulation of   
mucus and dust in the air passages4     
,thus these tiny cilia act as dusters   
which ,nature uses to keep the air tubes
 free and clean 7,fig4 #e74             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4--;,bronchial  
tube1 with its ,divisions and           
,subdivisions4 7,showing groups of air  
cells at the termination of minute      
bronchial tubes47  #bjf4 ,the ,lungs4   
,the lungs1 the organs of respiration1  
are two pinkish gray structures of a    
light1 spongy appearance1 that fill the 
chest cavity1 except the space taken up 
by the heart and large vessels4 ,between
 the lungs are situated the large       
bronchi1 the sophagus1 the heart in its 
pericardium1 and the great              
blood-vessels4 ,the base of the lungs   
rests on the dome-like diaphragm1 which 

separates the chest from the abdomen4   
,this partly muscular and partly        
tendinous partition is a most important 
factor in breathing4  ,each lung is     
covered1 except at one point1 with an   
elastic serous membrane in a double     
layer1 called the pleura4 ,one layer    
closely envelops the lung1 at the apex  
of which it is reflected to the wall of 
the chest cavity of its own side1 which 
it lines4 ,the two layers thus form     
between them a ,closed ,sac a serous    
cavity 7see ,fig4 #fi1 also note1 p4    
#agf74  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--,the 
,lungs with the ,trachea1 ,bronchi1 and 
,larger ,bronchial ,tubes exposed4      
7,posterior view47    ,a1 division of   
left bronchus to upper lobe2   ,b1 left 
branch of the ,pulmonary artery2   ,c1  
left bronchus2   ,d1 left superior      
pulmonary vein2   ,e1 left inferior     
pulmonary vein2   ,f1 left auricle2     
,k1 inferior vena cava2   ,l1 division  
of right bronchus to lower lobe2   ,m1  
right inferior pulmonary vein2   ,n1    

right superior pulmonary vein2   ,o1    
right branch of the pulmonary artery2   
,p1 division of right bronchus to upper 
lobe2   ,r1 left ventricle2   ,s1 right 
ventricle4   ,in health the two pleural 
surfaces of the lungs are always in     
contact1 and they secrete just enough   
serous fluid to allow the surfaces to   
glide smoothly upon each other4         
,inflammation of this membrane is called
 pleurisy4 ,in this disease the         
breathing becomes very painful1 as the  
secretion of glairy serum is suspended1 
and the dry and inflamed surfaces rub   
harshly upon each other4  ,the root of  
the lung1 as it is called1 is formed by 
the bronchi1 two pulmonary arteries1 and
 two pulmonary veins4 ,the nerves and   
lymphatic vessels of the lung also enter
 at the root4 ,if we only remember that 
all the bronchial tubes1 great and      
small1 are hollow1 we may compare the   
whole system to a short bush or tree    
growing upside down in the chest1 of    
which the trachea is the trunk1 and the 

bronchial tubes the branches of various 
sizes4  #bjg4 ,minute ,structure of the 
,lungs4 ,if one of the smallest         
bronchial tubes be traced in its        
tree-like ramifications1 it will be     
found to end in an irregular            
funnel-shaped passage wider than itself4
 ,around this passage are grouped a     
number of honeycomb-like sacs1 the air  
cells#ce or alveoli of the lungs4 ,these
 communicate freely with the passage1   
and through it with the bronchial       
branches1 but have no other openings4   
,the whole arrangement of passages and  
air cells springing from the end of a   
bronchial tube1 is called an ultimate   
lobule4 ,now each lobule is a very small
 miniature of a whole lung1 for by the  
grouping together of these lobules      
another set of larger lobules is formed4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4    ,a1      
diagrammatic representation of the      
ending of a bronchial tube in air       
sacs or alveoli2   ,b1 termination of   
two bronchial tubes in enlargement beset

 with air sacs      7,huxley72   ,c1    
diagrammatic view of an air sac4    a   
lies within sac and points to epithelium
 lining wall2   b1 partition between two
 adjacent sacs1 in which run            
capillaries2   c1 elastic connective    
tissue 7,huxley74   ,in like manner     
countless numbers of these lobules1     
bound together by connective tissue1 are
 grouped after the same fashion to form 
by their aggregation the lobes of the   
lung4 ,the right lung has three such    
lobes2 and the left1 two4 ,each lobule  
has a branch of the pulmonary artery    
entering it1 and a similar rootlet of   
the pulmonary vein leaving it4 ,it also 
receives lymphatic vessels1 and minute  
twigs of the pulmonary plexus of nerves4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4--;,diagram  
to illustrate the ,amounts of ,air      
contained by the ,lungs in ,various     
,phases of ,ordinary and of ,forced     
,respiration4  ,the walls of the air    
cells are of extreme thinness1          
consisting of delicate elastic and      

connective tissue1 and lined inside by a
 single layer of thin epithelial cells4 
,in the connective tissue run capillary 
vessels belonging to the pulmonary      
artery and veins4 ,now these delicate   
vessels running in the connective tissue
 are surrounded on all sides by air     
cells4 ,it is evident1 then1 that the   
blood flowing through these capillaries 
is separated from the air within the    
cells only by the thin walls of the     
vessels1 and the delicate tissues of the
 air cells4  ,this arrangement is       
perfectly adapted for an interchange    
between the blood in the capillaries and
 the air in the air cells4 ,this will be
 more fully explained in sec4 #bad4     
#bjh4 ,capacity of the ,lungs4 ,in      
breathing we alternately take into and  
expel from the lungs a certain quantity 
of air4 ,with each quiet inspiration    
about #cj cubic inches of air enter the 
lungs1 and #cj cubic inches pass out    
with each expiration4 ,the air thus     
passing into and out of the lungs is    

called tidal air4 ,after an ordinary    
inspiration1 the lungs contain about    
#bcj cubic inches of air4 ,by taking a  
deep inspiration1 about #ajj cubic      
inches more can be taken in4 ,this extra
 amount is called complemental air4     
,after an ordinary expiration1 about    
#bjj cubic inches are left in the lungs1
 but by forced expiration about one-half
 of this may be driven out4 ,this is    
known as supplemental air4 ,the lungs   
can never be entirely emptied of air1   
about #ge to #ajj cubic inches always   
remaining4 ,this is known as the        
residual air4  ,the air that the lungs  
of an adult man are capable of          
containing is thus composed3            
,complemental air            #ajj cubic 
inches4   ,tidal                        
#cj           ,supplemental             
#ajj           ,residual                
#ajj                                    
----   ,total capacity of lungs     #ccj
          ,if1 then1 a person proceeds1 
after taking the deepest possible       

breath1 to breath out as much as he can1
 he expels3    ,complemental air        
#ajj cubic inches4   ,tidal             
#cj           ,supplemental             
#ajj                                    
----                              #bcj  
,this total of #bcj cubic inches forms  
what is called the vital capacity of the
 chest 7,fig4 #ij74  #bji4 ,the         
,movements of ,breathing4 ,the act of   
breathing consists of a series of       
rhythmical movements1 succeeding one    
another in regular order4 ,in the first 
movement1 inspiration1 the chest rises1 
and there is an inrush of fresh air2    
this is at once followed by expiration1 
the falling of the chest walls1 and the 
output of air4 ,a pause now occurs1 and 
the same breathing movements are        
repeated4  ,the entrance and the exit of
 air into the respiratory passages are  
accompanied with peculiar sounds which  
are readily heard on placing the ear at 
the chest wall4 ,these sounds are       
greatly modified in various pulmonary   

diseases1 and hence are of great value  
to the physician in making a correct    
diagnosis4  ,in a healthy adult1 the    
number of respirations should be from   
#af to #ah per minute1 but they vary    
with age1 that of a newly born child    
being #dd for the same time4 ,exercise  
increases the number1 while rest        
diminishes it4 ,in standing1 the rate is
 more than when lying at rest4 ,mental  
emotion and excitement quicken the rate4
 ,the number is smallest during sleep4  
,disease has a notable effect upon the  
frequency of respirations4 ,in diseases 
involving the lungs1 bronchial tubes1   
and the pleura1 the rate may be         
alarmingly increased1 and the pulse is  
quickened in proportion4  #baj4 ,the    
,mechanism of ,breathing4 ,the chest is 
a chamber with bony walls1 the ribs     
connecting in front with the breastbone1
 and behind with the spine4 ,the spaces 
between the ribs are occupied by the    
intercostal muscles1 while large muscles
 clothe the entire chest4 ,the diaphragm

 serves as a movable floor to the chest1
 which is an air-tight chamber with     
movable walls and floor4 ,in this       
chamber are suspended the lungs1 the air
 cells of which communicate with the    
outside through the bronchial passages1 
but have no connection with the chest   
cavity4 ,the thin space between the     
lungs and the rib walls1 called the     
pleural cavity1 is in health a vacuum4  
,now1 when the diaphragm contracts1 it  
descends and thus increases the depth of
 the chest cavity4 ,a quantity of air is
 now drawn into the lungs and causes    
them to expand1 thus filling up the     
increased space4 ,as soon as the        
diaphragm relaxes1 returning to its     
arched position and reducing the size of
 the chest cavity1 the air is driven    
from the lungs1 which then diminish in  
size4 ,after a short pause1 the         
diaphragm again contracts1 and the same 
round of operation is constantly        
repeated4  ,the walls of the chest being
 movable1 by the contractions of the    

intercostals and other muscles1 the ribs
 are raised and the breastbone pushed   
forward4 ,the chest cavity is thus      
enlarged from side to side and from     
behind forwards4 ,thus1 by the          
simultaneous descent of the diaphragm   
and the elevation of the ribs1 the      
cavity of the chest is increased in     
three directions1--downwards1 side-ways1
 and from behind forwards4  ,it is thus 
evident that inspiration is due to a    
series of muscular contractions4 ,as    
soon as the contractions cease1 the     
elastic lung tissue resumes its original
 position1 just as an extended rubber   
band recovers itself4 ,as a result1 the 
original size of the chest cavity is    
restored1 and the inhaled air is driven 
from the lungs4 ,expiration may then be 
regarded as the result of an elastic    
recoil1 and not of active muscular      
contractions4  ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ia4--;,diagrammatic ,section of the    
,trunk4 7,showing the expansion of the  
chest and the movement of the ribs by   

action of the lungs47 ,the dotted lines 
indicate the position during            
inspiration4  #baa4 ,varieties of       
,breathing4 ,this is the mechanism of   
quiet1 normal respiration4 ,when the    
respiration is difficult1 additional    
forces are brought into play4 ,thus when
 the windpipe and bronchial tubes are   
obstructed1 as in croup1 asthma1 or     
consumption1 many additional muscles are
 made use of to help the lungs to       
expand4 ,the position which asthmatics  
often assume1 with arms raised to grasp 
something for support1 is from the need 
of the sufferer to get a fixed point    
from which the muscles of the arm and   
chest may act forcibly in raising the   
ribs1 and thus securing more comfortable
 breathing4  ,the visible movements of  
breathing vary according to             
circumstances4 ,in infants the action of
 the diaphragm is marked1 and the       
movements of the abdomen are especially 
obvious4 ,this is called abdominal      
breathing4 ,in women the action of the  

ribs as they rise and fall1 is          
emphasized more than in men1 and this we
 call costal breathing4 ,in young       
persons and in men1 the respiration not 
usually being impeded by tight clothing1
 the breathing is normal1 being deep and
 abdominal4  ,disease has a marked      
effect upon the mode of breathing4      
,thus1 when children suffer from some   
serious chest disease1 the increased    
movements of the abdominal walls seem   
distressing4 ,so in fracture of the     
ribs1 the surgeon envelops the overlying
 part of the chest with long strips of  
firm adhesive plaster to restrain the   
motions of chest respiration1 that they 
may not disturb the jagged ends of the  
broken bones4 ,again1 in painful        
diseases of the abdomen1 the sufferer   
instinctively suspends the abdominal    
action and relies upon the chest        
breathing4 ,these deviations from the   
natural movements of respiration are    
useful to the physician in ascertaining 
the seat of disease4  #bab4 ,the        

,nervous ,control of ,respiration4 ,it  
is a matter of common experience that   
one's breath may be held for a short    
time1 but the need of fresh air speedily
 gets the mastery1 and a long1 deep     
breath is drawn4 ,hence the efforts of  
criminals to commit suicide by          
persistent restraint of their breathing1
 are always a failure4 ,at the very     
worst1 unconsciousness ensues1 and then 
respiration is automatically resumed4   
,thus a wise ,providence defeats the    
purpose of crime4 ,the movements of     
breathing go on without our attention4  
,in sleep the regularity of respiration 
is even greater than when awake4 ,there 
is a particular part of the nervous     
system that presides over the breathing 
function4 ,it is situated in that part  
of the brain called the medulla         
oblongata1 and is fancifully called the 
vital knot 7sec4 #bgj74 ,it is injury to
 this respiratory center which proves   
fatal in cases of broken neck4  ,from   
this nerve center there is sent out to  

the nerves that supply the diaphragm and
 other muscles of breathing1 a force    
which stimulates them to regular        
contraction4 ,this breathing center is  
affected by the condition of the blood4 
,it is stimulated by an excess of carbon
 dioxid in the blood1 and is quieted by 
the presence of oxygen4    ,experiment  
#ajh4 ,to locate the lungs4 ,mark out   
the boundaries of   the lungs by        
sounding them2 that is1 by percussion1  
as it is called4   ,this means to put   
the forefinger of the left hand across  
the chest or   back1 and to give it a   
quick1 sharp rap with two or three      
fingers4 ,note   where it sounds hollow1
 resonant4 ,this experiment can be done 
by the   student with only imperfect    
success1 until practice brings some     
skill4    ,experiment #aji4 ,borrow a   
stethoscope1 and listen to the          
respiration   over the chest on the     
right side4 ,this is known as           
auscultation4 ,note   the difference of 
the sounds in inspiration and in        

expiration4 ,do not   confuse the heart 
sounds with those of respiration4 ,the  
respiratory   murmurs may be heard      
fairly well by applying the ear flat to 
the chest1   with only one garment      
interposed4    ,experiment #aaj4 ,get a 
sheep's lungs1 with the windpipe        
attached4   ,ask for the heart and lungs
 all in one mass4 ,take pains to examine
 the   specimen first1 and accept only a
 good one4 ,parts are apt to be hastily 
snipped or mangled4 ,examine the        
windpipe4 ,note the horseshoe-shaped    
rings of cartilage in front1 which serve
 to keep it open4    ,experiment #aaa4  
,examine one bronchus1 carefully        
dissecting away the   lung tissue with  
curved scissors4 ,follow along until    
small branches of   the bronchial tubes 
are reached4 ,take time for the         
dissection1 and save   the specimen in  
dilute alcohol4 ,put pieces of the lung 
tissue in a basin   of water1 and note  
that they float4  ,the labored breathing
 of suffocation and of lung diseases is 

due to the excessive stimulation of this
 center1 caused by the excess of carbon 
dioxid in the blood4 ,various mental    
influences from the brain itself1 as the
 emotions of alarm or joy or distress1  
modify the action of the respiratory    
center4  ,again1 nerves of sensation on 
the surface of the body convey          
influences to this nerve center and lead
 to its stimulation1 resulting in a     
vigorous breathing movement4 ,thus a    
dash of cold water on the face or neck  
of a fainting person instantly produces 
a deep1 long-drawn breath4 ,certain     
drugs1 as opium1 act to reduce the      
activity of this nerve center4 ,hence1  
in opium poisoning1 special attention   
should be paid to keeping up the        
respiration4 ,the condition of the lungs
 themselves is made known to the        
breathing center1 by messages sent along
 the branches of the great pneumogastric
 nerve 7page #bgf71 leading from the    
lungs to the medulla oblongata4  #bac4  
,effects of ,respiration upon the       

,blood4 ,the blood contains three gases1
 partly dissolved in it and partly in   
chemical union with certain of its      
constituents4 ,these are oxygen1 carbon 
dioxid1 and nitrogen4 ,the latter need  
not be taken into account4 ,the oxygen  
is the nourishing material which the    
tissues require to carry on their work4 
,the carbon dioxid is a waste substance 
which the tissues produce by their      
activity1 and which the blood carries   
away from them4  ,as before shown1 the  
blood as it flows through the tissues   
loses most of its oxygen1 and carbon    
dioxid takes its place4 ,now if the     
blood is to maintain its efficiency in  
this respect1 it must always be         
receiving new supplies of oxygen1 and   
also have some mode of throwing off its 
excess of carbon dioxid4 ,this1 then1 is
 the double function of the process of  
respiration4 ,again1 the blood sent out 
from the left side of the heart is of a 
bright scarlet color4 ,after its work is
 done1 and the blood returns to the     

right side of the heart1 it is of a dark
 purple color4 ,this change in color    
takes place in the capillaries1 and is  
due to the fact that there the blood    
gives up most of its oxygen to the      
tissues and receives from them a great  
deal of carbon dioxid4  ,in brief1 while
 passing through the capillaries of the 
lungs the blood has been changed from   
the venous to the arterial blood4 ,that 
is to say1 the blood in its progress    
through the lungs has rid itself of its 
excess of carbon dioxid and obtained a  
fresh supply of oxygen4#cf  #bad4       
,effects of ,respiration upon the ,air  
in the ,lungs4 ,it is well known that if
 two different liquids be placed in a   
vessel in contact with each other and   
left undisturbed1 they do not remain    
separate1 but gradually mix1 and in time
 will be perfectly combined4 ,this is   
called diffusion of liquids4 ,the same  
thing occurs with gases1 though the     
process is not visible4 ,this is known  
as the diffusion of gases4 ,it is also  

true that two liquids will mingle when  
separated from each other by a membrane 
7sec4 #abi74 ,in a similar manner two   
gases1 especially if of different       
densities1 may mingle even when         
separated from each other by a membrane4
  ,in a general way this explains the   
respiratory changes that occur in the   
blood in the lungs4 ,blood containing   
oxygen and carbon dioxid is flowing in  
countless tiny streams through the walls
 of the air cells of the lungs4 ,the air
 cells themselves contain a mixture of  
the same two gases4 ,a thin1 moist      
membrane1 well adapted to allow gaseous 
diffusion1 separates the blood from the 
air4 ,this membrane is the delicate wall
 of the capillaries and the epithelium  
of the air cells4 ,by experiment it has 
been found that the pressure of oxygen  
in the blood is less than that in the   
air cells1 and that the pressure of     
carbon dioxid gas in the blood is       
greater than that in the air cells4 ,as 
a result1 a diffusion of gases ensues4  

,the blood gains oxygen and loses carbon
 dioxid1 while the air cells lose oxygen
 and gain the latter gas4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4--;,capillary  
,network of the ,air ,cells and ,origin 
of the ,pulmonary ,veins4    ,a1 small  
branch of pulmonary artery2   ,b1 twigs 
of the pulmonary artery anastomosing to 
form peripheral network      of the     
primitive air cells2   ,c1 capillary    
network around the walls of the air     
sacs2   ,d1 branches of network         
converging for form the veinlets of the 
pulmonary      veins4   ,the blood thus 
becomes purified and reinvigorated1 and 
at the same time is changed in color    
from purple to scarlet1 from venous to  
arterial4 ,it is now evident that if    
this interchange is to continue1 the air
 in the cells must be constantly        
renewed1 its oxygen restored1 and its   
excess of carbon dioxid removed4        
,otherwise the process just described   
would be reversed1 making the blood     
still more unfit to nourish the tissues1

 and more poisonous to them than before4
  #bae4 ,change in the ,air in          
,breathing4 ,the air which we exhale    
during respiration differs in several   
important particulars from the air we   
inhale4 ,both contain chiefly the three 
gases1 though in different quantities1  
as the following table shows4           
,oxygen4    ,nitrogen4   ,carbon        
,dioxid4   ,inspired air contains       
#bj4ha       #gi4ae         4#jd        
,expired air contains       #af4jc      
#gi4eh        #d4ch  ,that is1 expired  
air contains about five per cent less   
oxygen and five per cent more carbon    
dioxid than inspired air4  ,the         
temperature of expired air is variable1 
but generally is higher than that of    
inspired air1 it having been in contact 
with the warm air passages4 ,it is also 
loaded with aqueous vapor1 imparted to  
it like the heat1 not in the depth of   
the lungs1 but in the upper air         
passages4  ,expired air contains1       
besides carbon dioxid1 various          

impurities1 many of an unknown nature1  
and all in small amounts4 ,when the     
expired air is condensed in a cold      
receiver1 the aqueous product is found  
to contain organic matter1 which1 from  
the presence of micro-organisms1        
introduced in the inspired air1 is apt  
to putrefy rapidly4 ,some of these      
organic substances are probably         
poisonous1 either so in themselves1 as  
produced in some manner in the breathing
 apparatus1 or poisonous as being the   
products of decomposition4 ,for it is   
known that various animal substances    
give rise1 by decomposition1 to distinct
 poisonous products known as ptomaines4 
,it is possible that some of the        
constituents of the expired air are of  
an allied nature4 ,see under ,bacteria  
7,chapter ,,xiv74  ,at all events1 these
 substances have an injurious action1   
for an atmosphere containing simply one 
per cent of pure carbon dioxid has very 
little hurtful effect on the animal     
economy1 but an atmosphere in which the 

carbon dioxid has been raised one per   
cent by breathing is highly injurious4  
,the quantity of oxygen removed from the
 air by the breathing of an adult person
 at rest amounts daily to about #ah     
cubic feet4 ,about the same amount of   
carbon dioxid is expelled1 and this     
could be represented by a piece of pure 
charcoal weighing #i ounces4 ,the       
quantity of carbon dioxid1 however1     
varies with the age1 and is increased   
also by external cold and by exercise1  
and is affected by the kind of food4    
,the amount of water1 exhaled as vapor1 
varies from #f to #bj ounces daily4 ,the
 average daily quantity is about        
one-half a pint4  #baf4 ,modified       
,respiratory ,movements4 ,the           
respiratory column of air is often used 
in a mechanical way to expel bodies from
 the upper air passages4 ,there are     
also1 in order to secure special ends1 a
 number of modified movements not       
distinctly respiratory4 ,the following  
peculiar respiratory acts call for a few

 words of explanation4  ,a sigh is a    
rapid and generally audible expiration1 
due to the elastic recoil of the lungs  
and chest walls4 ,it is often caused by 
depressing emotions4 ,yawning is a deep 
inspiration with a stretching of the    
muscles of the face and mouth1 and is   
usually excited by fatigue or           
drowsiness1 but often occurs from a sort
 of contagion4  ,hiccough is a sudden   
jerking inspiration due to the spasmodic
 contraction of the diaphragm and of the
 glottis1 causing the air to rush       
suddenly through the larynx1 and produce
 this peculiar sound4 ,snoring is caused
 by vibration of the soft palate during 
sleep1 and is habitual with some1       
although it occurs with many when the   
system is unusually exhausted and       
relaxed4  ,laughing consists of a series
 of short1 rapid1 spasmodic expirations 
which cause the peculiar sounds1 with   
characteristic movements of the facial  
muscles4 ,crying1 caused by emotional   
states1 consists of sudden jerky        

expirations with long inspirations1 with
 facial movements indicative of         
distress4 ,in sobbing1 which often      
follows long-continued crying1 there is 
a rapid series of convulsive            
inspirations1 with sudden involuntary   
contractions of the diaphragm4          
,laughter1 and sometimes sobbing1 like  
yawning1 may be the result of           
involuntary imitation4    ,experiment   
#aab4 ,simple ,apparatus to ,illustrate 
the ,movements of   the ,lungs in the   
,chest4--,t is a bottle from which the  
bottom has been   removed2 ,d1 a        
flexible and elastic membrane tied on   
the bottle1 and   capable of being      
pulled out by the string ,s1 so as to   
increase the   capacity of the bottle4  
,l is a thin elastic bag representing   
the lungs4   ,it communicates with the  
external air by a glass tube fitted     
air-tight   through a cork in the neck  
of the bottle4 ,when ,d is drawn down1  
the   pressure of the external air      
causes ,l to expand4 ,when the string is

 let   go1 ,l contracts again1 by virtue
 of its elasticity4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #ic4  ,coughing is produced by    
irritation in the upper part of the     
windpipe and larynx4 ,a deep breath is  
drawn1 the opening of the windpipe is   
closed1 and immediately is burst open   
with a violent effort which sends a     
blast of air through the upper air      
passages4 ,the object is to dislodge and
 expel any mucus or foreign matter that 
is irritating the air passages4         
,sneezing is like coughing2 the tongue  
is raised against the soft palate1 so   
the air is forced through the nasal     
passages4 ,it is caused by an irritation
 of the nostrils or eyes4 ,in the       
beginning of a cold in the head1 for    
instance1 the cold air irritates the    
inflamed mucous membrane of the nose1   
and causes repeated attacks of sneezing4
  #bag4 ,how the ,atmosphere is ,made   
,impure4 ,the air around us is          
constantly being made impure in a great 
variety of ways4 ,the combustion of     

fuel1 the respiration of men and        
animals1 the exhalations from their     
bodies1 the noxious gases and effluvia  
of the various industries1 together with
 the changes of fermentation and        
decomposition to which all organized    
matter is liable1--all tend to pollute  
the atmosphere4  ,the necessity of      
external ventilation has been foreseen  
for us4 ,the forces of nature1--the     
winds1 sunlight1 rain1 and growing      
vegetation1--all of great power and     
universal distribution and application1 
restore the balance1 and purify the air4
 ,as to the principal gases1 the air of 
the city does not differ materially from
 that of rural sections4 ,there is1     
however1 a vastly greater quantity of   
dust and smoke in the air of towns4 ,the
 breathing of this dust1 to a greater or
 less extent laden with bacteria1 fungi1
 and the germs of disease1 is an        
ever-present and most potent menace to  
public and personal health4 ,it is one  
of the main causes of the excess of     

mortality in towns and cities over that 
of country districts4  ,this is best    
shown in the overcrowded streets and    
houses of great cities1 which are       
deprived of the purifying influence of  
sun and air4 ,the fatal effect of living
 in vitiated air is especially marked in
 the mortality among infants and        
children living in the squalid and      
overcrowded sections of our great       
cities4 ,the salutary effect of sunshine
 is shown by the fact that mortality is 
usually greater on the shady side of the
 street4  #bah4 ,how the ,air is ,made  
,impure by ,breathing4 ,it is not the   
carbon dioxid alone that causes         
injurious results to health1 it is more 
especially the organic matter thrown off
 in the expired air4 ,the carbon dioxid 
which accompanies the organic matter is 
only the index4 ,in testing the purity  
of air it is not difficult to ascertain 
the amount of carbon dioxid present1 but
 it is no easy problem to measure the   
amount of organic matter4 ,hence it is  

the former that is looked for in        
factories1 churches1 schoolrooms1 and   
when it is found to exceed 4#jg per cent
 it is known that there is a hurtful    
amount of organic matter present4  ,the 
air as expelled from the lungs contains1
 not only a certain amount of organic   
matter in the form of vapor1 but minute 
solid particles of dbris and bacterial  
micro-organisms 7,chap4 ,,xiv74 ,the air
 thus already vitiated1 after it leaves 
the mouth1 putrefies very rapidly4 ,it  
is at once absorbed by clothing1        
curtains1 carpets1 porous walls1 and by 
many other objects4 ,it is difficult to 
dislodge these enemies of health even by
 free ventilation4 ,the close and       
disagreeable odor of a filthy or        
overcrowded room is due to these organic
 exhalations from the lungs1 the skin1  
and the unclean clothing of the         
occupants4  ,the necessity of having a  
proper supply of fresh air in enclosed  
places1 and the need of removal of      
impure air are thus evident4 ,if a man  

were shut up in a tightly sealed room   
containing #dbe cubic feet of air1 he   
would be found dead or nearly so at the 
end of twenty-four hours4 ,long before  
this time he would have suffered from   
nausea1 headache1 dizziness1 and other  
proofs of blood-poisoning4 ,these       
symptoms are often felt by those who are
 confined for an hour or more in a room 
where the atmosphere has been polluted  
by a crowd of people4 ,the unpleasant   
effects rapidly disappear on breathing  
fresh air4  #bai4 ,the ,effect on the   
,health of ,breathing ,foul ,air4       
,people are often compelled to remain   
indoors for many hours1 day after day1  
in shops1 factories1 or offices1        
breathing air perhaps only slightly     
vitiated1 but still recognized as       
stuffy4 ,such persons often suffer from 
ill health4 ,the exact form of the      
disturbance of health depends much upon 
the hereditary proclivity and physical  
make-up of the individual4 ,loss of     
appetite1 dull headache1 fretfulness1   

persistent weariness1 despondency1      
followed by a general weakness and an   
impoverished state of blood1 often      
result4  ,persons in this lowered state 
of health are much more prone to surfer 
from colds1 catarrhs1 bronchitis1 and   
pneumonia than if they were living in   
the open air1 or breathing only pure    
air4 ,thus1 in the ,crimean ,war1 the   
soldiers who lived in tents in the      
coldest weather were far more free from 
colds and lung troubles than those who  
lived in tight and ill-ventilated huts4 
,in the early fall when typhoid fever is
 prevalent1 the grounds of large        
hospitals are dotted with canvas tents1 
in which patients suffering from this   
fever do much better than in the wards4 
,this tendency to inflammatory diseases 
of the air passages is aggravated by the
 overheated and overdried condition of  
the air in the room occupied4 ,this may 
result from burning gas1 from overheated
 furnaces and stoves1 hot-water pipes1  
and other causes4 ,serious lung         

diseases1 such as consumption1 are more 
common among those who live in damp1    
overcrowded1 or poorly ventilated homes4
  #bbj4 ,the ,danger from ,pulmonary    
,infection4 ,the germ of pulmonary      
consumption1 known as the bacillus      
tuberculosis1 is contained in the breath
 and the sputa from the lungs of its    
victims4 ,it is not difficult to        
understand how these bacilli may be     
conveyed through the air from the lungs 
of the sick to those of apparently      
healthy people4 ,such persons may1      
however1 be predisposed1 either         
constitutionally or by defective        
hygienic surroundings1 to fall victims  
to this dreaded disease4 ,overcrowding1 
poor ventilation1 and dampness all tend 
to increase the risk of pulmonary       
infection4  ,it must not be supposed    
that the tubercle bacillus is           
necessarily transmitted directly through
 the air from the lungs of the sick to  
be implanted in the lungs of the        
healthy4 ,the germs may remain for a    

time in the dust turn and dbris of damp1
 filthy1 and overcrowded houses4 ,in    
this congenial soil they retain their   
vitality for a long time1 and possibly  
may take on more virulent infective     
properties than they possessed when     
expelled from the diseased lungs4#cg    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,example of a 
,micro-,organism--,bacillus             
,tuberculosis in ,spotum4 7,magnified   
about #ejj diameters47  #bba4           
,ventilation4 ,the question of a        
practicable and economical system of    
ventilation for our homes1 schoolrooms1 
workshops1 and public places presents   
many difficult and perplexing problems4 
,it is perhaps due to the complex nature
 of the subject1 that ventilation1 as an
 ordinary condition of daily health1 has
 been so much neglected4 ,the matter is 
practically ignored in building ordinary
 houses4 ,the continuous renewal of air 
receives little if any consideration1   
compared with the provision made to     
furnish our homes with heat1 light1 and 

water4 ,when the windows are closed we  
usually depend for ventilation upon mere
 chance1--on the chimney1 the fireplace1
 and the crevices of doors and windows4 
,the proper ventilation of a house and  
its surroundings should form as         
prominent a consideration in the plans  
of builders and architects as do the    
grading of the land1 the size of the    
rooms1 and the cost of heating4  ,the   
object of ventilation is twofold3       
,first1 to provide for the removal of   
the impure air2 second1 for a supply of 
pure air4 ,this must include a plan to  
provide fresh air in such a manner that 
there shall be no draughts or exposure  
of the occupants of the rooms to undue  
temperature4 ,hence1 what at first might
 seem an easy thing to do1 is1 in fact1 
one of the most difficult of sanitary   
problems4  #bbb4 ,conditions of         
,efficient ,ventilation4 ,to secure     
proper ventilation certain conditions   
must be observed4 ,the pure air         
introduced should not be far below the  

temperature of the room1 or if so1 the  
entering current should be introduced   
towards the ceiling1 that it may mix    
with the warm air4  ,draughts must be   
avoided4 ,if the circuit from entrance  
to exit is short1 draughts are likely to
 be produced1 and impure air has less   
chance of mixing by diffusion with the  
pure air4 ,the current of air introduced
 should be constant1 otherwise the      
balance may occasionally be in favor of 
vitiated air4 ,if a mode of ventilation 
prove successful1 it should not be      
interfered with by other means of       
entrance4 ,thus1 an open door may       
prevent the incoming air from passing   
through its proper channels4 ,it is     
desirable that the inlet be so arranged 
that it can be diminished in size or    
closed altogether4 ,for instance1 when  
the outer air is very cold1 or the wind 
blows directly into the inlet1 the      
amount of cold air entering it may lower
 the temperature of the room to an      
undesirable degree4  ,in brief1 it is   

necessary to have a thorough mixing of  
pure and impure air1 so that the        
combination at different parts of the   
room may be fairly uniform4 ,to secure  
these results1 the inlets and outlets   
should be arranged upon principles of   
ventilation generally accepted by       
authorities on public health4 ,it seems 
hardly necessary to say that due        
attention must be paid to the source    
from which the introduced air is drawn4 
,if it be taken from foul cellars1 or   
from dirty streets1 it may be as impure 
as that which it is designed to replace4
    ,animal ,heat4   #bbc4 ,animal or   
,vital ,heat4 ,if a thermometer1 made   
for the purpose1 be placed for five     
minutes in the armpit1 or under the     
tongue1 it will indicate a temperature  
of about #ih ,f41 whether the           
surrounding atmosphere be warm or cold4 
,this is the natural heat of a healthy  
person1 and in health it rarely varies  
more than a degree or two4 ,but as the  
body is constantly losing heat by       

radiation and conduction1 it is evident 
that if the standard temperature be     
maintained1 a certain amount of heat    
must be generated within the body to    
make up for the loss externally4 ,the   
heat thus produced is known as animal or
 vital heat4  ,this generation of heat  
is common to all living organisms4 ,when
 the mass of the body is large1 its heat
 is readily perceptible to the touch and
 by its effect upon the thermometer4 ,in
 mammals and birds the heat-production  
is more active than in fishes and       
reptiles1 and their temperatures differ 
in degree even in different species of  
the same class1 according to the special
 organization of the animal and the     
general activity of its functions4 ,the 
temperature of the frog may be #he ,f4  
in ,june and #da ,f4 in ,january4 ,the  
structure of its tissues is unaltered   
and their vitality unimpaired by such   
violent fluctuations4 ,but in man it is 
necessary not only for health1 but even 
for life1 that the temperature should   

vary only within narrow limits around   
the mean of #ih ,f4  ,we are ignorant of
 the precise significance of this       
constancy of temperature in warm-blooded
 animals1 which is as important and     
peculiar as their average height1 ,man1 
undoubtedly1 must possess a superior    
delicacy of organization1 hardly        
revealed by structure1 which makes it   
necessary that he should be shielded    
from the shocks and jars of varying     
temperature1 that less highly endowed   
organisms endure with impunity4  #bbd4  
,sources of ,bodily ,heat4 ,the heat of 
the body is generated by the chemical   
changes1 generally spoken of as those of
 oxidation1 which are constantly going  
on in the tissues4 ,indeed1 whenever    
protoplasmic materials are being        
oxidized 7the process referred to in    
sec4 #ae as katabolism7 heat is being   
set free4 ,these chemical changes are of
 various kinds1 but the great source of 
heat is the katabolic process1 known as 
oxidation4  ,the vital part of the      

tissues1 built up from the complex      
classes of food1 is oxidized by means of
 the oxygen carried by the arterial     
blood1 and broken down into simpler     
bodies which at last result in urea1    
carbon dioxid1 and water4 ,wherever     
there is life1 this process of oxidation
 is going on1 but more energetically in 
some tissues and organs than in others4 
,in other words1 the minutest tissue in 
the body is a source of heat in         
proportion to the activity of its       
chemical changes4 ,the more active the  
changes1 the greater is the heat        
produced1 and the greater the amount of 
urea1 carbon dioxid1 and water          
eliminated4 ,the waste caused by this   
oxidation must be made good by a due    
supply of food to be built up into      
protoplasmic material4 ,for the         
production of heat1 therefore1 food is  
necessary4 ,but the oxidation process is
 not as simple and direct as the        
statement of it might seem to indicate4 
,though complicated in its various      

stages1 the ultimate result is as simple
 as in ordinary combustion outside of   
the body1 and the products are the same4
  ,the continual chemical changes1 then1
 chiefly by oxidation of combustible    
materials in the tissues1 produce an    
amount of heat which is efficient to    
maintain the temperature of the living  
body at about #ih ,f4 ,this process of  
oxidation provides not only for the heat
 of the body1 but also for the energy   
required to carry on the muscular work  
of the animal organism4  #bbe4          
,regulation of the ,bodily ,temperature4
 ,while bodily heat is being continually
 produced1 it is also as continually    
being lost by the lungs1 by the skin1   
and to some extent1 by certain          
excretions4 ,the blood1 in its swiftly  
flowing current1 carries warmth from the
 tissues where heat is being rapidly    
generated1 to the tissues or organs in  
which it is being lost by radiation1    
conduction1 or evaporation4 ,were there 
no arrangement by which heat could be   

distributed and regulated1 the          
temperature of the body would be very   
unequal in different parts1 and would   
vary at different times4  ,the normal   
temperature is maintained with slight   
variations throughout life4 ,indeed a   
change of more than a degree above or   
below the average1 indicates some       
failure in the organism1 or some unusual
 influence4 ,it is evident1 then1 that  
the mechanisms which regulate the       
temperature of the body must be         
exceedingly sensitive4  ,the two chief  
means of regulating the temperature of  
the body are the lungs and the skin4 ,as
 a means of lowering the temperature1   
the lungs and air passages are very     
inferior to the skin2 although1 by      
giving heat to the air we breathe1 they 
stand next to the skin in importance4   
,as a regulating power they are         
altogether subordinate to the skin4     
,experiment #aac4 ,to show the natural  
temperature of the body4   ,borrow a    
physician's clinical thermometer1 and   

take your own   temperature1 and that of
 several friends1 by placing the        
instrument   under the tongue1 closing  
the mouth1 and holding it there for five
   minutes4 ,it should be thoroughly    
cleansed after each use4  #bbf4 ,the    
,skin as a ,heat-regulator4 ,the great  
regulator of the bodily temperature is1 
undoubtedly1 the skin1 which performs   
this function by means of a             
self-regulating apparatus with a more or
 less double action4 ,first1 the skin   
regulates the loss of heat by means of  
the vaso-motor mechanism4 ,the more     
blood passes through the skin1 the      
greater will be the loss of heat by     
conduction1 radiation1 and evaporation4 
,hence1 any action of the vaso-motor    
mechanism which causes dilatation of the
 cutaneous capillaries1 leads to a      
larger flow of blood through the skin1  
and will tend to cool the body4 ,on the 
other hand1 when by the same mechanism  
the cutaneous vessels are constricted1  
there will be a smaller flow of blood   

through the skin1 which will serve to   
check the loss of heat from the body    
7secs4 #aie and #bgj74  ,again1 the     
special nerves of perspiration act      
directly as regulators of temperature4  
,they increase the loss of heat when    
they promote the secretion of the skin1 
and diminish the loss when they cease to
 promote it4  ,the practical working of 
this heat-regulating mechanism is well  
shown by exercise4 ,the bodily          
temperature rarely rises so much as a   
degree during vigorous exercise4 ,the   
respiration is increased1 the cutaneous 
capillaries become dilated from the     
quickened circulation1 and a larger     
amount of blood is circulating through  
the skin4 ,besides this1 the skin       
perspires freely4 ,a large amount of    
heat is thus lost to the body1          
sufficient to offset the addition caused
 by the muscular contractions4  ,it is  
owing to the wonderful elasticity of the
 sweat-secreting mechanism1 and to the  
increase in respiratory activity1 and   

the consequent increase in the amount of
 watery vapor given off by the lungs1   
that men are able to endure for days an 
atmosphere warmer than the blood1 and   
even for a short time at a temperature  
above that of boiling water4 ,the       
temperature of a ,turkish bath may be as
 high as #aej to #age ,f4 ,but an       
atmospheric temperature may be          
considerably below this1 and yet if long
 continued becomes dangerous to life4   
,in ,august1 #ahif1 for instance1       
hundreds of persons died in this        
country1 within a few days1 from the    
effects of the excessive heat4  ,a much 
higher temperature may be borne in dry  
air than in humid air1 or that which is 
saturated with watery vapor4 ,thus1 a   
shade temperature of #ajj ,f4 in the dry
 air of a high plain may be quite       
tolerable1 while a temperature of #hj   
,f4 in the moisture-laden atmosphere of 
less elevated regions1 is oppressive4   
,the reason is that in dry air the sweat
 evaporates freely1 and cools the skin4 

,in saturated air at the bodily         
temperature there is little loss of heat
 by perspiration1 or by evaporation from
 the bodily surface4  ,this topic is    
again discussed in the description of   
the skin as a regulator of the bodily   
temperature 7sec4 #bda74  #bbg4         
,voluntary ,means of ,regulating the    
,temperature4 ,the voluntary factor1 as 
a means of regulating the heat loss in  
man1 is one of great importance4        
,clothing retards the loss of heat by   
keeping in contact with it a layer of   
still air1 which is an exceedingly bad  
conductor4 ,when a man feels too warm   
and throws off his coat1 he removes one 
of the badly conducting layers of air1  
and increases the heat loss by radiation
 and conduction4 ,the vapor next the    
skin is thus allowed a freer access to  
the surface1 and the loss of heat by    
evaporation of the sweat becomes        
greater4 ,this voluntary factor by which
 the equilibrium is maintained must be  
regarded as of great importance4 ,this  

power also exists in the lower animals1 
but to a much smaller extent4 ,thus a   
dog1 on a hot day1 runs out his tongue  
and stretches his limbs so as to        
increase the surface from which heat is 
radiated and conducted4  ,the           
production1 like the loss1 of heat is to
 a certain extent under the control of  
the will4 ,work increases the production
 of heat1 and rest1 especially sleep1   
lessens it4 ,thus the inhabitants of    
very hot countries seek relief during   
the hottest part of the day by a siesta4
 ,the quantity and quality of food also 
influence the production of heat4 ,a    
larger quantity of food is taken in     
winter than in summer4 ,among the       
inhabitants of the northern and ,arctic 
regions1 the daily consumption of food  
is far greater than in temperate and    
tropical climates4  #bbh4 ,effect of    
,alcohol upon the ,lungs4 ,it is a well 
recognized fact that alcohol when taken 
into the stomach is carried from that   
organ to the liver1 where1 by the       

baneful directness of its presence1 it  
produces a speedy and often disastrous  
effect4 ,but the trail of its malign    
power does not disappear there4 ,from   
the liver it passes to the right side of
 the heart1 and thence to the lungs1    
where its influence is still for harm4  
,in the lungs1 alcohol tends to check   
and diminish the breathing capacity of  
these organs4 ,this effect follows from 
the partial paralyzing influence of the 
stupefying agent upon the sympathetic   
nervous system1 diminishing its         
sensibility to the impulse of healthful 
respiration4 ,this diminished capacity  
for respiration is clearly shown by the 
use of the spirometer1 a simple         
instrument which accurately records the 
cubic measure of the lungs1 and proves  
beyond denial the decrease of the lung  
space4    ,most familiar and most       
dangerous is the drinking man's         
inability to   resist lung              
diseases4--,dr4 ,adoph ,frick1 the      
eminent ,german physiologist   of       

,zurich4    ,alcohol1 instead of        
preventing consumption1 as was once     
believed1   reduces the vitality so much
 as to render the system unusually      
susceptible to that fatal disease4--,r4 
,s4 ,tracy1 ,m4,d41 ,sanitary           
,inspector of the ,n4 ,y4 ,city ,health 
,dept4    ,in thirty cases in which     
alcoholic phthisis was present a dense1 
fibroid1 pigmented change was almost    
invariably present in some portion   of 
the lung far more frequently than in    
other cases of   phthisis4--,annual of  
,medical ,sciences4    ,there is no form
 of consumption so fatal as that from   
alcohol4   ,medicines affect the disease
 but little1 the most judicious diet    
fails1   and change of air accomplishes 
but slight real good4444 ,in plain      
terms1   there is no remedy whatever for
 alcoholic phthisis4 ,it may be delayed 
in   its course1 but it is never        
stopped2 and not infrequently1 instead  
of   being delayed1 it runs on to a     
fatal termination more rapidly than is  

common in any other type of the         
disorder4--,dr4 ,b4 ,w4 ,richardson in  
,diseases of ,modern ,life4  #bbi4      
,other ,results of ,intoxicants upon the
 ,lungs4 ,but a more potent injury to   
the lungs comes from another cause4 ,the
 lungs are the arena where is carried on
 the ceaseless interchange of elements  
that is necessary to the processes of   
life4 ,here the dark venous blood1      
loaded with effete material1 lays down  
its carbon burden and1 with the         
brightening company of oxygen1 begins   
again its circuit4 ,but the enemy       
intrudes1 and the use of alcohol tends  
to prevent this benign interchange4     
,the continued congestion of the lung   
tissue results in its becoming thickened
 and hardened1 thus obstructing the     
absorption of oxygen1 and the escape of 
carbon dioxid4 ,besides this1 alcohol   
destroys the integrity of the red       
globules1 causing them to shrink and    
harden1 and impairing their power to    
receive oxygen4 ,thus the blood that    

leaves the lungs conveys an excess of   
the poisonous carbon dioxid1 and a      
deficiency of the needful oxygen4 ,this 
is plainly shown in the purplish        
countenance of the inebriate1 crowded   
with enlarged veins4 ,this discoloration
 of the face is in a measure reproduced 
upon the congested mucous membrane of   
the lungs4 ,it is also proved beyond    
question by the decreased amount of     
carbon dioxid thrown off in the expired 
breath of any person who has used       
alcoholics4  ,the enfeebled respiration 
explains 7though it is only one of the  
reasons7 why inebriates cannot endure   
vigorous and prolonged exertion as can a
 healthy person4 ,the hurried           
circulation produced by intoxicants     
involves in turn quickened respiration1 
which means more rapid exhaustion of the
 life forces4 ,the use of intoxicants   
involves a repeated dilatation of the   
capillaries1 which steadily diminishes  
their defensive power1 rendering the    
person more liable to yield to the      

invasion of pulmonary diseases4#ch      
#bcj4 ,effect of ,alcoholics upon       
,disease4 ,a theory has prevailed1 to a 
limited extent1 that the use of         
intoxicants may act as a preventive of  
consumption4 ,the records of medical    
science fail to show any proof whatever 
to support this impression4 ,no error   
could be more serious or more           
misleading1 for the truth is in         
precisely the opposite direction4       
,instead of preventing1 alcohol tends to
 develop consumption4 ,many physicians  
of large experience record the existence
 of a distinctly recognized alcoholic   
consumption1 attacking those            
constitutions broken down by            
dissipation4 ,this form of consumption  
is steadily progressive1 and always     
fatal4  ,the constitutional debility    
produced by the habit of using alcoholic
 beverages tends to render one a prompt 
victim to the more severe diseases1 as  
pneumonia1 and especially epidemical    
diseases1 which sweep away vast numbers 

of victims every year4  #bca4 ,effect of
 ,tobacco upon the ,respiratory         
,passages4 ,the effects of tobacco upon 
the throat and lungs are frequently very
 marked and persistent4 ,the hot smoke  
must very naturally be an irritant1 as  
the mouth and nostrils were not made as 
a chimney for heated and narcotic       
vapors4 ,the smoke is an irritant1 both 
by its temperature and from its         
destructive ingredients1 the carbon soot
 and the ammonia which it conveys4 ,it  
irritates and dries the mucous membrane 
of the mouth and throat1 producing an   
unnatural thirst which becomes an       
enticement to the use of intoxicating   
liquors4 ,the inflammation of the mouth 
and throat is apt to extend up the      
,eustachian tube1 thus impairing the    
sense of hearing4  ,but even these are  
not all the bad effects of tobacco4 ,the
 inhalation of the poisonous smoke      
produces unhealthful effects upon the   
delicate mucous membrane of the         
bronchial tubes and of the lungs4 ,upon 

the former the effect is to produce an  
irritating cough1 with short breath and 
chronic bronchial catarrh4 ,the         
pulmonary membrane is congested1 taking 
cold becomes easy1 and recovery from it 
tedious4 ,frequently the respiration is 
seriously disturbed1 thus the blood is  
imperfectly arated1 and so in turn the  
nutrition of the entire system is       
impaired4 ,the cigarette is the defiling
 medium through which these direful     
results frequently invade the system1   
and the easily moulded condition of     
youth yields readily to the destructive 
snare4  ,the first effect of a cigar    
upon any one demonstrates that tobacco  
can poison by its smoke and through the 
lungs4--,london ,lancet4  ,the action of
 the heart and lungs is impaired by the 
influence of the narcotic on the nervous
 system1 but a morbid state of the      
larynx1 trachea1 and lungs results from 
the direct action of the smoke4--,dr4   
,laycock1 ,professor of ,medicine in the
 ,university of ,edinburgh4             

,additional ,experiments4    ,experiment
 #aad4 ,to illustrate the arrangement of
 the lungs and the   two pleur4 ,place a
 large sponge which will represent the  
lungs in a   thin paper bag which just  
fits it2 this will represent the        
pulmonary   layer of the pleura4 ,place 
the sponge and paper bag inside a second
   paper bag1 which will represent the  
parietal layer of the pleura4 ,join     
the mouths of the two bags4 ,the two    
surfaces of the bags which are now   in 
contact will represent the two moistened
 surfaces of the pleur1   which rub     
together in breathing4    ,experiment   
#aae4 ,to show how the lungs may be     
filled with air4   ,take one of the     
lungs saved from ,experiment #aaj4 ,tie 
a glass tube six   inches long into the 
larynx4 ,attach a piece of rubber to one
 end of the   glass tube4 ,now inflate  
the lung several times1 and let it      
collapse4   ,when distended1 examine    
every part of it4    ,experiment #aaf4  
,to take your own bodily temperature or 

that of a   friend4 ,if you cannot      
obtain the use of a physician's clinical
   thermometer1 unfasten one of the     
little thermometers found on so many    
calendars and advertising sheets4 ,hold 
it for five minutes under the   tongue  
with the lips closed4 ,read it while in 
position or the instant it   is removed4
 ,the natural temperature of the mouth  
is about #ih ,f4    ,experiment #aag4   
,to show the vocal cords4 ,get a pig's  
windpipe in   perfect order1 from the   
butcher1 to show the vocal cords4 ,once 
secured1   it can be kept for an        
indefinite time in glycerine and water  
or dilute   alcohol4    ,experiment     
#aah4 ,to show that the air we expire is
 warm4 ,breathe   on a thermometer for a
 few minutes4 ,the mercury will rise    
rapidly4    ,experiment #aai4 ,to show  
that expired cur is moist4 ,breathe on a
   mirror1 or a knife blade1 or any     
polished metallic surface1 and note the 
deposit of moisture4    ,experiment     
#abj4 ,to show that the expired air     

contains carbon   dioxid4 ,put a glass  
tube into a bottle of lime water and    
breathe   through the tube4 ,the ,a     
liquid will soon become cloudy1 because 
the   carbon dioxid of the expired air  
throws down the lime held in solution4  
,experiment #aba4 ,a substitute for a   
clinical thermometer may be   readily   
contrived by taking an ordinary house   
thermometer from its tin   case1 and    
cutting off the lower part of the scale 
so that the bulb may   project freely4  
,with this instrument the pupils may    
take their own and   each other's       
temperatures1 and it will be found that 
whatever the season   of the year or the
 temperature of the room1 the           
thermometer in the mouth   will record  
about #ii ,f4 ,care must1 of course1 be 
taken to keep the   thermometer in the  
mouth till it ceases to rise1 and to    
read while it is   still in             
position4--,professor ,h4 ,p4 ,bowditch4
    ,experiment #abb4 ,to illustrate the
 manner in which the movements of       

inspiration cause the air to enter the  
lungs4 ,fit up an apparatus1 as         
represented in ,fig4 #ie1 in which a    
stout glass tube is provided with a     
sound cork1 ,b1 and also an air-tight   
piston1 ,d1 resembling that of an       
ordinary syringe4 ,a short tube1 ,a1    
passing through the cork1 has a small   
,india-rubber bag1 ,c1 tied to it4 ,fit 
the cork in the tube while the   piston 
is near the top4 ,now1 by lowering the  
piston we increase the   capacity of the
 cavity containing the bag4 ,the        
pressure outside the bag   is thus      
lowered1 and air rushes into it through 
the tube1 ,a1 till a   balance is       
restored4 ,the bag is thus stretched4   
,as soon as we let go the   piston1 the 
elasticity of the bag1 being free to    
act1 ,movements of   drives out the air 
just taken in1 and the piston returns to
 its former   place4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ie4 ,apparatus for ,illustrating 
the ,movements of   ,respiration4    ,it
 will be noticed that in this experiment

 the elastic bag and its tube           
represent the lungs and trachea2 and the
 glass vessel enclosing it1 the         
thorax4  ,for additional experiments on 
the mechanics of respiration1 see       
,chapter ,,xv4     ,chapter ,,ix4  ,the 
,skin and the ,kidneys4    #bcb4 ,the   
,elimination of ,waste ,products4 ,we   
have traced the food from the alimentary
 canal into the blood4 ,we have learned 
that various food materials1 prepared by
 the digestive processes1 are taken up  
by the branches of the portal vein1 or  
by the lymphatics1 and carried into the 
blood current4 ,the nutritive material  
thus absorbed is conveyed by the blood  
plasma and the lymph to the various     
tissues to provide them with            
nourishment4  ,we have learned also that
 oxygen1 taken up in the air cells of   
the lungs1 is being continually carried 
to the tissues1 and that the blood is   
purified by being deprived in the lungs 
of its excess of carbon dioxid4 ,from   
this tissue activity1 which is mainly   

oxidation1 are formed certain waste     
products which1 as we have seen1 are    
absorbed by the capillaries and         
lymphatics and carried into the venous  
circulation4  ,in their passage through 
the blood and tissues1 the albumens1    
sugars1 starches1 and fats are converted
 into carbon dioxid1 water1 and urea1 or
 some closely allied body4 ,certain     
articles of food also contain small     
amounts of sulphur and phosphorus1 which
 undergo oxidation into sulphates and   
phosphates4 ,we speak1 then1 of carbon  
dioxid1 salts1 and water as waste       
products of the animal economy4 ,these  
leave the body by one of the three main 
channels1--the lungs1 the skin1 or the  
kidneys4  ,the elimination of these     
products is brought about by a special  
apparatus called organs of excretion4   
,the worn-out substances themselves are 
called excretions1 as opposed to        
secretions1 which are elaborated for use
 in the body4 7,see note1 p4 #aba47 ,as 
already shown1 the lungs are the main   

channels for the elimination of carbon  
dioxid1 and of a portion of water as    
vapor4 ,by the skin the body gets rid of
 a small portion of salts1 a little     
carbon dioxid1 and a large amount of    
water in the form of perspiration4 ,from
 the kidneys are eliminated nearly all  
the urea and allied bodies1 the main    
portion of the salts1 and a large amount
 of water4 ,in fact1 practically all the
 nitrogenous waste leaves the body by   
the kidneys4  ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#if4--;,diagrammatic ,scheme to         
illustrate in a very ,general ,way      
,absorption and ,excretion4    ,a1      
represents the alimentary canal2   ,l1  
the pulmonary surface2   ,k1 the surface
 of the renal epithelium2   ,s1 the     
skin2   o1 oxygen2   h1 hydrogen12   n1 
nitrogen4    #bcc4 ,the ,skin4 ,the skin
 is an important and unique organ of the
 body4 ,it is a blood-purifying organ as
 truly as are the lungs and the kidneys1
 while it also performs other and       
complex duties4 ,it is not merely a     

protective covering for the surface of  
the body4 ,this is indeed the most      
apparent1 but in some respectes1 the    
lest important1 of its functions4 ,this 
protective duty is necessary and        
efficient1 as is proved by the familiar 
experience of the pain when a portion of
 the outer skin has been removed4  ,the 
skin1 being richly supplied with nerves1
 is an important organ of sensibility   
and touch4 ,in some parts it is closely 
attached to the structures beneath1     
while in others it is less firmly       
adherent and rests upon a variable      
amount of fatty tissue4 ,it thus assists
 in relieving the abrupt projections and
 depressions of the general surface1 and
 in giving roundness and symmetry to the
 entire body4 ,the thickness of the skin
 varies in different parts of the body4 
,where exposed to pressure and friction1
 as on the soles of the feet and in the 
palms of the hands1 it is much          
thickened4  ,the true skin is #a_/ab to 
of an inch in thickness1 but in certain 

parts1 as in the lips and ear passages1 
it is often not more than #a_/ajj of an 
inch thick4 ,at the orifices of the     
body1 as at the mouth1 ears1 and nose1  
the skin gradually passes into mucous   
membrane1 the structure of the two being
 practically identical4 ,as the skin is 
an outside covering1 so is the mucous   
membrane a more delicate inside lining  
for all cavities into which the         
apertures open1 as the alimentary canal 
and the lungs4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ig4--;,a ,layer of the ,cuticle from   
the ,palm of the ,hand4 7,detached by   
maceration47  ,the skin ranks as an     
important organ of excretion1 its       
product being sweat1 excreted by the    
sweat glands4 ,the amount of this       
excretion evaporated from the general   
surface is very considerable1 and is    
modified as becomes necessary from the  
varied conditions of the temperature4   
,the skin also plays an important part  
in regulating the bodily                
temperature7sec4 #bda74  #bcd4 ,the     

,cutis ,vera1 or ,true ,skin4 ,the skin 
is remarkably complex in its structure1 
and is divided into two distinct layers1
 which may be readily separated3 the    
deeper layer1--the true skin1 dermis1 or
 corium2 and the superficial layer1 or  
outer skin1--the epidermis1 cuticle1 or 
scarf skin4  ,the true skin consists of 
elastic and white fibrous tissue1 the   
bundles of which interlace in every     
direction4 ,throughout this feltwork    
structure which gradually passes into   
areolar tissue are numerous muscular    
fibers1 as about the hair-follicles and 
the oil glands4 ,when these tiny muscles
 contract from cold or by mental        
emotion1 the follicles project upon the 
surface1 producing what is called goose 
flesh4  ,the true skin is richly        
supplied with blood-vessels and nerves1 
as when cut it bleeds freely1 and is    
very sensitive4 ,the surface of the true
 skin is thrown into a series of minute 
elevations called the papill1 upon which
 the outer skin is moulded4 ,these      

abound in blood-vessels1 lymphatics1 and
 peculiar nerve-endings1 which will be  
described in connection with the organ  
of touch 7sec4 #cad74 ,the papill are   
large and numerous in sensitive places1 
as the palms of the hands1 the soles of 
the feet1 and the fingers4 ,they are    
arranged in parallel curved lines1 and  
form the elevated ridges seen on the    
surface of the outer skin 7,fig4 #ajc74 
#bce4 ,the ,epidermis1 or ,cuticle4     
,above the true skin is the epidermis4  
,it is semi-transparent1 and under the  
microscope resembles the scales of a    
fish4 ,it is this layer that is raised  
by a blister4  ,as the epidermis has    
neither blood-vessels1 nerves1 nor      
lymphatics1 it may be cut without       
bleeding or pain4 ,its outer surface is 
marked with shallow grooves which       
correspond to the deep furrows between  
the papill of the true skin4 ,the inner 
surface is applied directly to the      
papillary layer of the true skin1 and   
follows closely its inequalities4 ,the  

outer skin is made up of several layers 
of cells1 which next to the true skin   
are soft and active1 but gradually      
become harder towards the surface1 where
 they are flattened and scale-like4 ,the
 upper scales are continually being     
rubbed off1 and are replaced by deeper  
cells from beneath4 ,there are new cells
 continually being produced in the      
deeper layer1 which push upward the     
cells already existing1 then gradually  
become dry1 and are cast off as fine1   
white dust4 ,rubbing with a coarse towel
 after a hot bath removes countless     
numbers of these dead cells of the outer
 skin4 ,during and after an attack of   
scarlet fever the patient peels1 that   
is1 sheds an unusual amount of the seal2
 cells of the cuticle4  ,the deeper and 
more active layer of the epidermis1 the 
mucosum1 is made up of cells some of    
which contain minute granules of        
pigment1 or coloring matter1 that give  
color to the skin4 ,the differences in  
the tint1 as brunette1 fair1 and blond1 

are due mainly to the amount of coloring
 matter in these pigment cells4 ,in the 
,european this amount is generally      
small1 while in other peoples the color 
cells may be brown1 yellow1 or even     
black4 ,the pinkish tint of healthy     
skin1 and the rosy-red after a bath are 
due1 not to the pigment cells1 but to   
the pressure of capillaries in the true 
skin1 the color of the blood being seen 
through the semi-transparent outer skin4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,surface of
 the ,palm of the ,hand1 showing the    
,openings of the ,sweat ,glands and the 
,grooves between the ,papill of the     
,skin4 7,magnified #d diameters47 ,in   
the smaller figure the same epidermal   
surface is shown1 as seen with the naked
 eye4    ,experiment #abc4 ,of course   
the living skin can be examined only in 
a   general way4 ,stretch and pull it1  
and notice that it is elastic4 ,note    
any liver spots1 white scars1 moles1    
warts1 etc4 ,examine the outer skin     
carefully with a strong magnifying      

glass4 ,study the papill on the   palms4
 ,scrape off with a sharp knife a few   
bits of the scarf skin1 and   examine   
them with the microscope4  #bcf4 ,the   
,hair4 ,hairs varying in size cover     
nearly the entire body1 except a few    
portions1 as the upper eyelids1 the     
palms of the hands1 and the soles of the
 feet4  ,the length and diameter of the 
hairs vary in different persons1        
especially in the long1 soft hairs of   
the head and beard4 ,the average number 
of hairs upon a square inch of the scalp
 is about #ajjj1 and the number upon the
 entire head is estimated as about      
#abj1jjj4  ,healthy hair is quite       
elastic1 and may be stretched from      
one-fifth to one-third more than its    
original length4 ,an ordinary hair from 
the head will support a weight of six to
 seven ounces4 ,the hair may become     
strongly electrified by friction1       
especially when brushed vigorously in   
cold1 dry weather4 ,another peculiarity 
of the hair is that it readily absorbs  

moisture4  #bcg4 ,structure of the      
,hair4 ,the hair and the nails are      
structures connected with the skin1     
being modified forms of the epidermis4  
,a hair is formed by a depression1 or   
furrow1 the inner walls of which consist
 of the infolded outer skin4 ,this      
depression takes the form of a sac and  
is called the hair-follicle1 in which   
the roots of the hair are embedded4 ,at 
the bottom of the follicle there is an  
upward projection of the true skin1 a   
papilla1 which contains blood-vessels   
and nerves4 ,it is covered with         
epidermic cells which multiply rapidly1 
thus accounting for the rapid growth of 
the hair4 ,around each papilla is a     
bulbous expansion1 the hair bulb1 from  
which the hair begins to grow4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4--;,epidermis  
of the ,foot4  ,it will be noticed that 
there are only a few orifices of the    
sweat glands in this region4 7,magnified
 #h diameters47  ,the cells on the      
papill are the means by which the hairs 

grow4 ,as these are pushed upwards by   
new ones formed beneath1 they are       
compressed1 and the shape of the        
follicle determines their cylindrical   
growth1 the shaft of the hair4 ,so      
closely are these cells welded to form  
the cylinder1 that even under a         
microscope the hair presents only a     
fibrous appearance1 except in the       
center1 where the cells are larger1     
forming the medulla1 or pith 7,fig4     
#ajf74  ,the medulla of the hair        
contains the pigment granules or        
coloring matter1 which may be of any    
shade between a light yellow and an     
intense black4 ,it is this that gives   
the great variety in color4 ,generally  
with old people the pigment is absent1  
the cells being occupied by air2 hence  
the hair becomes gray or white4 ,the    
thin1 flat scales on the surface of the 
hair overlap like shingles4 ,connected  
with the hair-follicles are small       
bundles of muscular fibers1 which run   
obliquely in the skin and which1 on     

shortening1 may cause the hairs to      
become more upright1 and thus are made  
to stand on end4 ,the bristling back of 
an angry cat furnishes a familiar       
illustration of this muscular action4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--;,hair and  
,hair-,follicle4    ,a1 root of hair2   
,b1 bulb of the hair2   ,c1 internal    
root sheath2   ,d1 external root sheath2
   ,e1 external membrane of follicle2   
,f1 muscular fibers attached to the     
follicle2   ,h1 compound sebaceous gland
 with its duct2   ,k1 ,l1 simple        
sebaceous gland2   ,m1 opening of the   
hair-follicle4   ,opening into each     
hair-follicle are usually one or more   
sebaceous1 or oil1 glands4 ,these       
consist of groups of minute pouches     
lined with cells producing an oily      
material which serves to oil the hair   
and keep the skin moist and pliant4     
#bch4 ,the ,nails4 ,the nails are also  
formed of epidermis cells which have    
undergone compression1 much like those  
forming the shaft of a hair4 ,in other  

words1 a nail is simply a thick layer of
 horny scales built from the outer part 
of the scarf skin4 ,the nail lies upon  
very fine and closely set papill1       
forming its matrix1 or bed4 ,it is      
covered at its base with a fold of the  
true skin1 called its root1 from beneath
 which it seems to grow4  ,the growth of
 the nail1 like that of the hair and the
 outer skin1 is effected by the         
production of new cells at the root and 
under surface4 ,the growth of each hair 
is limited2 in time it falls out and is 
replaced by a new one4 ,but the nail is 
kept of proper size simply by the       
removal of its free edge4  #bci4 ,the   
,sweat ,glands4 ,deep in the substance  
of the true skin1 or in the fatty tissue
 beneath it1 are the sweat glands4 ,each
 gland consists of a single tube with a 
blind end1 coiled in a sort of ball     
about #a_/fj of an inch in diameter4    
,from this coil the tube passes upwards 
through the dermis in a wavy course     
until it reaches the cuticle1 which it  

penetrates with a number of spiral      
turns1 at last opening on the surface4  
,the tubes consist of delicate walls of 
membrane lined with cells4 ,the coil of 
the gland is enveloped by minute        
blood-vessels4 ,the cells of the glands 
are separated from the blood only by a  
fine partition1 and draw from it        
whatever supplies they need for their   
special work4  ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#aja4--;,concave or ,adherent ,surface  
of the ,nail4    ,a1 border of the root2
   ,b1 whitish portion of semilunar     
shape 7the lunula72   ,c1 body of nail4 
,the continuous line around border      
represents the free      edge4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--,nail in    
,position4    ,a1 section of cutaneous  
fold 7,b7 turned back to show the root  
of the      nail2   ,b1 cutaneous fold  
covering the root of the nail2   ,c1    
semi lunar whitish portion 7lunula72    
,d1 free border4   ,with few exceptions 
every portion of the skin is provided   
with sweat glands1 but they are not     

equally distributed over the body4 ,they
 are fewest in the back and neck1 where 
it is estimated they average #djj to the
 square inch4 ,they are thickest in the 
palms of the hands1 where they amount to
 nearly #cjjj to each square inch4      
,these minute openings occur in the     
ridges of the skin1 and may be easily   
seen with a hand lens4 ,the length of a 
tube when straightened is about #a_/d of
 an inch4 ,the total number in the body 
is estimated at about #b1ejj1jjj1 thus  
making the entire length of the tubes   
devoted to the secretion of sweat about 
#aj miles4  #bdj4 ,nature and           
,properties of ,sweat4 ,the sweat is a  
turbid1 saltish fluid with a feeble but 
characteristic odor due to certain      
volatile fatty acids4 ,urea is always   
present in small quantities1 and its    
proportion may be largely increased when
 there is deficiency of elimination by  
the kidneys4 ,thus it is often observed 
that the sweat is more abundant when the
 kidneys are inactive1 and the reverse  

is true4 ,this explains the increased   
excretion of the kidneys in cold        
weather4 ,of the inorganic constituents 
of sweat1 common salt is the largest and
 most important4 ,some carbon dioxid    
passes out through the skin1 but not    
more than #a_/ej as much as escapes by  
the lungs4  ,the sweat ordinarily passes
 off as vapor4 ,if there is no obvious  
perspiration we must not infer that the 
skin is inactive1 since sweat is        
continually passing from the surface1   
though often it may not be apparent4 ,on
 an average from #a-a_/b to #d pounds of
 sweat are eliminated daily from the    
skin in the form of vapor4 ,this is     
double the amount excreted by the lungs1
 and averages about #a_/fg of the weight
 of the body4  ,the visible sweat1 or   
sensible perspiration1 becomes abundant 
during active exercise1 after copious   
drinking of cold water1 on taking       
certain drugs1 and when the body is     
exposed to excessive warmth4 ,forming   
more rapidly than it evaporates it      

collects in drops on the surface4 ,the  
disagreeable sensations produced by     
humid weather result from the fact that 
the atmosphere is so loaded with vapor  
that the moisture of the skin is slowly 
removed by evaporation4    ,experiment  
#abd4 ,study the openings of the sweat  
glands with the aid   of a strong       
magnifying glass4 ,they are conveniently
 examined on the   palms4  ,a man's     
weight may be considerably reduced      
within a short time by loss through the 
perspiration alone4 ,this may explain to
 some extent the weakening effect of    
profuse perspiration1 as from night     
sweats of consumption1 convalescence    
from typhoid fever1 or the artificial   
sweating from taking certain drugs4     
#bda4 ,the ,skin as a ,regulator of the 
,temperature of the ,body4 ,we thus     
learn that the skin covers and protects 
the more delicate structures beneath it2
 and that it also serves as an important
 organ of excretion4 ,by means of the   
sweat the skin performs a third and a   

most important function1 viz41 that of  
regulating the temperature of the body4 
,the blood-vessels of the skin1 like    
those of other parts of the body1 are   
under the control of the nervous system1
 which regulates their diameter4 ,if the
 nervous control be relaxed1 the        
blood-vessels dilate1 more blood flows  
through them1 and more material is      
brought to the glands of the skin to be 
acted upon4 ,external warmth relaxes the
 skin and its blood-vessels4 ,there     
results an increased flow of blood to   
the skin1 with increased perspiration4  
,external cold1 on the other hand1      
contracts the skin and its              
blood-vessels1 producing a diminished   
supply of blood and a diminished amount 
of sweat4  ,now1 it is a law of physics 
that the change from liquid to vapor    
involves a loss of heat4 ,a few drops of
 ether or of any volatile liquid placed 
on the skin1 produce a marked sense of  
coldness1 because the heat necessary to 
change the liquid into vapor has been   

drawn rapidly from the skin4 ,this      
principle holds good for every particle 
of sweat that reaches the mouth of a    
sweat gland4 ,as the sweat evaporates1  
it absorbs a certain amount of heat1 and
 cools the body to that extent4   #bdb4 
,how the ,action of the ,skin may be    
,modified4 ,after profuse sweating we   
feel chilly from the evaporation of a   
large amount of moisture1 which rapidly 
cools the surface4 ,when the weather is 
very warm the evaporation tends to      
prevent the bodily temperature from     
rising4 ,on the other hand1 if the      
weather be cold1 much less sweat is     
produced1 the loss of heat from the body
 is greatly lessened1 and its           
temperature prevented from falling4     
,thus it is plain why medicine is given 
and other efforts are made to sweat the 
fever patient4 ,the increased activity  
of the skin helps to reduce the bodily  
heat4  ,the sweat glands are under the  
control of certain nerve fibers         
originating in the spinal cord1 and are 

not necessarily excited to action by an 
increased flow of blood through the     
skin4 ,in other words1 the sweat glands 
may be stimulated to increased action   
both by an increased flow of blood1 and 
also by reflex action upon the          
vaso-dilator nerves of the parts4 ,these
 two agencies1 while working in harmony 
through the vaso-dilators1 produce      
phenomena which are essentially         
independent of each other4 ,thus a      
strong emotion1 like fear1 may cause a  
profuse sweat to break out1 with cold1  
pallid skin4 ,during a fever the skin   
may be hot1 and its vessels full of     
blood1 and yet there may be no          
perspiration4  ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ajc4--,papill of the ,skin of the ,palm
 of the ,hand4  ,in each papilla are    
seen vascular loops 7dark lines7 running
 up from the vascular network below1 the
 tactile corpuscles with their nerve    
branches 7white lines7 which supply the 
papill4  ,the skin may have important   
uses with which we are not yet          

acquainted4 ,death ensues when the heat 
of the body has been reduced to about   
#gj ,f41 and suppression of the action  
of the skin always produces a lowering  
of the temperature4 ,warm-blooded       
animals usually die when more than half 
of the general surface has been         
varnished4 ,superficial burns which     
involve a large part of the surface of  
the body1 generally have a fatal result 
due to shock4  ,if the skin be covered  
with some air-tight substance like a    
coating of varnish1 its functions are   
completely arrested4 ,the bodily heat   
falls very rapidly4 ,symptoms of        
blood-poisoning arise1 and death soon   
ensues4 ,the reason is not clearly      
known1 unless it be from the sudden     
retention of poisonous exhalations4     
#bdc4 ,the ,skin and the ,kidneys4      
,there is a close relationship between  
the skin and the kidneys1 as both       
excrete organic and saline matter4 ,in  
hot weather1 or in conditions producing 
great activity of the skin1 the amount  

of water excreted by the kidneys is     
diminished4 ,this is shown in the case  
of firemen1 stokers1 bakers1 and others 
who are exposed to great heat1 and drink
 heavily and sweat profusely1 but do not
 have a relative increase in the        
functions of the kidneys4 ,in cool      
weather1 when the skin is less active1 a
 large amount of water is excreted by   
the kidneys1 as is shown by the         
experience of those who drive a long    
distance in severe weather1 or who have 
caught a sudden cold4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #ajd4--,magnified ,view of a      
,sweat ,gland with its ,duct4  ,the     
convoluted gland is seen surrounded with
 big fat-cells1 and may be traced       
through the dermis to its outlet in the 
horny layers of the epidermis4  #bdd4   
,absorbent ,powers of the ,skin4 ,the   
skin serves to some extent as an organ  
for absorption4 ,it is capable of       
absorbing certain substances to which it
 is freely exposed4 ,ointments rubbed   
in1 are absorbed by the lymphatics in   

those parts where the skin is thin1 as  
in the bend of the elbow or knee1 and in
 the armpits4 ,physicians use medicated 
ointments in this way1 when they wish to
 secure prompt and efficient results4   
,feeble infants often grow more vigorous
 by having their skin rubbed vigorously 
daily with olive oil4  ,a slight amount 
of water is absorbed in bathing4        
,sailors deprived of fresh water have   
been able to allay partially their      
intense thirst by soaking their clothing
 in salt water4 ,the extent to which    
absorption occurs through the healthy   
skin is1 however1 quite limited4 ,if the
 outer skin be removed from parts of the
 body1 the exposed surface absorbs      
rapidly4 ,various substances may thus be
 absorbed1 and rapidly passed into the  
blood4 ,when the physician wishes       
remedies to act through the skin1 he    
sometimes raises a small blister1 and   
dusts over the surface some drug1 a fine
 powder1 like morphine4  ,the part      
played by the skin as an organ of touch 

will be considered in sections #cad and 
#cae4    ,experiment #abe4 ,to          
illustrate the sense of temperature4    
,ask the   person to close his eyes4    
,use two test tubes1 one filled with    
cold and   the other with hot water1 or 
two spoons1 one hot and one cold4 ,apply
   each to different parts of the       
surface1 and ask the person whether the 
touching body is hot or cold4 ,test     
roughly the sensibility of different    
parts of the body with cold and warm    
metallic-pointed rods4    ,experiment   
#abf4 ,touch fur1 wood1 and metal4 ,the 
metal feels   coldest1 although all the 
objects are at the same temperature4    
,why8    ,experiment #abg4 ,plunge the  
hand into water at about #ig;,f4 ,one   
experiences a feeling of heat4 ,then    
plunge it into water at about #hf;,f42  
at first it feels cold1 because heat is 
abstracted from the hand4 ,plunge   the 
other hand direct into water at #hf;,f4 
without previously placing it   in water
 at #ig;,f41--it will feel pleasantly   

warm4    ,experiment #abh4 ,to          
illustrate warm and cold spots4 ,with a 
blunt   metallic point1 touch different 
parts of the skin4 ,certain points      
excite   the sensation of warmth1 others
 of cold1 although the temperatures of  
the skin and of the instrument remain   
constant4  #bde4 ,necessity for         
,personal ,cleanliness4 ,it is evident  
that the skin1 with its myriads of      
blood-vessels1 nerves1 and sweat and oil
 glands1 is an exceedingly complicated  
and important structure4 ,the surface is
 continually casting off perspiration1  
oily material1 and dead scales4 ,by     
friction and regular bathing we get rid 
of these waste materials4 ,if this be   
not thoroughly done1 the oily secretion 
holds the particles of waste substances 
to the surface of the body1 while dust  
and dirt collect1 and form a layer upon 
the skin4 ,when we remember that this   
dirt consists of a great variety of dust
 particles1 poisonous matters1 and      
sometimes germs of disease1 we may well 

be impressed with the necessity of      
personal cleanliness4  ,this layer of   
foreign matter on the skin is in several
 ways injurious to health4 ,it clogs the
 pores and retards perspiration1 thus   
checking the proper action of the skin  
as one of the chief means of getting rid
 of the waste matters of the body4      
,hence additional work is thrown upon   
other organs1 chiefly the lungs and the 
kidneys1 which already have enough to   
do4 ,this extra work they can do for    
only a short time4 ,sooner or later they
 become disordered1 and illness follows4
 ,moreover1 as this unwholesome layer is
 a fertile soil in which bacteria may   
develop1 many skin diseases may result  
from this neglect4 ,it is also highly   
probable that germs of disease thus     
adherent to the skin may then be        
absorbed into the system4 ,parasitic    
skin diseases are thus greatly favored  
by the presence of an unclean skin4 ,it 
is also a fact that uncleanly people are
 more liable to take cold than those who

 bathe often4  ,the importance of       
cleanliness would thus seem too apparent
 to need special mention1 were it not   
that the habit is so much neglected4    
,the old and excellent definition that  
dirt is suitable matter1 but in the     
wrong place1 suggests that the place    
should be changed4 ,this can be done    
only by regular habits of personal      
cleanliness1 not only of the skin1 the  
hair1 the teeth1 the nails1 and the     
clothing1 but also by the rigid         
observance of a proper system in daily  
living4  #bdf4 ,baths and ,bathing4 ,in 
bathing we have two distinct objects in 
view1--to keep the skin clean and to    
impart vigor4 ,these are closely        
related1 for to remove from the body    
worn-out material1 which tends to injure
 it1 is a direct means of giving vigor  
to all the tissues4 ,thus a cold bath   
acts upon the nervous system1 and calls 
out1 in response to the temporary       
abstraction of heat1 a freer play of the
 general vital powers4 ,bathing is so   

useful1 both locally and                
constitutionally1 that it should be     
practiced to such an extent as          
experience proves to be beneficial4 ,for
 the general surface1 the use of hot    
water once a week fulfills the demands  
of cleanliness1 unless in special       
occupations4 ,whether we should bathe in
 hot or cold water depends upon         
circumstances4 ,most persons1 especially
 the young and vigorous1 soon become    
accustomed to cool1 and even cold water 
baths1 at all seasons of the year4  ,the
 hot bath should be taken at night      
before going to bed1 as in the morning  
there is usually more risk of taking    
cold4 ,the body is readily chilled1 if  
exposed to cold when the blood-vessels  
of the skin have been relaxed by heat4  
,hot baths1 besides their use for the   
purposes of cleanliness1 have a sedative
 influence upon the nervous system1     
tending to allay restlessness and       
weariness4 ,they are excellent after    
severe physical or mental work1 and give

 a feeling of restful comfort like that 
of sleep4  ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#aje4--;,epithelial ,cells from the     
,sweat ,glands4 ,the cells are very     
distinct1 with nuclei enclosing         
pigmentary granulations 7,magnified #cej
 times7  ,cold baths are less cleansing 
than hot1 but serve as an excellent     
tonic and stimulant to the bodily       
functions4 ,the best and most convenient
 time for a cold bath is in the morning1
 immediately after rising4 ,to the      
healthy and vigorous1 it is1 if taken at
 this time1 with proper precautions1 a  
most agreeable and healthful luxury4    
,the sensation of chilliness first felt 
is caused by the contraction of the skin
 and its blood-vessels1 so that the     
blood is forced back1 as it were1 into  
the deeper parts of the body4 ,this     
stimulates the nervous system1 the      
breathing becomes quicker and deeper1   
the heart beats more vigorously1 and1 as
 a consequence1 the warm blood is sent  
back to the skin with increased force4  

,this is known as the stage of reaction1
 which is best increased by friction    
with a rough towel4 ,this should produce
 the pleasant feeling of a warm glow all
 over the body4  ,a cold bath which is  
not followed by reaction is likely to do
 more harm than good4 ,the lack of this 
reaction may be due to the water being  
too cold1 the bath too prolonged1 or to 
the bather being in a low condition of  
health4 ,in brief1 the ruddy glow which 
follows a cold bath is the main secret  
of its favorable influence4  ,the       
temperature of the water should be      
adapted to the age and strength of the  
bather4 ,the young and robust can safely
 endure cold baths1 that would be of no 
benefit but indeed an injury to those of
 greater age or of less vigorous        
conditions of health4 ,after taking a   
bath the skin should be rapidly and     
vigorously rubbed dry with a rough      
towel1 and the clothing at once put on4 
#bdg4 ,rules and ,precautions in        
,bathing4 ,bathing in cold water should 

not be indulged in after severe exercise
 or great fatigue1 whether we are heated
 or not4 ,serious results have ensued   
from cold baths when the body is in a   
state of exhaustion or of profuse       
perspiration4 ,a daily cold bath when   
the body is comfortably warm1 is a safe 
tonic for almost all persons during the 
summer months1 and tends especially to  
restore the appetite4 ,cold baths1 taken
 regularly1 render persons who are      
susceptible to colds much less liable to
 them1 and less likely to be disturbed  
by sudden changes of temperature4       
,persons suffering from heart disease or
 from chronic disease of an important   
organ should not indulge in frequent    
cold bathing except by medical advice4  
,owing to the relaxing nature of hot    
baths1 persons with weak hearts or      
suffering from debility may faint while 
taking them4  ,outdoor bathing should   
not be taken for at least an hour after 
a full meal1 and except for the robust  
it is not prudent to bathe with the     

stomach empty1 especially before        
breakfast4 ,it is a wise rule1 in       
outdoor or sea bathing1 to come out of  
the water as soon as the glow of        
reaction is felt4 ,it is often advisable
 not to apply cold water very freely to 
the head4 ,tepid or even hot water is   
preferable1 especially by those subject 
to severe mental strain4 ,but it is     
often a source of great relief during   
mental strain to bathe the face1 neck1  
and chest freely at bedtime with cold   
water4 ,it often proves efficient at    
night in calming the sleeplessness which
 results from mental labor4  ,hot baths1
 if taken at bedtime1 are often         
serviceable in preventing a threatened  
cold or cutting it short1 the patient   
going immediately to bed1 with extra    
clothing and hot drinks4 ,the free      
perspiration induced helps to break up  
the cold4  ,salt water acts more as a   
stimulant to the skin than fresh water4 
,salt-water bathing is refreshing and   
invigorating for those who are healthy1 

but the bather should come out of the   
water the moment there is the slightest 
feeling of chilliness4 ,the practice of 
bathing in salt water more than once a  
day is unhealthful1 and even dangerous4 
,only the strongest can sustain so      
severe a tax on their power of          
endurance4 ,sea bathing is beneficial in
 many ways for children1 as their skin  
reacts well after it4 ,in all cases1    
brisk rubbing with a rough towel should 
be had afterwards4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #ajf4--,magnified ,section of the      
,lower ,portion of a ,hair and          
,hair-,follicle4    ,a1 membrane of the 
hair-follicle1 cells with nuclei and    
pigmentary      granules2   ,b1 external
 lining of the root sheath2   ,c1       
internal lining of the root sheath2     
,d1 cortical or fibrous portion of the  
hair shaft2   ,e1 medullary portion     
7pith7 of shaft2   ,f1 hair-bulb1       
showing its development from cells from 
,a4   ,the golden rule of all bathing is
 that it must never be followed by a    

chill4 ,if even a chilliness occur after
 bathing1 it must immediately be broken 
up by some appropriate methods1 as      
lively exercise1 brisk friction1 hot    
drinks1 and the application of heat4    
,swimming is a most valuable            
accomplishment1 combining bathing and   
exercise4 ,bathing of the feet should   
never be neglected4 ,cleanliness of the 
hair is also another matter requiring   
strict attention1 especially in         
children4  #bdh4 ,care of the ,hair and 
,nails4 ,the hair brush should not be   
too stiff1 as this increases the        
tendency towards scurfiness of the head4
 ,if1 however1 the hair is brushed too  
long or too hard1 the scalp is greatly  
stimulated1 and an increased production 
of scurf may result4 ,if the head be    
washed too often with soap its natural  
secretion is checked1 and the scalp     
becomes dry and scaly4 ,the various hair
 pomades are as a rule undesirable and  
unnecessary4  ,the nails should be kept 
in proper condition1 else they are not  

only unsightly1 but may serve as        
carriers of germs of disease4 ,the nails
 are often injured by too much          
interference1 and should never be       
trimmed to the quick4 ,the upper        
surfaces should on no account be        
scraped4 ,the nail-brush is sufficient  
to cleanse them without impairing their 
smooth and polished surfaces4           
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#ajg4--,longitudinal ,section of a      
,finger-,nail4    ,a1 last phalanx of   
the fingers2   ,b1 true skin on the     
dorsal surface of the finger2   ,c1     
epidermis2   ,d1 true skin2   ,e1 bed of
 the nail2   ,f1 superficial layer of   
the nail2   ,h1 true skin of the pulp of
 the finger4   #bdi4 ,use of ,clothing4 
,the chief use of clothing1 from a      
hygienic point of view1 is to assist in 
keeping the body at a uniform           
temperature4 ,it also serves for        
protection against injury1 and for      
personal adornment4 ,the heat of the    
body1 as we have learned1 is normally   

about #ih #a_/b ,f4 ,this varies but    
slightly in health4 ,a rise of          
temperature of more than one degree is a
 symptom of disturbance4 ,the normal    
temperature does not vary with the      
season4 ,in summer it is kept down by   
the perspiration and its rapid          
evaporation4 ,in winter it is maintained
 by more active oxidation1 by extra     
clothing1 and by artificial heat4  ,the 
whole matter of clothing is modified to 
a great extent by climatic conditions   
and local environments1--topics which do
 not come within the scope of this book4
  #bej4 ,material ,used for ,clothing4  
,it is evident that if clothing is to do
 double duty in preventing the loss of  
heat by radiation1 and in protecting us 
from the hot rays of the sun1 some      
material must be used that will allow   
the passage of heat in either direction4
 ,the ideal clothing should be both a   
bad conductor and a radiator of heat4   
,at the same time it must not interfere 
with the free evaporation of the        

perspiration1 otherwise chills may      
result from the accumulation of moisture
 on the surface of the body4  ,wool is a
 bad conductor1 and should be worn next 
the skin1 both in summer and winter1    
especially in variable climates4 ,it    
prevents1 better than any other         
material1 the loss of heat from the     
body1 and allows free ventilation and   
evaporation4 ,its fibers are so lightly 
woven that they make innumerable meshes 
enclosing air1 which is one of the best 
of non-conductors4  ,silk ranks next to 
wool in warmth and porosity4 ,it is much
 softer and less irritating than flannel
 or merino1 and is very useful for      
summer wear4 ,the practical objection to
 its general use is the expense4 ,fur   
ranks with wool as a bad conductor of   
heat4 ,it does not1 however1 like wool1 
allow of free evaporation4 ,its use in  
cold countries is universal1 but in     
milder climates it is not much worn4    
,cotton and linen are good conductors of
 heat1 but are not absorbents of        

moisture1 and should not be worn next   
the skin4 ,they are1 however1 very      
durable and easily cleansed4 ,as an     
intermediate clothing they may be worn  
at all seasons1 especially over wool or 
silk4 ,waterproof clothing is also      
useful as a protection1 but should not  
be worn a longer time than necessary1 as
 it shuts in the perspiration1 and      
causes a sense of great heat and        
discomfort4  ,the color of clothing is  
of some importance1 especially if       
exposed directly to the sun's rays4 ,the
 best reflectors1 such as white and     
light gray clothing1 absorb             
comparatively little heat and are the   
coolest1 while black or dark-colored    
materials1 being poor reflectors and    
good absorbents1 become very warm4      
#bea4 ,suggestions for the ,use of      
,clothing4 ,prudence and good sense     
should guide us in the spring1 in       
changing winter flannels or clothing for
 fabrics of lighter weight4 ,with the   
fickle climate in most sections of this 

country1 there are great risks of severe
 colds1 pneumonia1 and other pulmonary  
diseases from carelessness or neglect in
 this matter4 ,a change from heavy to   
lighter clothing should be made first in
 the outer garments1 the underclothing  
being changed very cautiously4  ,the two
 essentials of healthful clothing are   
cleanliness and dryness4 ,to wear       
garments that are daily being soiled by 
perspiration and other cutaneous        
excretions1 is a most uncleanly and     
unhealthful practice4 ,clothing1        
especially woolen underclothing1 should 
be frequently changed4 ,one of the      
objections to the use of this clothing  
is that it does not show soiling to the 
same extent as do cotton and linen4     
,infectious and contagious diseases may 
be conveyed by the clothing4 ,hence1    
special care must be taken that all     
clothing in contact with sick people is 
burned or properly disinfected4         
,children especially are susceptible to 
scarlet fever1 diphtheria1 and measles1 

and the greatest care must be exercised 
to prevent their exposure to infection  
through the clothing4  ,we should never 
sleep in a damp bed1 or between damp    
sheets4 ,the vital powers are enfeebled 
during sleep1 and there is always risk  
of pneumonia or rheumatism4 ,the        
practice of sitting with wet feet and   
damp clothing is highly injurious to    
health4 ,the surface of the body thus   
chilled may be small1 yet there is a    
grave risk of serious1 if not of fatal1 
disease4 ,no harm may be done1 even with
 clothing wet with water or damp with   
perspiration1 so long as exercise is    
maintained1 but the failure or inability
 to change into dry garments as soon as 
the body is at rest is fraught with     
danger4  ,woolen comforters1 scarfs1 and
 fur mufflers1 so commonly worn around  
the neck1 are more likely to produce    
throat troubles and local chill than to 
have any useful effect4 ,harm ensues    
from the fact that the extra covering   
induces local perspiration1 which       

enfeebles the natural defensive power of
 the parts2 and when the warmer covering
 is removed1 the perspiring surface is  
readily chilled4 ,those who never bundle
 their throats are least liable to      
suffer from throat ailments4  #beb4 ,ill
 ,effects of ,wearing ,tightly ,fitting 
,clothing4 ,the injury to health caused 
by tight lacing1 when carried to an     
extreme1 is due to the compression and  
displacement of various organs by the   
pressure exerted on them4 ,thus the     
lungs and the heart may be compressed1  
causing short breath on exertion1       
palpitation of the heart1 and other     
painful and dangerous symptoms4 ,the    
stomach1 the liver1 and other abdominal 
organs are often displaced1 causing     
dyspepsia and all its attendant evils4  
,the improper use of corsets1 especially
 by young women1 is injurious1 as they  
interfere with the proper development of
 the chest and abdominal organs4 ,the   
use of tight elastics below the knee is 
often injurious4 ,they obstruct the     

local venous circulation and are a      
fruitful source of cold feet and of     
enlarged or varicose veins4  ,tightly   
fitting boots and shoes often cause     
corns1 bunions1 and ingrowing nails2 on 
the other hand1 if too loosely worn1    
they cause corns from friction4 ,boots  
too narrow in front crowd the toes      
together1 make them overlap1 and render 
walking difficult and painful4          
,high-heeled boots throw the weight of  
the body forwards1 so that the body     
rests too much on the toes instead of on
 the heels1 as it should1 thus placing  
an undue strain upon certain groups of  
muscles of the leg1 in order to maintain
 the balance1 while other groups are not
 sufficiently exercised4 ,locomotion is 
never easy and graceful1 and a firm1    
even tread cannot be expected4  ,the    
compression of the scalp by a           
tight-fitting hat interferes with the   
local circulation1 and may cause        
headaches1 neuralgia1 or baldness1 the  
nutrition of the hair-follicles being   

diminished by the impaired circulation4 
,the compression of the chest and       
abdomen by a tight belt and various     
binders interferes with the action of   
the diaphragm1--the most important      
muscle of respiration4  #bec4           
,miscellaneous ,hints on the ,use of    
,clothing4 ,children and old people are 
less able to resist the extreme changes 
of temperature than are adults of an    
average age4 ,special care should be    
taken to provide children with woolen   
underclothing1 and to keep them warm and
 in well-ventilated rooms4 ,neither the 
chest nor limbs of young children should
 be unduly exposed1 as is often done1 to
 the cold blasts of winter or the fickle
 weather of early spring4 ,very young   
children should not be taken out in     
extremely cold weather1 unless quite    
warmly clad and able to run about4 ,the 
absurd notion is often entertained that 
children should be hardened by exposure 
to the cold4 ,judicious hardening means 
ample exposure of well-fed and          

well-clothed children4 ,exposure of     
children not thus cared for is simple   
cruelty4 ,the many sicknesses of        
children1 especially diseases of the    
throat and lungs1 may often be traced   
directly to gross carelessness1         
ignorance1 or neglect with reference to 
undue exposure4 ,the delicate feet of   
children should not be injured by       
wearing ill-fitting or clumsy boots or  
shoes4 ,many deformities of the feet1   
which cause much vexation and trouble in
 after years1 are acquired in early     
life4  ,no one should sleep in any of   
the clothes worn during the day1 not    
even in the same underclothing4 ,all bed
 clothing should be properly aired1 by  
free exposure to the light and air every
 morning4 ,never wear wet or damp       
clothing one moment longer than         
necessary4 ,after it is removed rub the 
body thoroughly1 put on at once dry1    
warm clothing1 and then exercise        
vigorously for a few minutes1 until a   
genial glow is felt4 ,neglect of these  

precautions often results in rheumatism1
 neuralgia1 and diseases of the chest1  
especially among delicate people and    
young women4  ,pupils should not be     
allowed to sit in the schoolroom with   
any outer garments on4 ,a person who has
 become heated in a warm room should not
 expose himself to cold without extra   
clothing4 ,we must not be in a hurry to 
put on heavy clothes for winter1 but    
having once worn them1 they must not be 
left off until milder weather renders   
the change safe4 ,the cheaper articles  
of clothing are often dyed with lead or 
arsenic4 ,hence such garments1 like     
stockings and colored underclothing1    
worn next the skin have been known to   
produce severe symptoms of poisoning4   
,as a precaution1 all such articles     
should be carefully washed and          
thoroughly rinsed before they are worn4 
,the ,kidneys4   #bed4 ,the ,kidneys4   
,the kidneys are two important organs in
 the abdomen1 one on each side of the   
spine4 ,they are of a reddish-brown     

color1 and are enveloped by a           
transparent capsule made up of a fold of
 the peritoneum4 ,embedded in fat1 the  
kidneys lie between the upper lumbar    
vertebr1 and the crest of the hip bone4 
,the liver is above the right kidney1   
and the spleen above the left1 while    
both lie close against the rear wall of 
the abdomen1 with the intestines in     
front of them4 ,the human kidneys1      
though somewhat larger1 are exactly of  
the same shape1 color1 and general      
appearance as those of the sheep1 so    
commonly seen in the markets4  ,the     
kidneys are about four inches long1 two 
inches across1 one inch thick1 and weigh
 from #da_/b to #ea_/b ounces each4 ,the
 hollow or concave side of the kidneys  
is turned inwards1 and the deep fissure 
of this side1 known as the hilus1 widens
 out to form the pelvis4 ,through the   
hilus the renal artery passes into each 
kidney1 and from each hilus passes      
outwards the renal vein1 a branch of the
 inferior vena cava4  ,a tube1 called   

the ureter1 passes out from the concave 
border of each kidney1 turns downwards1 
and enters the bladder in the basin of  
the pelvis4 ,this tube is from #ab to   
#ad inches long1 about as large as a    
goose quill1 and conveys the secretion  
of the kidneys to the bladder4  #bee4   
,structure of the ,kidneys4 ,the pelvis 
is surrounded by reddish cones1 about   
twelve in number1 projecting into it1   
called the pyramids of ,malpighi4 ,the  
apices of these cones1 known as the     
papill1 are crowded with minute         
openings1 the mouths of the uriniferous 
tubules1 which form the substance of the
 kidney4 ,these lie parallel in the     
medullary or central structure1 but ,on 
reaching the cortical or outer layer1   
they wind about and interlace1 ending1  
at last1 in dilated closed sacs called  
,malpighian capsules4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #ajh4--,vertical ,section of the  
,kidney4    ,a1 pyramids of ,malpighi2  
,b1 apices1 or papill1 of the pyramids1 
surrounded by subdivisions of      the  

pelvis known as cups or calices2   ,c1  
pelvis of the kidney2   ,d1 upper end of
 ureter4   #bef4 ,function of the       
,kidneys4 ,the ,malpighian capsules are 
really the beginning of the tubules1 for
 here the work of excretion begins4 ,the
 thin wall of the capillaries within    
each capsule separates the blood from   
the cavity of the tubule4 ,the          
blood-pressure on the delicate capillary
 walls causes the exudation of the      
watery portions of the blood through the
 cell walls into the capsule4 ,the      
epithelial cell membrane allows the     
water of the blood with certain salts in
 solution to pass1 but rejects the      
albumen4 ,from the capsules1 the        
excretion passes through the tubules    
into the pelvis1 and on through the     
ureters to the bladder4 ,but the        
delicate epithelial walls of the tubules
 through which it passes permit the     
inflow of urea and other waste products 
from the surrounding capillaries4 ,by   
this twofold process are separated from 

the blood the fluid portions of the     
renal secretion with soluble salts1 and 
the urea with other waste material4     
#beg4 ,how the ,action of the ,kidneys  
may be ,modified4 ,the action of the    
kidneys is subject to very marked and   
sudden modifications1 especially those  
operating through the nervous system4   
,thus whatever raises the blood-pressure
 in the capillaries of the capsules1    
will increase the quantity of fluid     
filtering through them4 ,that is1 the   
watery portion of the secretion will be 
increased without necessarily adding to 
its solids4 ,so anything which lowers   
the blood-pressure will diminish the    
watery portion of the secretion1 that   
is1 the secretion will be scanty1 but   
concentrated4  ,the ,renal              
,secretion4--,the function of the       
kidneys is to secrete a fluid commonly  
known as the urine4 ,the average        
quantity passed in #bd hours by an adult
 varies from #dj to #fj fluid ounces4   
,normal urine consists of about #if per 

cent of water and #d per cent of solids4
 ,the latter consist chiefly of certain 
nitrogenous substances known as urea and
 uric acid1 a considerable quantity of  
mineral salts1 and some coloring matter4
 ,urea1 the most important and most     
abundant constituent of urine1 contains 
the four elements1 but nitrogen forms   
one-half its weight4 ,while1 therefore1 
the lungs expel carbon dioxid chiefly1  
the kidneys expel nitrogen4 ,both of    
these substances express the result of  
oxidations going on in the body4 ,the   
urea and uric acids represent the final 
result of the breaking down in the body 
of nitrogenous substances1 of which     
albumen is the type4  ,unusual          
constituents of the urine are albumen1  
sugar1 and bile4 ,when albumen is       
present in urine1 it often indicates    
some disease of the kidneys1 to which   
the term albuminuria or ,bright's       
,disease is applied4 ,the presence of   
grape sugar or glucose indicates the    
disease known as diabetes4 ,bile is     

another unusual constituent of the      
urine1 appearing in jaundice4  ,the     
bladder is situated in the pelvic cavity
 or in the lowest part of the abdomen4  
,when full1 the bladder is pear-shaped2 
when empty1 it is collapsed and lies low
 in the pelvis4 ,the functions of the   
bladder are to collect and retain the   
urine1 which has reached it drop by drop
 from the kidneys through the ureters1  
until a certain quantity accumulates1   
and then to expel it from the body4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4--,vertical   
,section of the ,back4 7,showing kidneys
 in situ and the relative position of   
adjacent organs and vessels47 ,posterior
 view4    ,a1 #abth dorsal vertebra2    
,b1 diaphragm2   ,c1 receptaculum chyli2
   ,d1 small intestines   ,in the       
kidneys1 as elsewhere1 the vaso-motor   
nerves are distributed to the walls of  
the blood-vessels1 and modify the       
quantity and the pressure of blood in   
these organs4 ,thus1 some strong        
emotion1 like fear or undue anxiety1    

increases the blood-pressure1 drives    
more blood to the kidneys1 and causes a 
larger flow of watery secretion4 ,when  
the atmosphere is hot1 there is a       
relaxation of the vessels of the skin1  
with a more than ordinary flow of blood1
 which is thus withdrawn from the deeper
 organs4 ,the blood-pressure in the     
kidneys is not only diminished1 but the 
total quantity passing through them in a
 given time is much lessened4 ,as a     
result1 the secretion of the kidneys is 
scanty1 but it contains an unusual      
percentage of solids4  ,when the        
atmosphere is cold1 the reverse is true4
 ,the cutaneous vessels contract1 the   
blood is driven to the deeper organs    
with increased pressure1 and there is a 
less amount of sweat1 but an increased  
renal secretion1 containing a smaller   
proportion of solids4 ,certain drugs    
have the power of increasing or         
diminishing the renal secretion4 ,as the
 waste matters eliminated by the kidneys
 are being constantly produced in the   

tissues1 the action of the renal organs 
is continuous1 in marked contrast with  
the intermittent flow of most of the    
secretions proper1 as distinguished from
 the excretions4  #beh4 ,effects of     
,alcoholic ,drinks upon the ,kidneys4   
,the kidneys differ from some of the    
other organs in this3 those can rest a  
while without any harm to themselves1 or
 to the body4 ,we can keep the eyes     
closed for a few days1 if necessary1    
without injury1 and in fact often with  
benefit2 or1 we can abstain from food   
for some days1 if need be1 and let the  
stomach rest4 ,but the kidneys cannot1  
with safety1 cease their work4 ,their   
duty in ridding the blood of waste      
products1 and of any foreign or         
poisonous material introduced1 must be  
done not only faithfully1 but           
continually1 or the whole body at once  
suffers from the evil effects of the    
retained waste matters4  ,this vital    
fact is the key to the injurious results
 developed in the kidneys by the use of 

alcoholic drinks4 ,these two organs have
 large blood-vessels conveying full     
amounts of blood to and from their      
structures1 and they feel very quickly  
the presence of alcohol4 ,alcoholic     
liquors excite and irritate the delicate
 renal membranes1 and speedily disturb  
and eventually destroy their capacity to
 excrete the proper materials from the  
blood4  ,the continued congestion of the
 minute structure of the kidney cuts off
 the needed nutrition of the organ1 and 
forms the primary step in the series of 
disasters4 ,sometimes from this         
continued irritation1 with the resulting
 inflammation1 and sometimes from change
 of structure of the kidney by fatty    
degeneration1 comes the failure to      
perform its proper function4 ,then1 with
 this two-edged sword of disaster1 the  
urea1 which becomes a poisonous element1
 and should be removed1 is retained in  
the system1 while the albumen1 which is 
essential to healthy blood1 is filtered 
away through the diseased kidney4  #bei4

 ,alcoholic ,liquors as a ,cause of     
,bright's ,disease4 ,the unfortunate    
presence of albumen in the urine is     
often a symptom of that insidious and   
fatal malady known as albuminuria or    
,bright's disease1 often accompanied    
with dropsy and convulsions4 ,one of the
 most constant causes of this disease is
 the use of intoxicants4 ,it is not at  
all necessary to this fatal result that 
a person be a heavy drinker4 ,steady1   
moderate drinking will often accomplish 
the work4 ,kidney diseases produced by  
alcoholic drinks1 are less responsive to
 medical treatment and more fatal than  
those arising from any other known      
cause4#ci    ,experiment #abi4 ,obtain a
 sheep's kidney in good order4 ,observe 
that   its shape is something like that 
of a bean1 and note that the concave    
part 7hilus71 when in its normal        
position1 is turned towards the         
backbone4 ,notice that all the vessels  
leave and enter the kidney at the       
hilus4 ,observe a small thick-walled    

vessel with open mouth from which   may 
be pressed a few drops of blood4 ,this  
is the renal artery4 ,pass a   bristle  
down it4 ,with the forceps1 or even with
 a penknife1 lift from   the kidney the 
fine membrane enclosing it4 ,this is the
 kidney capsule4    ,divide the kidney  
in halves by a section from its outer to
 near its   inner border4 ,do not cut   
directly through the hilus4 ,note on the
 cut   surfaces1 on the outer side1 the 
darker cortical portion1 and on the     
inner side1 the smooth1 pale1 medullary 
portion4 ,note also the pyramids   of   
,malpighi4     ,chapter ,x4  ,the       
,nervous ,system4    #bfj4 ,general     
,view of the ,nervous ,system4 ,thus far
 we have learned something of the       
various organs and the manner in which  
they do their work4 ,regarding our      
bodily structure as a kind of living    
machine1 we have studied its various    
parts1 and found that each is designed  
to perform some special work essential  
to the well-being of the whole4 ,as yet 

we have learned of no means by which    
these organs are enabled to adjust their
 activities to the needs of other       
tissues and other organs4 ,we are now   
prepared to study a higher1 a more      
wonderful and complex agency1--the      
nervous system1 the master tissue1 which
 controls1 regulates1 and directs every 
other tissue of the human body4  ,the   
nervous system1 in its properties and   
mode of action1 is distinct from all the
 other systems and organs1 and it shares
 with no other organ or tissue the power
 to do its special work4 ,it is the     
medium through which all impressions are
 received4 ,it connects all the parts of
 the body into an organism in which each
 acts in harmony with every other part  
for the good of the whole4 ,it animates 
and governs all movements1 voluntary or 
involuntary1--secretion1 excretion1     
nutrition2 in fact all the processes of 
organic life are subject to its         
regulating power4 ,the different organs 
of the body are united by a common      

sympathy which regulates their action3  
this harmonious result is secured by    
means of the nervous system4  ,this     
system1 in certain of its parts1        
receives impressions1 and generates a   
force peculiar to itself4 ,we shall     
learn that there can be no physical     
communication between or cordination of 
the various parts of organs1 or         
harmonious acts for a desire result1    
without the nerves4 ,general            
impressions1 as in ordinary sensation1  
or special impressions1 as in sight1    
smell1 taste1 or hearing1--every        
instinct1 every act of the will1 and    
every thought are possible only through 
the action of the nerve centers4  #bfa4 
,nerve ,cells4 ,however complicated the 
structure of nerve tissue in man seems  
to be1 it is found to consist of only   
two different elements1 nerve cells and 
nerve fibers4 ,these are associated and 
combined in many ways4 ,they are        
arranged in distinct masses called nerve
 centers1 or in the form of cords known 

as nerves4 ,the former are made up of   
nerve fibers2 the latter of both cells  
and fibers4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 
,nerve ,cells from the ,spinal ,cord4   
,nerve cells1 which may be regarded as  
the central organs of the nerve fibers1 
consist of masses of cell protoplasm1   
with a large nucleus and nucleolus4     
,they bear a general resemblance to     
other cells1 but vary much in size and  
shape4 ,nerve cells grow1 become active1
 and die1 as do other cells4 ,a number  
of processes branch off from them1 some 
cells giving one or two1 others many4   
,the various kinds of nerve cells differ
 much in the shape and number of        
processes4 ,one of the processes is a   
strand which becomes continuous with the
 axis cylinder of the nerve fibers2 that
 is1 the axis cylinders of all nerve    
fibers are joined in one place or       
another with at least one cell4  ,each  
part of this system has its own         
characteristic cell4 ,thus we have in   
the spinal cord the large1 irregular    

cells with many processes1 and in the   
brain proper the three-sided cells with 
a process jutting out from each corner4 
,so characteristic are these forms of   
cells1 that any particular part of nerve
 structure may be identified by the kind
 of cells seen under the microscope4    
,nerve cells and nerve fibers are often 
arranged in groups1 the various cells of
 the groups communicating with one      
another4 ,this clustered arrangement is 
called a nerve center4  #bfb4 ,nerve    
,fibers4 ,the nerve fibers1 the         
essential elements of the nerves1       
somewhat resemble tubes filled with a   
clear1 jelly-like substance4 ,they      
consist of a rod1 or central core1      
continuous throughout the whole length  
of the nerve1 called the axis cylinder4 
,this core is surrounded by the white   
substance of ,schwann1 or medullary     
sheath1 which gives the nerve its       
characteristic ivory-white appearance4  
,the whole is enclosed in a thin1       
delicate sheath1 known as neurilemma4   

,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--,nerve      
,cells from the ,gray ,matter of the    
,brain4  ,the axis cylinder generally   
passes without any break from the nerve 
centers to the end of the fibers4#dj    
,the outer sheath 7neurilemma7 is also  
continuous throughout the length of the 
fibers4 ,the medullary sheath1 on the   
other hand1 is broken at intervals of   
about #a_/be of an inch1 and at the same
 intervals nuclei are found along the   
fiber1 around each of which is a minute 
protoplasmic mass4 ,between each pair of
 nuclei the sheath is interrupted4 ,this
 point is known as the node of ,ranvier4
  ,some nerve fibers have no inner      
sheath 7medullary71 the outer alone     
protecting the axis cylinder4 ,these are
 known as the non-medullary fibers4     
,they are gray1 while the ordinary      
medullary fibers are white in           
appearance4 ,the white nerve fibers form
 the white part of the brain and of the 
spinal cord1 and the greater part of the
 cerebro-spinal nerves4 ,the gray fibers

 occur chiefly in branches from the     
sympathetic ganglia1 though found to    
some extent in the nerves of the        
cerebro-spinal system4  ,in a general   
way1 the nerve fibers resemble an       
electric cable wire with its central rod
 of copper1 and its outer non-conducting
 layer of silk or gutta percha4 ,like   
the copper rod1 the axis cylinder along 
which the nerve impulse travels is the  
essential part of a nerve fiber4 ,in a  
cut nerve this cylinder projects like   
the wick of a candle4 ,it is really the 
continuation of a process of a nerve    
cell4 ,thus the nerve cells and nerve   
fibers are related1 in that the process 
of one is the axis cylinder and         
essential part of the other4  ,the      
separate microscopic threads or fibers1 
bound together in cords of variable     
size1 form the nerves4 ,each strand or  
cord is surrounded and protected by its 
own sheath of connective tissue1 made up
 of nerves4 ,according to its size a    
nerve may have one or many of these     

strands4 ,the whole nerve1 not unlike a 
minute tendon in appearance1 is covered 
by a dense sheath of fibrous tissue1 in 
which the blood-vessels and lymphatics  
are distributed to the nerve fibers4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4--,medullated 
,nerve ,fibers4    ,a1 a medullated     
nerve fiber1 showing the subdivision of 
the medullary      sheath into          
cylindrical sections imbricated with    
their ends1 a nerve      corpuscle with 
an oval nucleus is seen between the     
neurilemma and the      medullary       
sheath2   ,b1 a medullated nerve fiber  
at a node or constriction of ,ranvier1  
the      axis cylinder passes           
uninterruptedly from one segment into   
the other1      but the medullary sheath
 is interrupted4   #bfc4 ,the ,functions
 of the ,nerve ,cells and ,nerve        
,fibers4 ,the nerve cells are a highly  
active mass of living material4 ,they   
find their nourishment in the blood1    
which is supplied to them in abundance4 
,the blood not only serves as           

nourishment1 but also supplies new      
material1 as it were1 for the cells to  
work over for their own force or energy4
 ,thus we may think of the nerve cells  
as a sort of a miniature manufactory1   
deriving their material from the blood1 
and developing from it nervous energy4  
,the nerve fibers1 on the other hand1   
are conductors of nervous energy4 ,they 
furnish a pathway along which the nerve 
energy generated by the cells may       
travel4 ,made up as they are of living  
nerve substance1 the fibers can also    
generate energy1 yet it is their special
 function to conduct influences to and  
from the cells4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#aac4--,non-,medullated ,fibers4  ,two  
nerve fibers1 showing the nodes or      
constrictions of ,ranvier and the axis  
cylinder4 ,the medullary sheath has been
 dissolved away4 ,the deeply stained    
oblong nuclei indicate the nerve        
corpuscles within the neurilemma4  #bfd4
 ,the ,nervous ,system ,compared to a   
,telegraphic ,system4 ,in men and other 

highly organized animals1 nerves are    
found in nearly every tissue and organ  
of the body4 ,they penetrate the most   
minute muscular fibers2 they are closely
 connected with the cells of the glands1
 and are found in the coats of even the 
smallest blood-vessels4 ,they are among 
the chief factors of the structure of   
the sense organs1 and ramify through the
 skin4 ,thus the nervous system is the  
system of organs through the functions  
of which we are brought into relation   
with the world around us4 ,when we hear1
 our ears are bringing us into relation 
with the outer world4 ,so sight opens up
 to us another gateway of knowledge4    
,it will help us the better to          
understand the complicated functions of 
the nervous system1 if we compare it to 
a telegraph line4 ,the brain is the main
 office1 and the multitudes of nerve    
fibers branching off to all parts of the
 body are the wires4 ,by means of these1
 nerve messages are constantly being    
sent to the brain to inform it of what  

is going on in various parts of the     
body1 and asking what is to be done in  
each case4 ,the brain1 on receiving the 
intelligence1 at once sends back the    
required instructions4 ,countless       
messages are sent to and fro with       
unerring accuracy and marvelous         
rapidity4  ,thus1 when we accidentally  
pick up something hot1 it is instantly  
dropped4 ,a nerve impulse passes from   
the nerves of touch in the fingers to   
the brain1 which at once hurries off its
 order along another set of nerves for  
the hand to drop the burning object4    
,these examples1 so common in daily     
life1 may be multiplied to any extent4  
,almost every voluntary act we perform  
is executed under the direction of the  
nervous system1 although the time       
occupied is so small that it is beyond  
our power to estimate it4 ,the very     
frequency with which the nerves act     
tends to make us forget their beneficent
 work4  #bfe4 ,divisions of the ,nervous
 ,system4 ,this system in man consists  

of two great divisions4 ,the first is   
the great nerve center of the body1 the 
cerebro-spinal system1 which rules the  
organs of animal life4 ,this includes   
the brain1 the spinal cord1 and the     
cerebro-spinal nerves4 ,nerves are given
 off from the brain and the cord1 and   
form the mediums of communication       
between the external parts of the body1 
the muscles or the sense organs1 and the
 brain4  ,the second part is the        
sympathetic system1 which regulates the 
organic life4 ,this consists of numerous
 small nerve centers arranged in oval   
masses varying greatly in size1 called  
ganglia or knots4 ,these are either     
scattered irregularly through the body1 
or arranged in a double chain of knots  
lying on the front of the spine1 within 
the chest and abdomen4 ,from this chain 
large numbers of nerves are given off1  
which end chiefly in the organs of      
digestion1 circulation1 and respiration4
 ,the sympathetic system serves to bring
 all portions of the animal economy into

 direct sympathy with one another4      
#bff4 ,the ,brain as a ,whole4 ,the     
brain is the seat of the intellect1 the 
will1 the affections1 the emotions1 the 
memory1 and sensation4 ,it has also many
 other and complex functions4 ,in it are
 established many reflex1 automatic1 and
 coordinating centers1 which are as     
independent of consciousness as are     
those of the spinal cord4  ,the brain is
 the largest and most complex mass of   
nerve tissue in the body1 made up of an 
enormous collection of gray cells and   
nerve fibers4 ,this organ consists of a 
vast number of distinct ganglia1 or     
separate masses of nerve matter1 each   
capable of performing separate          
functions1 but united through the       
cerebral action into a harmonious whole4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4--,the      
,upper ,surface of the ,cerebrum4       
7,showing its division into two         
hemispheres1 and also the convolutions7 
,the average weight of the adult human  
brain is about #ej ounces for men and   

#de ounces for women4 ,other things     
being equal1 the size and weight of the 
brain bear a general relation to the    
mental power of the individual4 ,as a   
rule1 a large1 healthy brain stands for 
a vigorous and superior intellect4 ,the 
brains of many eminent men have been    
found to be #h to #ab ounces above the  
average weight1 but there are notable   
exceptions4 ,the brains of idiots are   
small2 indeed1 any weight under a       
certain size1 about #cj ounces1 seems to
 be invariably associated with an       
imbecile mind4  ,the human brain is     
absolutely heavier than that of any     
other animal1 except the whale and      
elephant4 ,comparing the size of these  
animals with that of man1 it is         
instructive to notice how much larger in
 proportion to the body is man's brain4 
,the average proportion of the weight of
 the brain to the weight of the body is 
greater in man than in most animals1    
being about #a to #cf4 ,in some small   
birds1 in the smaller monkeys1 and in   

some rodents1 the proportional weight of
 the brain to that of the body is even  
greater than in man4  #bfg4 ,the        
,cerebrum4 ,the three principal masses  
which make up the brain when viewed as a
 whole are3    #a4 ,the cerebrum1 or    
brain proper4   #b4 ,the cerebellum1 or 
lesser brain4   #c4 ,the medulla        
oblongata4  ,the cerebrum comprises     
nearly seven-eighths of the entire mass1
 and fills the upper part of the skull4 
,it consists of two halves1 the right   
and left cerebral hemispheres4 ,these   
are almost separated from each other by 
a deep median fissure4 ,the hemispheres 
are united at the bottom of the fissure 
by a mass of white fibers passing from  
side to side4 ,each of these hemispheres
 is subdivided into three lobes1 so that
 the entire cerebrum is made up of six  
distinct lobes4  ,the cerebrum has a    
peculiar convoluted appearance1 its deep
 folds being separated by fissures1 some
 of them nearly an inch in depth4  ,it  
is composed of both white and gray      

matter4 ,the former comprises the       
greater part of the mass1 while the     
latter is spread over the surface in a  
layer of about  of an inch thick4 ,the  
gray matter is the portion having the   
highest functions1 and its apparent     
quantity is largely increased by being  
formed in convolutions4  ,the           
convolutions of the cerebrum are without
 doubt associated with all those higher 
actions which distinguish man's life2   
but all the convolutions are not of     
equal importance4 ,thus it is probable  
that only the frontal part of the brain 
is the intellectual region1 while       
certain convolutions are devoted to the 
service of the senses4  ,the cerebrum is
 the chief seat of the sensations1 the  
intellect1 the will1 and the emotions4  
,a study of cerebral injuries and       
diseases1 and experiments upon the lower
 animals1 prove that the hemispheres1   
and more especially the gray matter1 are
 connected with mental states4 ,the     
convolutions in the human brain are more

 prominent than in that of the higher   
animals1 most nearly allied to man1     
although some species of animals1 not   
especially intelligent1 have marked     
cerebral convolutions4 ,the higher races
 of men have more marked convolutions   
than those less civilized4  ,a view of  
the under surface of the brain1 which   
rests on the floor of the skull1 shows  
the origin of important nerves1 called  
the cranial nerves1 the cerebellum1 the 
structure connecting the optic nerves   
7optic commissure71 the bridge of       
nervous matter 7pons ,varolii7          
connecting the two hemispheres of the   
cerebellum1 and lastly numerous and     
well-marked convolutions4  #bfh4 ,the   
,cerebellum4 ,the cerebellum1 or lesser 
brain1 lies in the back of the cranium1 
and is covered over in man by the       
posterior lobe of the cerebrum4 ,it is1 
at it were1 astride of the back of the  
cerebro-spinal axis1 and consists of two
 hemispheres joined by a central mass4  
,on its under surface is a depression   

which receives the medulla oblongata4   
,the cerebellum is separated from the   
cerebrum by a horizontal partition of   
membrane1 a portion of the dura mater4  
,in some animals1 as in the cat1 this   
partition is partly bone4  ,the         
cerebellum is connected with other parts
 of the nervous system by strands of    
white matter on each side1 radiating    
from the center and divided into        
numerous branches4 ,around these        
branches the gray matter is arranged in 
a beautiful manner1 suggesting the      
leaves of a tree3 hence its name1 arbor 
vit1 or the tree of life4  ,the         
functions of the cerebellum are not     
certainly known4 ,it appears to         
influence the muscles of the body so as 
to regulate their movements2 that is1 it
 serves to bring the various muscular   
movements into harmonious action4 ,the  
mechanism by which it does this has not 
yet been clearly explained4 ,in an      
animal from which the cerebellum has    
been removed1 the functions of life do  

not appear to be destroyed1 but all     
power of either walking or flying       
straight is lost4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#aae4--;,a ,vertical ,section of the    
,brain4    ,a1 frontal lobe of the      
cerebrum2   ,b1 parietal lobe2   ,c1    
parieto occipital lobe with fissure     
between this lobe and   ,d1 the         
occipital lobe2   ,e1 cerebellum2   ,f1 
arbor vit2   ,h1 pons ,varolu2   ,k1    
medulla oblongata2   ,l1 portion of lobe
 on the opposite side of brain4  ,the   
white curved band above ,h represents   
the corpus callosum4  ,disease or injury
 of the cerebellum usually produces     
blindness1 giddiness1 a tendency to move
 backwards1 a staggering1 irregular     
gait1 and a feeling of insecurity in    
maintaining various positions4 ,there is
 no loss of consciousness1 or other     
disturbance of the mental functions4    
#bfi4 ,the ,membranes of the ,brain4    
,the brain and spinal cord are protected
 by three important membranes1 known as 
the meninges1--the dura mater1 the      

arachnoid1 and the pia mater4  ,the     
outer membrane1 the dura mater1 is much 
thicker and stronger than the others1   
and is composed of white fibrous and    
elastic connective tissue4 ,it closely  
lines the inner surface of the skull1   
and forms a protective covering for the 
brain4 ,folds of it pass between the    
several divisions of the brain and serve
 to protect them4  ,the arachnoid is a  
thin membrane which lies beneath the    
dura mater4 ,it secretes a serous fluid 
which keeps the inner surfaces moist4   
,the pia mater is a very delicate1      
vascular membrane which covers the      
convolutions1 dips into all the         
fissures1 and even penetrates into the  
interior of the brain4 ,it is crowded   
with blood-vessels1 which divide and    
subdivide very minutely before they     
penetrate the brain4 ,the membranes of  
the brain are sometimes the seat of     
inflammation1 a serious and painful     
disease1 commonly known as brain fever4 
#bgj4 ,the ,medulla ,oblongata4 ,this is

 the thick upper part of the spinal     
cord1 lying within the cavity of the    
skull4 ,it is immediately under the     
cerebellum1 and forms the connecting    
link between the brain and the spinal   
cord4 ,it is about an inch and a quarter
 long1 and from one-half to             
three-fourths of an inch wide at its    
upper part4 ,the medulla oblongata      
consists1 like the spinal cord1 of      
columns of white fibers and masses of   
gray matter1 but differently arranged4  
,the gray matter is broken up into      
masses which serve as centers of origin 
for various nerves4 ,the functions of   
the medulla oblongata are closely       
connected with the vital processes4 ,it 
is a great nerve tract for transmitting 
sensory and motor impressions1 and also 
the seat of a number of centers for     
reflex actions of the highest importance
 to life4 ,through the posterior part of
 the medulla the sensory impressions    
pass1 that is1 impressions from below   
upwards to the brain resulting in       

sensation or feeling4 ,in the anterior  
part of the medulla1 pass the nerves for
 motor transmission1 that is1 nerve     
influences from above downwards that    
shall result in muscular contractions in
 some part of the body4  ,the medulla is
 also the seat of a number of reflex    
centers connected with the influence of 
the nervous system on the blood-vessels1
 the movements of the heart1 of         
respiration1 and of swallowing1 and on  
the secretion of saliva4 ,this spot has 
been called the vital knot4 ,in the     
medulla also are centers for coughing1  
vomiting1 swallowing1 and the dilatation
 of the pupil of the eye4 ,it is also in
 part the deep origin of many of the    
'important cranial nerves4              
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#aaf4--;,illustrating the ,general      
,arrangement of the ,nervous ,system4   
7,posterior view47  #bga4 ,the ,cranial 
,nerves4 ,the cranial or cerebral nerves
 consist of twelve pairs of nerves which
 pass from the brain through different  

openings in the base of the skull1 and  
are distributed over the head and face1 
also to some parts of the trunk and     
certain internal organs4 ,these nerves  
proceed in pairs from the corresponding 
parts of each side of the brain1 chiefly
 to the organs of smell1 taste1 hearing1
 and sight4  ,the cranial nerves are of 
three kinds3 sensory1 motor1 and both   
combined1 viz41 mixed4  ,distribution   
and ,functions of the ,cranial ,nerves4 
,the cranial nerves are thus arranged in
 pairs3  ,the first pair are the        
olfactory nerves1 which pass down       
through the ethmoid bone into the nasal 
cavities1 and are spread over the inner 
surface of the nose4 ,they are sensory1 
and are the special nerves of smell4    
,the second pair are the optic nerves1  
which1 under the name of the optic      
tracts1 run down to the base of the     
brain1 from which an optic nerve passes 
to each eyeball4 ,these are sensory     
nerves1 and are devoted to sight4  ,the 
third1 fourth1 and sixth pairs proceed  

to the muscles of the eyes and control  
their movements4 ,these are motor       
nerves1 the movers of the eye4  ,each of
 the fifth pair of nerves is in three   
branches1 and proceeds mainly to the    
face4 ,they are called tri-facial1 and  
are mixed nerves1 partly sensory and    
partly motor4 ,the first branch is      
purely sensory1 and gives sensibility to
 the eyeball4 ,the second gives         
sensibility to the nose1 gums1 and      
cheeks4 ,the third 7mixed7 gives the    
special sensation of taste on the front 
part of the tongue1 and ordinary        
sensation on the inner side of the      
cheek1 on the teeth1 and also on the    
scalp in front of the ear4 ,the motor   
branches supply the chewing muscles4    
,the seventh pair1 the facial1 proceed  
to the face1 where they spread over the 
facial muscles and control their        
movements4 ,the eighth pair are the     
auditory1 or nerves of hearing1 and are 
distributed to the special organs of    
hearing4  ,the next three pairs of      

nerves all arise from the medulla1 and  
escape from the cavity of the skull     
through the same foramen4 ,they are     
sometimes described as one pair1 namely1
 the eighth1 but it is more convenient  
to consider them separately4  ,the ninth
 pair1 the glosso-pharyngeal1 are partly
 sensory and partly motor4 ,each nerve  
contains two roots3 one a nerve of      
taste1 which spreads over the back part 
of the tongue2 the other a motor nerve1 
which controls the muscles engaged in   
swallowing4  ,the tenth pair1 the       
pneumogastric1 also known as the vagus  
or wandering nerves1 are the longest and
 most complex of all the cranial nerves4
 ,they are both motor and sensory1 and  
are some of the most important nerves in
 the body4 ,passing from the medulla    
they descend near the sophagus to the   
stomach1 sending off1 on their way1     
branches to the throat1 the larynx1 the 
lungs1 and the heart4 ,some of their    
branches restrain the movements of the  
heart1 others convey impressions to the 

brain1 which result in quickening or    
slowing the movements of breathing4     
,other branches pass to the stomach1 and
 convey to the brain impressions which  
inform us of the condition of that      
organ4 ,these are the nerves by which we
 experience the feelings of pain in the 
stomach1 hunger1 nausea1 and many other 
vague impressions which we often        
associate with that organ4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4--;,anterior  
,view of the ,medulla ,oblongata4    ,a1
 chiasm of the optic nerves2   ,b1 optic
 tracts2   ,c1 motor oculi communis2    
,d1 fifth nerve2   ,e1 motor oculi      
externus2   ,f1 facial nerve2   ,h1     
auditory nerve2   ,i1 glosso-pharyngeal 
nerve2   ,k1 pneumogastric2   ,l1 spinal
 accessory2   ,m1 cervical nerves2   ,n1
 upper extremity of spinal cord2   ,o1  
decussation of the anterior pyramids2   
,r1 anterior pyramids of the medulla    
oblongata2   ,s1 pons ,varolii4   ,the  
eleventh pair1 the spinal accessory1 are
 strictly motor1 and supply the muscles 

of the neck and the back4  ,the twelfth 
pair1 the hypoglossal1 are also motor1  
pass to the muscles of the tongue1 and  
help control the delicate movements in  
the act of speech4  #bgb4 ,the ,spinal  
,cord4 ,this is a long1 rod-like mass of
 white nerve fibers1 surrounding a      
central mass of gray matter4 ,it is a   
continuation of the medulla oblongata1  
and is lodged in the canal of the spinal
 column4 ,it extends from the base of   
the skull to the lower border of the    
first lumbar vertebra1 where it narrows 
off to a slender filament of gray       
substance4  ,the spinal cord is from #af
 to #ah inches long1 and has about the  
thickness of one's little finger1       
weighing about #a-a_/b ounces4 ,like the
 brain1 it is enclosed in three         
membranes1 which in fact are the        
continuation of those within the skull4 
,they protect the delicate cord1 and    
convey vessels for its nourishment4 ,the
 space between the two inner membranes  
contains a small quantity of fluid1     

supporting the cord1 as it were in a    
water-bath4 ,it is thus guarded against 
shocks4  ,the cord is suspended and kept
 in position in the canal by delicate   
ligaments at regular intervals between  
the inner and outer membranes4 ,finally1
 between the canal1 enclosed by its     
three membranes1 and the bony walls of  
the spinal canal1 there is considerable 
fatty tissue1 a sort of packing         
material1 imbedded in which are some    
large blood-vessels4  #bgc4 ,structure  
of the ,spinal ,cord4 ,the arrangement  
of the parts of the spinal cord is best 
understood by a transverse section4 ,two
 fissures1 one behind1 the other in     
front1 penetrate deeply into the cord1  
very nearly dividing it into lateral    
halves4 ,in the middle of the isthmus   
which joins the two halves1 is a very   
minute opening1 the central canal of the
 cord4 ,this tiny channel1 just visible 
to the naked eye1 is connected with one 
of the openings of the medulla          
oblongata1 and extends1 as do the       

anterior and posterior fissures1 the    
entire length of the cord4  ,the spinal 
cord1 like the brain1 consists of gray  
and white matter1 but the arrangement   
differs4 ,in the brain the white matter 
is within1 and the gray matter is on the
 surface4 ,in the cord the gray matter  
is arranged in two half-moon-shaped     
masses1 the backs of which are connected
 at the central part4 ,the white matter1
 consisting mainly of fibers1 running   
for the most part in the direction of   
the length of the cord1 is outside of   
and surrounds the gray crescents4 ,thus 
each half or side of the cord has its   
own gray crescent1 the horns of which   
point one forwards and the other        
backwards1 called respectively the      
anterior and posterior cornua or horns4 
,it will also be seen that the white    
substance itself1 in each half of the   
cord1 is divided by the horns of the    
gray matter and by fibers passing from  
them into three parts1 which are known  
as the anterior1 posterior1 and lateral 

columns4    ,experiment #acj4 ,procure  
at the market an uninjured piece of the 
spinal cord from the loin of mutton or  
the sirloin or the rib of beef4   ,after
 noting its general character while     
fresh1 put it to soak in dilute         
alcohol1 until it is sufficiently hard  
to be cut in sections4  #bgd4 ,the      
,spinal ,nerves4 ,from the gray matter  
on each side of the spinal cord #ca     
spinal nerves are given off and         
distributed chiefly to the muscles and  
the skin4 ,they pass out at regular     
intervals on each side of the canal1 by 
small openings between the vertebr4     
,having escaped from the spine1 they    
pass backwards and forwards1 ramifying  
in the soft parts of the body4 ,the     
first pair pass out between the skull   
and the atlas1 the next between the     
atlas and the axis1 and so on down the  
canal4 ,the eighth pair1 called         
cervical1 pass out in the region of the 
neck2 twelve1 called dorsal1 in the     
region of the ribs2 five are lumbar1 and

 five sacral1 while the last pair leave 
the cord near the coccyx4  ,each spinal 
nerve has two roots1 one from the       
anterior1 the other from the posterior  
portion of the cord4 ,these unite and   
run side by side1 forming as they pass  
between the vertebr one silvery thread1 
or nerve trunk4 ,although bound up in   
one bundle1 the nerve fibers of the two 
roots remain quite distinct1 and perform
 two entirely different functions4      
,after leaving the spinal cord1 each    
nerve divides again and again into finer
 and finer threads4 ,these minute       
branches are distributed through the    
muscles1 and terminate on the surface of
 the body4 ,the anterior roots become   
motor nerves1 their branches being      
distributed to certain muscles of the   
body1 to control their movements4 ,the  
posterior roots develop into sensory    
nerves1 their branches being distributed
 through the skin and over the surface  
of the body to become nerves of touch4  
,in brief1 the spinal nerves divide and 

subdivide1 to reach with their twigs all
 parts of the body1 and provide every   
tissue with a nerve center1 a station   
from which messages may be sent to the  
brain4  ,illustration3 ,fig4            
#aah4--,side ,view of the ,spinal ,cord4
 7,showing the fissures and columns47   
,a1 anterior median fissure2   ,b1      
posterior median fissure2   ,c1 anterior
 lateral fissure2   ,d1 posterior       
lateral fissure2   ,e1 lateral column2  
,f1 anterior column2   ,g1 posterior    
column2   ,h1 posterior median column2  
,k1 anterior root2   ,l1 posterior root2
   ,m1 ganglion of   ,n1 a spinal nerve4
   #bge4 ,the ,functions of the ,spinal 
,nerves4 ,the messages which pass along 
the spinal nerves to and from the brain 
are transmitted mostly through the gray 
matter of the cord1 but some pass along 
the white matter on the outer part4 ,as 
in the brain1 however1 all the active   
powers of the cord are confined to the  
gray matter4 ,the spinal nerves         
themselves have nothing to do with      

sensation or will4 ,they are merely     
conductors to carry messages to and fro4
 ,they neither issue commands nor feel a
 sensation4 ,hence1 they consist        
entirely of white matter4  #bgf4        
,functions of the ,spinal ,cord4 ,the   
spinal cord is the principal channel    
through which all impulses from the     
trunk and extremities pass to the brain1
 and all impulses to the trunk and      
extremities pass from the brain4 ,that  
is1 the spinal cord receives from       
various parts of the body by means of   
its sensory nerves certain impressions1 
and conveys them to the brain1 where    
they are interpreted4  ,the cord also   
transmits by means of its motor nerves  
the commands of the brain to the        
voluntary muscles1 and so causes        
movement4 ,thus1 when the cord is       
divided at any point1 compressed1 as by 
a tumor or broken bone1 or disorganized 
by disease1 the result is a complete    
loss of sensation and voluntary movement
 below the point of injury4 ,if by      

accident a man has his spinal cord      
injured at some point1 he finds he has  
lost all sensation and power of motion  
below that spot4 ,the impulse to        
movement started in his brain by the    
will does not reach the muscles he      
wishes to move1 because traveling down  
the spinal cord1 it cannot pass the seat
 of injury4  ,so the impression produced
 by pricking the leg with a pin1 which1 
before pain can be felt1 must travel up 
the spinal cord to the brain1 cannot    
reach the brain because the injury      
obstructs the path4 ,the telegraph wire 
has been cut1 and the current can no    
longer pass4  #bgg4 ,the ,spinal ,cord  
as a ,conductor of ,impulses4 ,the      
identity in structure of the spinal     
nerves1 whether motor or sensory1 and   
the vast number of nerves in the cord   
make it impossible to trace for any     
distance with the eye1 even aided by the
 microscope and the most skillful       
dissection1 the course of nerve fibers4 
,the paths by which the motor impulses  

travel down the cord are fairly well    
known4 ,these impulses originate in the 
brain1 and passing down keep to the same
 side of the cord1 and go out by nerves 
to the same side of the body4  ,the     
sensory impulses1 however1 soon after   
they enter the cord by the nerve of one 
side1 cross in the cord to the opposite 
side1 up which they travel to the brain4
 ,thus the destruction of one lateral   
half of the cord causes paralysis of    
motion on the same side as the injury1  
but loss of sensation on the opposite   
side1 because the posterior portion     
destroyed consists of fibers which have 
crossed from the opposite side4         
,experiment proves that if both roots of
 a spinal nerve be cut1 all those parts 
of the body to which they send branches 
become paralyzed1 and have neither sense
 of pain nor power of voluntary         
movement4 ,the parts might even be cut  
or burned without pain4 ,it is precisely
 like cutting a telegraph wire and      
stopping the current4  ,illustration3   

,fig4 #aai4--,the ,base of the ,brain4  
,a1 anterior lobe of the cerebrum2   ,b1
 olfactory nerve2   ,c1 sphenoid portion
 of the posterior lobe2   ,d1 optic     
chiasm2   ,e1 optic tract2   ,f1        
abducens2   ,h1 ,m1 hemispheres of the  
cerebellum2   ,k1 occipital portion of  
the occipital lobe2   ,l1 fissure       
separating the hemispheres2   ,n1       
medulla oblongata2   ,o1 olivary body2  
,p1 antenor pyramids2   ,r1 pons        
,valoru2   ,s1 section of olfactory     
nerve1 with the trunk removed to show   
sulcus in      which it is lodged2   ,t1
 anterior extremity of median fissure   
,experiment also proves that if only the
 posterior root of a spinal nerve be    
cut1 all sensation is lost in the parts 
to which the nerve passes1 but the power
 of moving these parts is retained4 ,but
 if the anterior root alone be divided1 
all power of motion in the parts        
supplied by that nerve is lost1 but     
sensation remains4 ,from these and many 
other experiments1 it is evident that   

those fibers of a nerve which are       
derived from the anterior root are      
motor1 and those from the posterior root
 sensory1 fibers4 ,impulses sent from   
the brain and spinal cord to muscles    
will1 therefore1 pass along the anterior
 roots through those fibers of the      
nerves which are derived from these     
7motor7 roots4 ,on the other hand1      
impressions or sensations passing to the
 brain will enter the spinal cord and   
reach the brain through the posterior or
 sensory roots4  #bgh4 ,the ,spinal     
,cord as a ,reflex ,center4 ,besides    
this function of the spinal cord as a   
great nerve conductor to carry          
sensations to the brain1 and bring back 
its orders1 it is also an independent   
center for what is called reflex action4
 ,by means of its sensory nerves it     
receives impressions from certain parts 
of the body1 and on its own authority   
sends back instructions to the muscles  
by its motor nerves1 without consulting 
the brain4 ,this constitutes reflex     

action1 so called because the impulse   
sent to the spinal cord by certain      
sensory nerves is at once reflected or  
sent back as a motor impulse to the     
muscles4  ,this reflex action is a most 
important function of the spinal cord4  
,this power is possessed only by the    
gray matter of the cord1 the white      
substance being simply a conductor4     
,the cells of gray matter are found all 
along the cord1 but are grouped together
 in certain parts1 notably in the       
cervical and lumbar regions4 ,the cells 
of the anterior horns are in relation   
with the muscles by means of nerve      
fibers1 and are also brought into       
connection with the skin and other      
sensory surfaces1 by means of nerve     
fibers running in the posterior part of 
the cord4 ,thus there is established in 
the spinal cord1 without reference to   
the brain at all1 a reflex mechanism4   
#bgi4 ,reflex ,centers4 ,for the purpose
 of illustration1 we might consider the 
body as made up of so many segments     

piled one on another1 each segment      
presided over by a similar segment of   
spinal cord4 ,each bodily segment would 
have sensory and motor nerves           
corresponding to its connection with the
 spinal cord4 ,the group of cells in    
each spinal segment is intimately       
connected with the cells of the segments
 above and below4 ,thus an impression   
reaching the cells of one spinal segment
 might be so strong as to overflow into 
the cells of other segments1 and thus   
cause other parts of the body to be     
affected4  ,take as an example the case 
of a child who has eaten improper food1 
which irritates its bowels4 ,sensory    
nerves of the bowels are disturbed1 and 
powerful impressions are carried up to a
 center in the spinal cord4 ,these      
impressions may now overflow into other 
centers1 from which spasmodic discharges
 of nerve energy may be liberated1 which
 passing to the muscles1 throw them into
 violent and spasmodic contraction4 ,in 
other words1 the child has a fit1 or    

convulsion4 ,all this disturbance being 
the result of reflex action 7the        
spasmodic motions being quite           
involuntary1 as the brain takes no part 
in them71 the child meanwhile is1 of    
course1 entirely unconscious and1       
however it may seem to be distressed1   
really suffers no pain4  ,scattered     
along the entire length of the spinal   
cord1 especially in the upper part1 are 
groups of nerve cells which preside over
 certain specific functions of animal   
life2 that is1 definite collections of  
cells which control definite functions4 
,thus there are certain centers for     
maintaining the action of the heart1 and
 the movements of breathing2 and low    
down in the cord1 in the lumbar regions1
 are centers for the control of the     
various abdominal organs4  ,numerous    
other reflex centers are described by   
physiologists1 but enough has been said 
to emphasize the great importance of the
 spinal cord as an independent nerve    
center1 besides its function as a       

conductor of nervous impulses to and    
from the brain4  #bhj4 ,the ,brain as a 
,reflex ,center4 ,the brain1 as we have 
just stated1 is the seat of             
consciousness and intelligence4 ,it is  
also the seat of many reflex1 automatic1
 and coordinating centers4 ,these give  
rise to certain reflex actions which are
 as entirely independent of             
consciousness as are those of the spinal
 cord4 ,these acts take place           
independently of the will1 and often    
without the consciousness of the        
individual4 ,thus1 a sudden flash of    
light causes the eyes to blink1 as the  
result of reflex action4 ,the optic     
nerves serve as the sensory1 and the    
facial nerves as the motor1 conductors4 
,the sudden start of the whole body at  
some loud noise1 the instinctive dodging
 a threatened blow1 and the springing   
back from sudden danger1 are the results
 of reflex action4 ,the result ensues in
 these and in many other instances1     
without the consciousness of the        

individual1 and indeed beyond his power 
of control4  #bha4 ,the ,importance of  
,reflex ,action4 ,reflex action is thus 
a marvelous provision of nature for our 
comfort1 health1 and safety4 ,its vast  
influence is not realized1 as its       
numberless acts are so continually going
 on without our knowledge4 ,in fact1 the
 greater part of nerve power is expended
 to produce reflex action4 ,the brain is
 thus relieved of a vast amount of work4
 ,it would be impossible for the brain  
to serve as a thinking center to control
 every act of our daily life4 ,if we had
 to plan and to will every heart-beat or
 every respiration1 the struggle for    
life would soon be given up4  ,the fact 
that the gray cells of the spinal cord  
can originate a countless number of     
reflex and automatic activities is not  
only of great importance in protecting  
the body from injury1 but increases     
vastly the range of the activities of   
our daily life4  ,even walking1 riding  
the bicycle1 playing on a piano1 and    

numberless other such acts may be reflex
 movements4 ,to learn how1 requires1 of 
course1 the action of the brain1 but    
with frequent repetition the muscles    
become so accustomed to certain         
successive movements1 that they are     
continued by the cord without the       
control of the brain4 ,thus we may      
acquire a sort of artificial reflex     
action1 which in time becomes in a way a
 part of our organization1 and is       
carried on without will power or even   
consciousness4  ,so1 while the hands are
 busily doing one thing1 the brain can  
be intently thinking of another4 ,in    
fact1 any attempt to control reflex     
action is more apt to hinder than to    
help4 ,in coming rapidly down stairs1   
the descent will be made with ease and  
safety if the spinal cord is allowed    
entire charge of the act1 but the       
chances of stumbling or of tripping are 
very much increased if each step be     
taken as the result of the will power4  
,the reflex action of the cord may be   

diminished1 or inhibited as it is       
called1 but this power is limited4      
,thus1 we can by an effort of the will  
stop breathing for a certain time1 but  
beyond that the reflex mechanism        
overcomes our will and we could not1 if 
we would1 commit suicide by holding our 
breath4 ,when we are asleep1 if the palm
 of the hand be tickled1 it closes2 when
 we are awake we can prevent it4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4--;,dr4       
,waller's ,diagrammatic ,illustration of
 the ,reflex ,process4  ,from the       
sentient surface 7#a7 an afferent       
impulse passes along 7#b7 to the        
posterior root of the spinal cord1 the  
nerve fibers of the posterior root      
ending in minute filaments among the    
small cells of this part of the cord    
7#c74 ,in some unknown way this impulse 
passes across the gray part of the cord 
to the large cells of the anterior root 
7#e71 the cells of this part being      
connected by their axis-cylinder with   
the efferent fibers 7#f74 ,these convey 

the stimulus to the fibers of the muscle
 7#g71 which accordingly contract4      
,where the brain is concerned in the    
action the circuit is longer through ,s 
and ,m4    ,experiment #aca4 ,to        
illustrate reflex action by what is     
called   knee-jerk4 ,sit on a chair1 and
 cross the right leg over the left one4 
,with the tips of the fingers or the    
back of a book1 strike the right        
ligamentum patell4 ,the right leg will  
be raised and thrown forward with   a   
jerk1 owing to the contraction of the   
quadriceps muscles4 ,an   appreciable   
time elapses between the striking of the
 tendon and the   jerk4 ,the presence or
 absence of the knee-jerk may be a most 
significant   symptom to the physician4 
#bhb4 ,the ,sympathetic ,system4        
,running along each side of the spine1  
from the base of the skull to the       
coccyx1 is a chain of nerve knots1 or   
ganglia4 ,these ganglia1 twenty-four on 
each side1 and their branches form the  
sympathetic system1 as distinguished    

from the cerebro-spinal system          
consisting of the brain and spinal cord 
and the nerves springing from them4 ,the
 ganglia of the sympathetic system are  
connected with each other and with the  
sensory roots of the spinal nerves by a 
network of gray nerve fibers4  ,at the  
upper end the chain of each side passes 
up into the cranium and is closely      
connected with the cranial nerves4 ,in  
the neck1 branches pass to the lungs and
 the heart4 ,from the ganglia in the    
chest three nerves form a complicated   
network of fibers1 from which branches  
pass to the stomach1 the liver1 the     
intestines1 the kidneys1 and other      
abdominal organs4 ,a similar network of 
fibers is situated lower down in the    
pelvis1 from which branches are         
distributed to the pelvic organs4 ,at   
the coccyx the two chains unite into a  
single ganglion4  ,thus1 in general1 the
 sympathetic system1 while intimately   
connected with the cerebro-spinal1 forms
 a close network of nerves which        

specially accompany the minute          
blood-vessels1 and are distributed to   
the muscles of the heart1 the lungs1 the
 stomach1 the liver1 the intestines1 and
 the kidneys--that is1 the hollow organs
 of the body4  #bhc4 ,the ,functions of 
the ,sympathetic ,system4 ,this system  
exercises a superintending influence    
over the greater part of the internal   
organs of the body1 controlling to a    
certain extent the functions of         
digestion1 nutrition1 circulation1 and  
respiration4 ,the influence thus        
especially connected with the processes 
of organic life is generally different  
from1 or even opposed to1 that conveyed 
to the same organs by fibers running in 
the spinal or cranial nerves4 ,these    
impulses are beyond the control of the  
will4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4--,the 
,cervical and ,thoracic ,portion of the 
,sympathetic ,nerve and its ,main       
,branches4    ,a1 right pneumogastric2  
,b1 spinal accessory2   ,c1             
glosso-pharyngeal2   ,d1 right bronchus2

   ,e1 right branch of pulmonary artery2
   ,f1 one of the intercostal nerves2   
,h1 great splanchnic nerve2   ,k1 solar 
plexus2   ,l1 left pneumogastric2   ,m1 
stomach branches of right pneumogastric2
   ,n1 right ventricle2   ,o1 right     
auricle2   ,p1 trunk of pulmonary       
artery2   ,r1 aorta2 ,s1 cardiac nerves2
   ,t1 recurrent laryngeal nerve2   ,u1 
superior laryngeal nerve2   ,v1         
submaxillary ganglion2   ,w1 lingual    
branch of the #eth nerve2   ,x1         
ophthalmic ganglion2   ,y1 motor oculi  
externus4   ,hence1 all these actions of
 the internal organs just mentioned that
 are necessary to the maintenance of the
 animal life1 and of the harmony which  
must exist between them1 are controlled 
by the sympathetic system4 ,but for this
 control1 the heart would stop beating  
during sleep1 digestion would cease1 and
 breathing would be suspended4 ,gentle  
irritation of these nerves1 induced by  
contact of food in the stomach1 causes  
that organ to begin the churning motion 

needed for digestion4 ,various mental   
emotions also have a reflex action upon 
the sympathetic system4 ,thus1 terror   
dilates the pupils1 fear acts upon the  
nerves of the small blood-vessels of the
 face to produce pallor1 and the sight  
of an accident1 or even the emotions    
produced by hearing of one1 may excite  
nausea and vomiting4  ,the control of   
the blood-vessels1 as has been stated   
7sec4 #aie71 is one of the special      
functions of the sympathetic system4    
,through the nerves distributed to the  
muscular coats of the arteries1 the     
caliber of these vessels can be varied1 
so that at one moment they permit a     
large quantity of blood to pass1 and at 
another will contract so as to diminish 
the supply4 ,this1 too1 is beyond the   
control of the will1 and is brought     
about by the vaso-motor nerves of the   
sympathetic system through a reflex     
arrangement1 the center for which is the
 medulla oblongata4  #bhd4 ,need of     
,rest4 ,the life of the body1 as has    

been emphasized in the preceding        
chapters1 is subject to constant waste  
going on every moment1 from the first   
breath of infancy to the last hour of   
old age4 ,we should speedily exhaust our
 life from this continual loss1 but for 
its constant renewal with fresh         
material4 ,this exhaustion of life is   
increased by exertion1 and the process  
of repair is vastly promoted by rest4   
,thus1 while exercise is a duty1 rest is
 equally imperative4  ,the eye1 when    
exactingly used in fine work1 should    
have frequent intervals of rest in a few
 moments of darkness by closing the     
lids4 ,the brain1 when urged by         
strenuous study1 should have occasional 
seasons of rest by a dash of cold water 
upon the forehead1 and a brief walk with
 slow and deep inspirations of fresh    
air4 ,the muscles1 long cramped in a    
painful attitude1 should be rested as   
often as may be1 by change of posture or
 by a few steps around the room4  ,it is
 not entirely the amount of work done1  

but the continuity of strain that wears 
upon the body4 ,even a brief rest       
interrupts this strain2 it unclogs the  
wheels of action4 ,our bodies are not   
designed for continuous toil4 ,an       
alternation of labor and rest diminishes
 the waste of life4 ,the benign process 
of repair cannot go on1 to any extent1  
during strenuous labor1 but by          
interposing frequent though brief       
periods of rest1 we lessen the amount of
 exhaustion1 refresh the jaded nerves1  
and the remaining labor is more easily  
endured4  #bhe4 ,benefits of ,rest4     
,there is too little repose in our      
,american nature and in our modes of    
life4 ,a sense of fatigue is the mute   
appeal of the body for a brief respite  
from labor1 and the appeal should1 if   
possible1 be heeded4 ,if this appeal be 
not met1 the future exertion exhausts   
far more than if the body had been even 
slightly refreshed4 ,if the appeal be   
met1 the brief mid-labor rest eases the 
friction of toil1 and the remaining     

labor is more easily borne4 ,the feeling
 that a five-minute rest is so much time
 lost is quite an error4 ,it is a gain  
of physical strength1 of mental vigor1  
and of the total amount of work done4   
,the merchant burdened with the cares of
 business life1 the soldier on the long 
march1 the ambitious student            
over-anxious to win success in his      
studies1 the housewife wearied with her 
many hours of exacting toil1 each would 
make the task lighter1 and would get    
through it with less loss of vital      
force1 by occasionally devoting a few   
minutes to absolute rest in entire      
relaxation of the strained muscles and  
overtaxed nerves4  #bhf4 ,the ,sabbath  
as a ,day of ,physiological ,rest4 ,the 
divine institution of a ,sabbath of     
rest1 one day in seven1 is based upon   
the highest needs of our nature4 ,rest1 
to be most effective1 should alternate  
in brief periods with labor4  ,it is    
sound physiology1 as well as good morals
 and manners1 to cease from the usual   

routine of six days of mental or        
physical work1 and rest both the mind   
and the body on the seventh4 ,those who 
have succeeded best in what they have   
undertaken1 and who have enjoyed sound  
health during a long and useful life1   
have studiously lived up to the mandates
 of this great physiological law4 ,it is
 by no means certain that the tendency  
nowadays to devote the ,sabbath to long 
trips on the bicycle1 tiresome          
excursions by land and sea1 and         
sight-seeing generally1 affords that    
real rest from a physiological point of 
view which nature demands after six days
 of well-directed manual or mental      
labor4  #bhg4 ,the ,significance of     
,sleep as a ,periodical ,rest4 ,of the  
chief characteristics of all living     
beings none is so significant as their  
periodicity4 ,plants as well as animals 
exhibit this periodic character4 ,thus  
plants have their annual as well as     
daily periods of activity and           
inactivity4 ,hibernating animals pass   

the winter in a condition of            
unconsciousness only to have their      
functions of activity restored in early 
spring4 ,human beings also present many 
instances of a periodic character1 many 
of which have been mentioned in the     
preceding pages4 ,thus we have learned  
that the heart has its regular          
alternating periods of work and rest4   
,after every expiration from the lungs  
there is a pause before the next        
inspiration begins4  ,now sleep is just 
another manifestation of this periodic  
and physiological rest by which ,nature 
refreshes us4 ,it is during the periods 
of sleep that the energy expended in the
 activities of the waking hours is      
mainly renewed4 ,in our waking moments  
the mind is kept incessantly active by  
the demands made on it through the      
senses4 ,there is a never-ceasing       
expenditure of energy and a consequent  
waste which must be repaired4 ,a time   
soon comes when the brain cells fail to 
respond to the demand1 and sleep must   

supervene4 ,however resolutely we may   
resist this demand1 ,nature1 in her     
relentless way1 puts us to sleep1 no    
matter what objects are brought before  
the mind with a view to retain its      
attention4#da  #bhh4 ,effect of ,sleep  
upon the ,bodily ,functions4 ,in all the
 higher animals1 the central nervous    
system enters once at least in the      
twenty-four hours into the condition of 
rest which we call sleep4 ,inasmuch as  
the most important modifications of this
 function are observed in connection    
with the cerebro-spinal system1 a brief 
consideration of the subject is properly
 studied in this chapter4 ,in ,chapter  
,,iv4 we learned that repose was as     
necessary as exercise to maintain       
muscular vigor4 ,so after prolonged     
mental exertion1 or in fact any effort  
which involves an expenditure of what is
 often called nerve-force1 sleep becomes
 a necessity4 ,the need of such a rest  
is self-evident1 and the loss of it is a
 common cause of the impairment of      

health4 ,while we are awake and active1 
the waste of the body exceeds the       
repair2 but when asleep1 the waste is   
diminished1 and the cells are more      
actively rebuilding the structure for   
to-morrow's labor4 ,the organic         
functions1 such as are under the direct 
control of the sympathetic nervous      
system1--circulation1 respiration1 and  
digestion1--are diminished in activity  
during sleep4 ,the pulsations of the    
heart and the respiratory movements are 
less frequent1 and the circulation is   
slower4 ,the bodily temperature is      
reduced1 and the cerebral circulation is
 diminished4 ,the eyes are turned upward
 and inward1 and the pupils are         
contracted4  ,the senses do not all fall
 to sleep at once1 but drop off         
successively3 first the sight1 then the 
smell1 the taste1 the hearing and lastly
 the touch4 ,the sleep ended1 they awake
 in an inverse order1 touch1 hearing1   
taste1 smell1 and sight4  #bhi4 ,the    
,amount of ,sleep ,required4 ,no precise

 rule can be laid down concerning the   
amount of sleep required4 ,it varies    
with age1 occupation1 temperament1 and  
climate to a certain extent4 ,an infant 
whose main business it is to grow spends
 the greater part of its time in sound  
sleep4 ,adults of average age who work  
hard with their hands or brain1 under   
perfectly normal physiological          
conditions1 usually require at least    
eight hours of sleep4 ,some need less1  
but few require more4 ,personal         
peculiarities1 and perhaps habit to a   
great extent1 exert a marked influence4 
,some of the greatest men1 as ,napoleon 
,i41 have been very sparing sleepers4   
,throughout his long and active life1   
,frederick the ,great never slept more  
than five or six hours in the           
twenty-four4 ,on the other hand1 some of
 the busiest brain-workers who lived to 
old age1 as ,william ,cullen ,bryant and
 ,henry ,ward ,beecher1 required and    
took care to secure at least eight or   
nine hours of sound sleep every night4  

,in old age1 less sleep is usually      
required than in adult life1 while the  
aged may pass much of their time in     
sleep4 ,in fact1 each person learns by  
experience how much sleep is necessary4 
,there is no one thing which more unfits
 one for prolonged mental or physical   
effort than the loss of natural rest4   
#bij4 ,practical ,rules about ,sleep4   
,children should not be played with     
boisterously just before the bedtime    
hour1 nor their minds excited with weird
 goblin stories1 or a long time may pass
 before the wide-open eyes and agitated 
nerves become composed to slumber4      
,disturbed or insufficient sleep is a   
potent factor towards producing a       
fretful1 irritable child4  ,at all ages 
the last hour before sleep should1 if   
possible1 be spent quietly1 to smooth   
the way towards sound and refreshing    
rest4 ,the sleep induced by medicine is 
very often troubled and unsatisfactory4 
,medicines of this sort should not be   
taken except on the advice of a         

physician4  ,while a hearty meal should 
not usually be taken just before        
bedtime1 it is not well to go to bed    
with a sense of positive faintness and  
hunger4 ,rather1 one should take a very 
light lunch of quite simple food as a   
support for the next eight hours4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4--,trunk of   
the ,left ,pneumogastric4  7,showing its
 distribution by its branches and       
ganglia to the larynx1 pharynx1 heart1  
lungs1 and other parts47  ,it is better1
 as a rule1 not to engage in severe     
study during the hours just before      
bedtime4 ,neither body nor mind being at
 its best after the fatigues of the day1
 study at that time wears upon the      
system more1 and the progress is less   
than at earlier hours4 ,one hour of     
morning or day study is worth a much    
longer time late at night4 ,it is1      
therefore1 an economy both of time and  
of nerve force to use the day hours and 
the early evening for study4  ,the      
so-called cat naps should never be made 

to serve as a substitute for a full     
night's sleep4 ,they are largely a      
matter of habit1 and are detrimental to 
some as well as beneficial to others4   
,late hours are usually associated with 
exposure1 excitement1 and various other 
drains upon the nerve force1 and hence  
are injurious4  ,it is better to sleep  
on one or other side than on the back4  
,the head should be somewhat raised1 and
 a mattress is better than a feather    
bed4 ,the bedclothes should be          
sufficient1 but not too heavy4 ,light   
tends to prevent sleep1 as do loud or   
abrupt sounds1 but monotonous sounds aid
 it4  #bia4 ,alcohol and the ,brain4    
,the unfortunate effects which alcoholic
 drinks produce upon the brain and      
nervous system differ from the          
destructive results upon other parts of 
the body in this respect1 that elsewhere
 the consequences are usually both less 
speedy and less obvious4 ,the stomach1  
the liver1 and even the heart may endure
 for a while the trespass of the        

narcotic poison1 and not betray the     
invasion4 ,but the nervous system       
cannot1 like them1 suffer in silence4   
,in the other parts of the body the     
victim may 7to a certain extent7 conceal
 from others the suffering of which he  
himself is painfully conscious4 ,but the
 tortured brain instantly reveals the   
calamity and the shame1 while the only  
one who may not fully realize it is the 
victim himself4 ,besides this1 the      
injuries inflicted upon other organs    
affect only the body1 but here they drag
 down the mind1 ruin the morals1 and    
destroy the character4  ,the brain is   
indeed the most important organ of the  
body1 as it presides over all the       
others4 ,it is the lofty seat of power  
and authority4 ,here the king is on his 
throne4 ,but if1 by this malignant      
adversary1 the king himself be          
dethroned1 his whole empire falls to    
ruins4  #bib4 ,how ,alcohol ,injures the
 ,brain4 ,the brain1 the nerve centers1 
and the nerves are all made up of nerve 

pulp1 the softest and most delicate     
tissue in the whole bodily structure4   
,wherever this fragile material occurs  
in our bodies1--in the skull1 the spine1
 the trunk1 or the limbs1--the all-wise 
,architect has carefully protected it   
from violence1 for a rough touch would  
injure it1 or even tender pressure would
 disturb its function4  ,it is a further
 indication of the supreme importance of
 the brain1 that about one-fifth of the 
entire blood of the body is furnished to
 it4 ,manifestly1 then1 this vital organ
 must be tenderly cared for4 ,it must   
indeed be well nourished1 and therefore 
the blood sent to it must be highly     
nutrient1 capable of supplying oxygen   
freely4 ,this condition is essential to 
successful brain action4 ,but           
intoxicants bring to it blood surcharged
 with a poisonous liquid1 and bearing   
only a limited supply of oxygen4        
,another condition of a healthy brain is
 that the supply of blood to it shall be
 equable and uniform4 ,but under the    

influence of strong drink1 the blood    
pours into the paralyzed arteries a     
surging tide that floods the head1 and  
hinders and may destroy the use of the  
brain and the senses4 ,still another    
requirement is that whatever is         
introduced into the cerebral tissues1   
having first passed through the stomach 
walls and thence into the blood1 shall  
be bland1 not irritating4 ,but in the   
brain of the inebriate are found not    
only the distinct odor but the actual   
presence of alcohol4 ,thus we plainly   
see how all these three vital conditions
 of a healthy brain are grossly violated
 by the use of intoxicants4    ,i think 
there is a great deal of injury being   
done by the use of   alcohol in what is 
supposed by the consumer to be a most   
moderate   quantity1 to persons who are 
not in the least intemperate1 and to    
people   supposed to be fairly well4 ,it
 leads to degeneration of the tissues2  
it   damages the health2 it injures the 
intellect4 ,short of drunkenness1 that  

is1 in those effects of it which stop   
short of drunkenness1 ,i should say     
from my experience that alcohol is the  
most destructive agent we are   aware of
 in this country4--,sir ,william ,gull1 
the most eminent ,english   physician of
 our time4  #bic4 ,why the ,brain       
,suffers from the ,alcoholic ,habit4 ,we
 do not find that the alcoholic habit   
has produced in the brain the same      
coarse injuries that we see in other    
organs1 as in the stomach1 the liver1 or
 the heart4 ,nor should we expect to    
find them2 for so delicate and so       
sensitive is the structure of this      
organ1 that a very slight injury here   
goes a great way1--a disturbance may be 
overwhelming to the brain that would be 
only a trifle to some of the less       
delicate organs4  ,alcohol has different
 degrees of affinity for different      
organs of the body1 but much the        
strongest for the cerebral tissues4     
,therefore the brain feels more keenly  
the presence of alcohol than does any   

other organ4 ,almost the moment that the
 poison is brought into the stomach1 the
 nerves send up the alarm that an       
invading foe has come4 ,at once there   
follows a shock to the brain1 and very  
soon its paralyzed blood-vessels are    
distended with the rush of blood4 ,this 
first effect is1 in a certain sense1    
exhilarating1 and from this arousing    
influence alcohol has been erroneously  
considered a stimulant2 but the falsity 
of this view is pointed out elsewhere in
 this book4  #bid4 ,alcohol1 the ,enemy 
of ,brain ,work4 ,the healthy brain     
contains a larger proportion of water   
than does any other organ4 ,now alcohol1
 with its intense affinity for water1   
absorbs it from the brain1 and thus     
condenses and hardens its structure4    
,one of the important elements of the   
brain is its albumen2 this also is      
contracted by alcohol4 ,the nerve cells 
and fibers gradually become shriveled   
and their activity is lowered1 the      
elasticity of the arteries is           

diminished1 the membranes enveloping the
 brain are thickened1 and thus all      
proper brain nutrition is impaired4 ,the
 entire organ is slowly hardened1 and   
becomes unfitted for the proper         
performance of its delicate duties4 ,in 
brief1 alcohol in any and every form is 
the enemy of successful and             
long-continued brain work4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4--,nerve      
,trunks of the ,right ,arm4  #bie4      
,other ,physical ,results of            
,intoxicants4 ,what are some of the     
physical results observed8 ,first1 we   
note the failure of the vaso-motor      
nerves to maintain the proper tone of   
the blood-vessels1 as in the turgid face
 and the congested cornea of the eye4   
,again1 we observe the loss of muscular 
control1 as is shown by the drop of the 
lower lip1 the thickened speech1 and the
 wandering eye4 ,the spinal cord1 too1  
is often affected and becomes unable to 
respond to the demand for reflex action1
 as appears from the trembling hands1   

the staggering legs1 the swaying body1  
and the general muscular uncertainty4   
,all these are varied results of the    
temporary paralysis of the great nerve  
centers4  ,besides1 the sensibility of  
the nerves is deadened4 ,the inebriate  
may seize a hot iron and hardly know it1
 or wound his hand painfully and never  
feel the injury4 ,the numbness is not of
 the skin1 but of the brain1 for the    
drunken man may be frozen or burned to  
death without pain4 ,the senses1 too1   
are invaded and dulled4 ,double vision  
is produced1 the eyes not being so      
controlled as to bring the image upon   
corresponding points of the retina4     
#bif4 ,diseases ,produced by ,alcohol4  
,the diseases that follow in the train  
of the alcoholic habit are numerous and 
fatal4 ,it lays its paralyzing hand upon
 the brain itself1 and soon permanently 
destroys the integrity of its functions4
 ,in some the paralysis is local only1  
perhaps in one of the limbs1 or on one  
side of the body2 in others there is a  

general muscular failure4 ,the vitality 
of the nerve centers is so thoroughly   
impaired that general paralysis often   
ensues4 ,a condition of insomnia1 or    
sleeplessness1 often follows1 or when   
sleep does come1 it is in fragments1 and
 is far from refreshing to the jaded    
body4  ,in time follows another and a   
terrible disease known as delirium      
tremens2 and this may occur in those who
 claim to be only moderate drinkers1    
rarely if ever intoxicated4 ,it         
accompanies an utter breakdown of the   
nervous system4 ,here reason is for the 
time dethroned1 while at some times wild
 and frantic1 or at others a low1       
mumbling delirium occurs1 with a marked 
trembling from terror and exhaustion4   
,there is still another depth of ruin in
 this downward course1 and that is      
insanity4 ,in fact1 every instance of   
complete intoxication is a case of      
temporary insanity1 that is1 of mental  
unsoundness with loss of self-control4  
,permanent insanity may be one of the   

last results of intemperance4           
,alcoholism sends to our insane asylums 
a large proportion of their inmates1 as 
ample records testify4  #big4 ,mental   
and ,moral ,ruin ,caused by ,alcoholism4
 ,alcoholism1 the evil prince of        
destroyers1 also hastens to lay waste   
man's mental and moral nature4 ,just as 
the inebriate's senses1 sight1 hearing1 
and touch1 fail to report correctly of  
the outer world1 so the mind fails to   
preside properly over the inner realm4  
,mental perceptions are dulled4 ,the    
stupefied faculties can hardly be       
aroused by any appeal4 ,memory fails4   
,thus the man is disqualified for any   
responsible labor4 ,no railroad company1
 no mercantile house1 will employ any   
one addicted to drinking4 ,the mind of  
the drunkard is unable to retain a      
single chain of thought1 but gropes     
about with idle questionings4 ,the      
intellect is debased4 ,judgment is      
impossible1 for the unstable mind cannot
 think1 compare1 or decide4  ,the once  

active power of the will is prostrate1  
and the victim can no longer resist the 
feeblest impulse of temptation4 ,the    
grand faculty of self-control is lost2  
and as a result1 the baser instincts of 
our lower nature are now uppermost2     
greed and appetite rule unrestrained4   
,but the moral power is also dragged    
down to the lowest depths4 ,all the     
finer sensibilities of character are    
deadened2 all pride of personal         
appearance1 all nice self-respect and   
proper regard for the good opinion of   
others1 every sense of decorum1 and at  
last every pretence of decency4 ,dignity
 of behavior yields to clownish         
silliness1 and the person lately        
respected is now an object of pity and  
loathing4 ,the great central convictions
 of right and wrong now find no place in
 his nature2 conscience is quenched1    
dishonesty prevails4 ,this is true both 
as to the solemn promises1 which prove  
mere idle tales1 and also as to         
property1 for he resorts to any form of 

fraud or theft to feed the consuming    
craving for more drink4  #bih4 ,evil    
,results of ,alcoholism ,inherited4 ,but
 the calamity does not end with the     
offender4 ,it may follow down the family
 line1 and fasten itself upon the       
unoffending children4 ,these often      
inherit the craving for drink1 with the 
enfeebled nature that cannot resist the 
craving1 and so are almost inevitably   
doomed to follow the appalling career of
 their parents before them4  ,nor does  
this cruel taint stop with the children4
 ,even their descendants are often prone
 to become perverse4 ,as one example1   
careful statistics of a large number of 
families1 more than two hundred         
descended from drunkards1 show that a   
very large portion of them gave         
undoubted proof of well-marked          
degeneration4 ,this was plain in the    
unusual prevalence of infant mortality1 
convulsions1 epilepsy1 hysteria1 fatal  
brain diseases1 and actual              
imbecility4#db  ,it is found that the   

long-continued habitual user of         
alcoholic drinks1 the man who is never  
intoxicated1 but who will tell you that 
he has drunk whiskey all his life       
without being harmed by it1 is more     
likely to transmit the evil effects to  
his children than the man who has       
occasional drunken outbreaks with       
intervals of perfect sobriety between4  
,by his frequently repeated small drams 
he keeps his tissues constantly         
alcoholized to such an extent that they 
are seldom free from some of the more or
 less serious consequences4 ,his        
children are born with organisms which  
have received a certain bias from which 
they cannot escape2 they are freighted  
with some heredity1 or predisposition to
 particular forms of degeneration1 to   
some morbid tendency1 to an enfeebled   
constitution1 to various defective      
conditions of mind and body4 ,let the   
children of such a man attempt to       
imitate the drinking habits of the      
father and they quickly show the        

effects4 ,moderate drinking brings them 
down4  ,among other consequences of an  
alcoholic inheritance which have been   
traced by careful observers are3 ,morbid
 changes in the nerve centers1          
consisting of inflammatory lesions1     
which vary according to the age in which
 they occur2 alcoholic insanity2        
congenital malformations2 and a much    
higher infant death rate1 owing to lack 
of vitality1 than among the children of 
normal parents4  ,where the alcoholic   
inheritance does not manifest itself in 
some definite disease or disorder1 it   
can still be traced in the limitations  
to be found in the drinking man's       
descendants4 ,they seem to reach a level
 from which they cannot ascend1 and     
where from slight causes they           
deteriorate4 ,the parents1 by alcoholic 
poisoning1 have lowered the race stock  
of vitality beyond the power of ascent  
or possibility to rise above or overcome
 the downward tendency4  ,of course     
these effects of alcoholics differ      

widely according to the degree of       
intoxication4 ,yet1 we must not forget  
that the real nature of inebriety is    
always the same4 ,the end differs from  
the beginning only in degree4 ,he who   
would avoid a life of sorrow1 disgrace1 
and shame must carefully shun the very  
first glass of intoxicants4  #bii4      
,opium4 ,opium is a gum-like substance1 
the dried juice of the unripe capsule of
 the poppy4 ,the head of the plant is   
slit with fine incisions1 and the       
exuding white juice is collected4 ,when 
it thickens and is moulded in mass1 it  
becomes dark with exposure4 ,morphine1 a
 white powder1 is a very condensed form 
of opiate2 laudanum1 an alcoholic       
solution of marked strength2 and        
paregoric1 a diluted and flavored form  
of alcoholic tincture4  #cjj4 ,poisonous
 ,effects of ,opium4 ,some persons are  
drawn into the use of opium1 solely for 
its narcotic and intoxicating influence4
 ,every early consent to its use        
involves a lurking pledge to repeat the 

poison1 till soon strong cords of the   
intoxicant appetite bind the now        
yielding victim4  ,opium thus used lays 
its benumbing hand upon the brain1 the  
mind is befogged1 thought and reasoning 
are impossible4 ,the secretions of the  
stomach are suspended1 digestion is     
notably impaired1 and the gastric nerves
 are so deadened that the body is       
rendered unconscious of its needs4  ,the
 moral sense is extinguished1 persons   
once honest resort to fraud and theft1  
if need be1 to obtain the drug1 till at 
last health1 character1 and life itself 
all become a pitiful wreck4  #cja4 ,the 
,use of ,opium in ,patent ,medicines4   
,some forms of this drug are found in   
nearly all the various patent medicines 
so freely sold as a cure-all for every  
mortal disease4 ,opiates are an         
ingredient in different forms and       
proportions in almost all the           
soothing-syrups1 cough medicines1       
cholera mixtures1 pain cures1 and       
consumption remedies1 so widely and     

unwisely used4 ,many deaths occur from  
the use of these opiates1 which at first
 seem indeed to bring relief1 but really
 only smother the prominent symptoms1   
while the disease goes on unchecked1 and
 at last proves fatal4  ,these patent   
medicines may appear to help one person 
and be fraught with danger to the next1 
so widely different are the effects of  
opiates upon different ages and         
temperaments4 ,but it is upon children  
that these fatal results oftenest fall4 
,beyond doubt1 thousands of children    
have been soothed and soothed out of    
existence4#dc  #cjb4 ,the ,victim of the
 ,opium ,habit4 ,occasionally persons   
convalescing from serious sickness where
 anodynes were taken1 unwisely cling to 
them long after recovery4 ,other        
persons1 jaded with business or with    
worry1 and unable to sleep1 unwisely    
resort to some narcotic mixture to      
procure rest4 ,in these and other       
similar cases1 the use of opiates is    
always most pernicious4 ,the amount must

 be steadily increased to obtain the    
elusive repose1 and at best the phantom 
too often escapes4  ,even if the desired
 sleep is procured1 it is hardly the    
coveted rest1 but a troubled and dreamy 
slumber1 leaving in the morning the body
 quite unrefreshed1 the head aching1 the
 mouth dry1 and the stomach utterly     
devoid of appetite4 ,but far worse than 
even this condition is the slavish      
yielding to the habit1 which soon       
becomes a bondage in which life is shorn
 of its wholesome pleasures1 and        
existence becomes a burden4   #cjc4     
,chloral4 ,there are other preparations 
which have become instruments of direful
 and often fatal injury4 ,chloral is a  
powerful drug that has been much        
resorted to by unthinking persons to    
produce sleep4 ,others1 yielding to a   
morbid reluctance to face the problems  
of life1 have timidly sought shelter in 
artificial forgetfulness4 ,to all such  
it is a false friend4 ,its promises are 
treason4 ,it degrades the mind1 tramples

 upon the morals1 overpowers the will1  
and destroys life itself4   #cjd4       
,cocaine1 ,ether1 ,chloroform1 and      
,other ,powerful ,drugs4 ,another       
dangerous drug is ,cocaine4 ,ether and  
chloroform1 those priceless blessings to
 the human race if properly controlled1 
become instruments of death when        
carelessly trifled with4 ,persons who   
have been accustomed to inhale the vapor
 in slight whiffs for neuralgia or      
similar troubles do so at imminent      
hazard1 especially if lying down4 ,they 
are liable to become slowly unconscious1
 and so to continue the inhalation till 
life is ended4  ,there is still another 
class of drugs often carelessly used1   
whose effect1 while less directly       
serious than those mentioned1 is yet far
 from harmless4 ,these drugs1 which have
 sprung into popular use since the      
disease la grippe began its dreaded     
career1 include phenacetine1 antipyrine1
 antifebrine1 and other similar         
preparations4 ,these drugs have been    

seized by the public and taken freely   
and carelessly for all sorts and        
conditions of trouble4 ,the random arrow
 may yet do serious harm4 ,these drugs1 
products of coal-oil distillation1 are  
powerful depressants4 ,they lower the   
action of the heart and the tone of the 
nervous centers4 ,thus the effect of    
their continued use is to so diminish   
the vigor of the system as to aggravate 
the very disorder they are taken to     
relieve4   #cje4 ,effect of ,tobacco on 
the ,nervous ,system4 ,that the use of  
tobacco produces a pernicious effect    
upon the nervous system is obvious from 
the indignant protest of the entire body
 against it when it is first used4 ,its 
poisonous character is amply shown by   
the distressing prostration and pallor1 
the dizziness and faintness1 with       
extreme nausea and vomiting1 which      
follow its employment by a novice4  ,the
 morbid effects of tobacco upon the     
nervous system of those who habitually  
use it are shown in the irregular and   

enfeebled action of the heart1 with     
dizziness and muscular tremor4 ,the     
character of the pulse shows plainly the
 unsteady heart action1 caused by       
partial paralysis of the nerves         
controlling this organ4 ,old1 habitual  
smokers often show an irritable and     
nervous condition1 with sleeplessness1  
due doubtless to lack of proper brain   
nutrition4  ,all these results tend to  
prove that tobacco is really a nerve    
poison1 and there is reason to suspect  
that the nervous breakdown of many men  
in mature life is often due to the      
continued use of this depressing agent4 
,this is shown more especially in men of
 sedentary life and habits1 as men of   
active habits and out-door life1        
experience less of the ill effects of   
tobacco4  ,few1 if any1 habitual users  
of tobacco ever themselves approve of   
it4 ,they all regret the habit1 and many
 lament they are so enslaved to it that 
they cannot throw it off4 ,they very    
rarely advise any one to follow their   

example4  #cjf4 ,effects of ,tobacco on 
the ,mind4 ,with this continuously      
depressing effect of tobacco upon the   
brain1 it is little wonder that the mind
 may become enfeebled and lose its      
capacity for study or successful effort4
 ,this is especially true of the young4 
,the growth and development of the brain
 having been once retarded1 the youthful
 user of tobacco 7especially the foolish
 cigarette-smoker7 has established a    
permanent drawback which may hamper him 
all his life4  ,the young man addicted  
to the use of tobacco is often through  
its use retarded in his career by mental
 languor or weakening will power1 and by
 mental incapacity4 ,the keenness of    
mental perception is dulled1 and the    
ability to seize and hold an abstract   
thought is impaired4 ,true1 these       
effects are not sharply obvious1 as it  
would be impossible to contrast the     
present condition of any one person with
 what it might have been4 ,but the      
comparison of large numbers conveys an  

instructive lesson4 ,scholars who start 
well and give promise of a good future  
fail by the way4 ,the honors of the     
great schools1 academies1 and colleges  
are very largely taken by the tobacco   
abstainers4 ,this is proved by the      
result of repeated and extensive        
comparisons of the advanced classes in a
 great number of institutions in this   
country and in ,europe4 ,so true is this
 that any young man who aspires to a    
noble career should bid farewell either 
to his honorable ambition or to his     
tobacco1 for the two very rarely travel 
together4 ,consequently our military and
 naval academies and very many          
seminaries and colleges prohibit the use
 of tobacco by their students4 ,for the 
same reasons the laws of many states    
very properly forbid the sale to boys of
 tobacco1 and especially of cigarettes4 
#cjg4 ,effect of ,tobacco upon          
,character4 ,nor does tobacco spare the 
morals4 ,the tobacco-user is apt to     
manifest a selfish disregard of the     

courtesies due to others4 ,he brings to 
the presence of others a repulsive      
breath1 and clothing tainted with       
offensive odors4 ,he poisons the        
atmosphere that others must inhale1 and 
disputes their rights to breathe a pure1
 untainted air4 ,the free use of tobacco
 by young people dulls the acuteness of 
the moral senses1 often leads to        
prevarication and deceit in the         
indulgence1 and is apt to draw one      
downward to bad associates4 ,it is not  
the speed but the direction that tells  
on the future character and destiny of  
young men4    ,additional ,experiments4 
,experiment #acb4 ,to illustrate the    
cooperation of certain parts of   the   
body4 ,tickle the inside of the nose    
with a feather4 ,this does not          
interfere with the muscles of breathing1
 but they come to the help of   the     
irritated part1 and provoke sneezing to 
clear and protect the nose4             
,experiment #acc4 ,pretend to aim a blow
 at a person's eye4 ,even if he   is    

warned beforehand1 the lids will close  
in spite of his effort to   prevent     
them4    ,experiment #acd4 ,to          
illustrate how sensations are referred  
to the   ends of the nerves4 ,strike the
 elbow end of the ulna against anything 
hard 7commonly called hitting the crazy 
bone7 where the ulna nerve is   exposed1
 and the little finger and the ring     
finger will tingle and   become numb4   
,experiment #ace4 ,to show that every   
nerve is independent of any   other4    
,press two fingers closely together4    
,let the point of the finest   needle be
 carried ever so lightly across from one
 finger to another1 and   we can easily 
tell just when the needle leaves one    
finger and touches   the other4         
,experiment #acf4 ,to paralyze a nerve  
temporarily4 ,throw one arm   over the  
sharp edge of a chair-back1 bringing the
 inner edge of the   biceps directly    
over the edge of the chair4 ,press deep 
and hard for a   few minutes4 ,the deep 
pressure on the nerve of the arm will   

put the arm   asleep1 causing numbness  
and tingling4 ,the leg and foot often   
get   asleep by deep pressure on the    
nerves of the thigh4    ,experiment     
#acg4 ,press the ulnar nerve at the     
elbow1 the prickling   sensation is     
referred to the skin on the ulnar side  
of the hand4    ,experiment #ach4 ,dip  
the elbow in ice-cold water2 at first   
one feels   the sensation of cold1 owing
 to the effect on the cutaneous         
nerve-endings4 ,afterwards1 when the    
trunk of the ulnar nerve is   affected1 
pain is felt in the skin of the ulnar   
side of the hand1 where   the nerve     
terminates4     ,chapter ,,xi4  ,the    
,special ,senses4    #cjh4 ,the ,special
 ,senses4 ,in man certain special organs
 are set apart the particular duty of   
which is to give information of the     
nature of the relations which he        
sustains to the great world of things1  
and of which he is but a mere speck4    
,the special senses are the avenues by  
which we obtain this information as to  

our bodily condition1 the world around  
us1 and the manner in which it affects  
us4  ,animals high in the scale are     
affected in so many different ways1 and 
by so many agencies1 that a subdivision 
of labor becomes necessary that the     
sense avenues may be rigidly guarded4   
,one person alone may be a sufficient   
watch on the deck of a sloop1 but an    
ocean steamer needs a score or more on  
guard1 each with his special duty and at
 his own post4 ,or the senses are like a
 series of disciplined picket-guards1   
along the outposts of the mind1 to take 
note of events1 and to report to        
headquarters any information which may  
be within the range of their duty4      
,thus it is that we are provided with a 
number of special senses1 by means of   
which information is supplied regarding 
outward forces and objects4 ,these are  
touch1 taste1 smell1 seeing1 and        
hearing1 to which may be added the      
muscular sense and a sense of           
temperature4   #cji4 ,general           

,sensations4 ,the body1 as we have      
learned1 is made up of a great number of
 complicated organs1 each doing its own 
part of the general work required for   
the life and vigor of the human         
organism4 ,these organs should all work 
in harmony for the good of the whole4   
,we must have some means of knowing     
whether this harmony is maintained1 and 
of receiving timely warning if any organ
 fails to do its particular duty4  ,such
 information is supplied by the common  
or general sensations4 ,thus we have a  
feeling of hunger or thirst indicating  
the need of food1 and a feeling of      
discomfort when imperfectly clad1       
informing us of the need of more        
clothing4  ,to these may be added the   
sensation of pain1 tickling1 itching1   
and so on1 the needs of which arise from
 the complicated structure of the human 
body4 ,the great majority of sensations 
result from some stimulus or outward    
agency2 and yet some sensations1 such as
 those of faintness1 restlessness1 and  

fatigue seem to spring up within us in  
some mysterious way1 without any obvious
 cause4  #caj4 ,essentials of a ,sense  
,organ4 ,certain essentials are         
necessary for a sensation4 ,first1 there
 is a special structure adapted to a    
particular kind of influence4 ,thus the 
ear is formed specially for being       
stimulated by the waves of sound1 while 
the eye is not influenced by sound1 but 
responds to the action of light4 ,these 
special structures are called terminal  
organs4  ,again1 a nerve proceeds from  
the special structure1 which is in      
direct communication with nerve cells in
 the brain at the region of             
consciousness4 ,this last point is      
important to remember1 for if on some   
account the impression is arrested in   
the connecting nerve1 no sensation will 
result4 ,thus a man whose spine has been
 injured may not feel a severe pinch on 
either leg4 ,the impression may be quite
 sufficient to stimulate a nerve center 
in a healthy cord1 so as to produce a   

marked reflex act1 but he has no        
sensation1 because the injury has       
prevented the impression from being     
carried up the cord to the higher       
centers in the brain4  #caa4 ,the       
,condition of ,sensation4 ,it is thus   
evident that while an impression may be 
made upon a terminal organ1 it cannot   
strictly be called a sensation until the
 person becomes conscious of it4 ,the   
consciousness of an impression is1      
therefore1 the essential element of a   
sensation4  ,it follows that sensation  
may be prevented in various ways4 ,in   
the sense of sight1 for example1 one    
person may be blind because the terminal
 organ1 or eye1 is defective or         
diseased4 ,another may have perfect eyes
 and yet have no sight1 because a tumor 
presses on the nerve between the eye and
 the brain4 ,in this case1 the          
impression fails because of the break in
 the communication4 ,once more1 the eye 
may be perfect and the nerve connection 
unbroken1 and yet the person cannot see1

 because the center in the brain itself 
is injured from disease or accident1 and
 cannot receive the impression4   #cab4 
,the ,functions of the ,brain ,center in
 the ,perception of an ,impression4     
,sensation is really the result of a    
change which occurs in a nerve center in
 the brain1 and yet we refer impressions
 to the various terminal organs4 ,thus1 
when the skin is pinched1 the sensation 
is referred to the skin1 although the   
perception is in the brain4 ,we may     
think it is the eyes that see objects2  
in reality1 it is only the brain that   
takes note of them4  ,this is largely   
the result of education and habit4 ,from
 a blow on the head one sees flashes of 
light as vividly as if torches actually 
dance before the eyes4 ,impressions have
 reached the seeing-center in the brain 
from irritation of the optic nerve1     
producing the same effect as real lights
 would cause4 ,in this case1 however1   
knowing the cause of the colors1 the    
person is able to correct the erroneous 

conclusion4  ,as a result of a depraved 
condition of blood1 the seeing-center   
itself may be unduly stimulated1 and a  
person may see objects which appear     
real4 ,thus in an attack of delirium    
tremens1 the victim of alcoholic        
poisoning sees horrible and fantastic   
creatures4 ,the diseased brain refers   
them as usual to the external world2    
hence they appear real4 ,as the         
sufferer's judgment is warped by the    
alcoholic liquor1 he cannot correct the 
impressions1 and is therefore deceived  
by them4   #cac4 ,organs of ,special    
,sense4 ,the organs of special sense1   
the means by which we are brought into  
relation with surrounding objects1 are  
usually classed as five in number4 ,they
 are sometimes fancifully called the    
five gateways of knowledge--the skin1   
the organ of touch2 the tongue1 of      
taste2 the nose1 of smell2 the eye1 of  
sight2 and the ear1 of hearing4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4--,magnified  
,view of a ,papilla of the ,skin1 with a

 ,touch ,corpuscle4  #cad4 ,the ,organ  
of ,touch4 ,the organ of touch1 or      
tactile sensibility1 is the most widely 
extended of all the special senses1 and 
perhaps the simplest4 ,it is certainly  
the most precise and certain in its     
results4 ,it is this sense to which we  
instinctively appeal to escape from the 
illusions into which the other senses   
may mislead us4 ,it has its seat in the 
skin all over the body1 and in the      
mucous membrane of the nostrils4 ,all   
parts of the body1 however1 do not have 
this sense in an equal degree4  ,in     
,chapter ,,ix4 we learned that the      
superficial layers of the skin covers   
and dips in between the papill4 ,we also
 learned that these papill are richly   
provided with blood-vessels and sensory 
nerve fibers 7sec4 #bcd74 ,now these    
nerve fibers terminate in a peculiar way
 in those parts of the body which are   
endowed with a very delicate sense of   
touch4 ,in every papilla are oval-shaped
 bodies about #a_/cjj of an inch long1  

around which the nerve fibers wind1 and 
which they finally enter4 ,these are    
called touch-bodies1 or tactile         
corpuscles1 and are found in great      
numbers on the feet and toes1 and more  
scantily in other places1 as on the     
edges of the eyelids4  ,again1 many of  
the nerve fibers terminate in           
corpuscles1 the largest about #a_/bj of 
an inch long1 called ,pacinian          
corpuscles4 ,these are most numerous in 
the palm of the hand and the sole of the
 foot4 ,in the papill of the red border 
of the lips the nerves end in capsules  
which enclose one or more fibers1 and   
are called end-bulbs4  ,the great       
majority of the nerve fibers which      
supply the skin do not end in such      
well-defined organs4 ,they oftener      
divide into exceedingly delicate        
filaments1 the terminations of which are
 traced with the greatest difficulty4   
#cae4 ,the ,sense of ,touch4 ,touch is a
 sensation of contact referred to the   
surface of the body4 ,it includes three 

things1--the sense of contact1 the sense
 of pressure1 and the sense of heat and 
cold4  ,the sense of contact is the most
 important element in touch4 ,by it we  
learn of the form1 size1 and other      
properties of objects1 as their         
smoothness and hardness4 ,as we all     
know1 the sense of touch varies in      
different parts of the skin4 ,it is most
 acute where the outer skin is thinnest4
 ,the tips of the fingers1 the edges of 
the lips1 and the tip of the tongue are 
the most sensitive parts4  ,even the    
nails1 the teeth1 and the hair have the 
sense of touch in a slight degree4 ,when
 the scarf skin is removed1 the part is 
not more sensitive to sense of contact4 
,in fact1 direct contact with the       
unprotected true skin occasions pain1   
which effectually masks the feeling of  
touch4 ,the sense of touch is capable of
 education1 and is generally developed  
to an extraordinary degree in persons   
who are deprived of some other special  
sense1 as sight or hearing4 ,we read of 

the famous blind sculptor who was said  
to model excellent likenesses1 guided   
entirely by the sense of touch4 ,an     
eminent authority on botany was a blind 
man1 able to distinguish rare plants by 
the fingers1 and by the tip of the      
tongue4 ,the blind learn to read with   
facility by passing their fingers over  
raised letters of a coarse type4 ,it is 
impossible to contemplate1 even for a   
moment1 the prominence assigned to the  
sense of touch in the physical organism1
 without being impressed with the       
manifestations of design--the work of an
 all-wise ,creator4  #caf4 ,muscular    
,sense2 ,sense of ,temperature2 ,pain4  
,when a heavy object is laid upon       
certain parts of the body1 it produces a
 sensation of pressure4 ,by it we are   
enabled to estimate differences of      
weight4 ,if an attempt be made to raise 
this object1 it offers resistance which 
the muscles must overcome4 ,this is     
known as the muscular sense4 ,it depends
 on sensory nerves originating in the   

muscles and carrying impressions from   
them to the nerve centers4  ,the skin   
also judges1 to a certain extent1 of    
heat and cold4 ,these sensations can be 
felt only by the skin4 ,direct          
irritation of a nerve does not give rise
 to them4 ,thus1 the exposed pulp of a  
diseased tooth1 when irritated by cold  
fluids1 gives rise to pain1 and not to a
 sensation of temperature4 ,various     
portions of the body have different     
degrees of sensibility in this respect4 
,the hand will bear a degree of heat    
which would cause pain to some other    
parts of the body4 ,then1 again1 the    
sensibility of the outer skin seems to  
affect the sensibility to heat1 for     
parts with a thin skin can bear less    
heat than portions with a thick cuticle4
    ,experiment #aci4 ,to illustrate how
 the sense of touch is a matter   of    
habit or education4 ,shut both eyes1 and
 let a friend run the tips of   your    
fingers first lightly over a hard plane 
surface2 then press hard1   then lightly

 again1 and the surface will seem to be 
concave4    ,experiment #adj4 ,cross the
 middle over the index finger1 roll a   
small marble between the fingers2 one   
has a distinct impression of two        
marbles4 ,cross the fingers in the same 
way1 and rub them against the   point of
 the nose4 ,a similar illusion is       
experienced4    ,experiment #ada4 ,to   
test the sense of locality4 ,ask a      
person to   shut his eyes1 touch some   
part of his body lightly with the point 
of a   pin1 and ask him to indicate the 
part touched4  ,as to the general       
temperature1 this sense is relative and 
is much modified by habit1 for what is  
cold to an inhabitant of the torrid zone
 would be warm to one accustomed to a   
very cold climate4  ,pain is an         
excessive stimulation of the sensory    
nerves1 and in it all finer sensations  
are lost4 ,thus1 when a piece of hot    
iron burns the hand1 the sensation is   
the same as when the iron is very cold1 
and extreme cold feels like intense     

heat4  #cag4 ,the ,organ of ,taste4 ,the
 sense of taste is located chiefly in   
the tongue1 but may also be referred    
even to the regions of the fauces4      
,taste1 like touch1 consists in a       
particular mode of nerve termination4   
,the tongue is a muscular organ covered 
with mucous membrane1 and is richly     
supplied with blood-vessels and nerves4 
,by its complicated movements it is an  
important factor in chewing1 in         
swallowing1 and in articulate speech4   
,the surface of the tongue is covered   
with irregular projections1 called      
papill1--fine hair-like processes1 about
 #a_/ab of an inch high4 ,interspersed  
with these are the fungiform papill4    
,these are shaped something like a      
mushroom1 and may often be detected by  
their bright red points when the rest of
 the tongue is coated4  ,towards the    
root of the tongue is another kind of   
papill1 the circumvallate1 eight to     
fifteen in number1 arranged in the form 
of the letter ,v1 with the apex directed

 backwards4 ,these are so called because
 they consist of a fungiform papilla    
surrounded by a fold of mucous membrane1
 presenting the appearance of being     
walled around4  ,in many of the         
fungiform and most of the circumvallate 
papill are peculiar structures called   
taste buds or taste goblets4 ,these     
exist in great numbers1 and are believed
 to be connected with nerve fibers4     
,these taste buds are readily excited by
 savory substances1 and transmit the    
impression along the connected nerve4   
,the tongue is supplied with sensory    
fibers by branches from the fifth and   
eighth pairs of cranial nerves4 ,the    
former confers taste on the front part  
of the tongue1 and the latter on the    
back part4 ,branches of the latter also 
pass to the soft palate and neighboring 
parts and confer taste on them4 ,the    
motor nerve of the tongue is the ninth  
pair1 the hypoglossal4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #abe4--,the ,tongue4    ,a1       
epiglottis2   ,b1 glands at the base of 

tongue2   ,c1 tonsil2   ,d1 median      
circumvallate papilla1   ,e1            
circumvallate papill2   ,f1 filiform    
papill2   ,h1 furrows on border of the  
tongue2   ,k1 fungiform papill4   #cah4 
,the ,sense of ,taste4 ,the sense of    
taste is excited by stimulation of the  
mucous membrane of the tongue and of the
 palate1 affecting the ends of the nerve
 fibers4 ,taste is most acute in or near
 the circumvallate papill4 ,the middle  
of the tongue is scarcely sensitive to  
taste1 while the edges and the tip are1 
as a rule1 highly sensitive4  ,certain  
conditions are necessary that the sense 
of taste may be exercised4 ,first1 the  
substance to be tasted must be in       
solution1 or be soluble in the fluids of
 the mouth4 ,insoluble substances are   
tasteless4 ,if we touch our tongue to a 
piece of rock crystal1 there is a       
sensation of contact or cold1 but no    
sense of taste4 ,on the other hand1 when
 we bring the tongue in contact with a  
piece of rock salt1 we experience the   

sensations of contact1 coolness1 and    
saline taste4  ,again1 the mucous       
membrane of the mouth must be moist4    
,when the mouth is dry1 and receives    
substances not already in solution1     
there is no saliva ready to dissolve    
them2 hence1 they are tasteless4 ,this  
absence of taste is common with the     
parched mouth during a fever4  ,the     
tongue assists in bringing the food in  
contact with the nerves1 by pressing it 
against the roof of the mouth and the   
soft palate1 and thus is produced the   
fullest sense of taste4  #cai4          
,physiological ,conditions of ,taste4   
,the tongue is the seat of sensations   
which are quite unlike each other4      
,thus1 besides the sense of taste1 there
 is the sensation of touch1 pressure1   
heat and cold1 burning or acrid         
feelings1 and those produced by the     
application of the tongue to an         
interrupted electric current4 ,these are
 distinct sensations1 due to some       
chemical action excited probably in the 

touch cells1 although the true tastes   
may be excited by causes not strictly   
chemical4 ,thus a smart tap on the      
tongue may excite the sensation of      
taste4  ,in the majority of persons the 
back of the tongue is most sensitive to 
bitters1 and the tip to sweets4 ,saline 
matters are perceived most distinctly at
 the tip1 and acid substances at the    
sides4 ,the nerves of taste are         
sensitive in an extraordinary degree to 
some articles of food and certain drugs4
 ,for example1 the taste of the various 
preparations of quinine1 peppermint1 and
 wild cherry is got rid of with         
difficulty4  ,like the other special    
senses1 that of taste may become        
fatigued4 ,the repeated tasting of one  
substance rapidly deadens the           
sensibility1 probably by                
over-stimulation4 ,some savors so       
impress the nerves of taste that others 
fail to make any impression4 ,this      
principle is used to make disagreeable  
medicine somewhat tasteless4 ,thus a few

 cloves1 or grains of coffee1 or a bit  
of pepper1 eaten before a dose of castor
 oil1 renders it less nauseous4  ,flavor
 is something more than taste4 ,it is in
 reality a mixed sensation1 in which    
smell and taste are both concerned1 as  
is shown by the common observation that 
one suffering from a cold in the head1  
which blunts his sense of smell1 loses  
the proper flavor of his food4 ,so if a 
person be blindfolded1 and the nose     
pinched1 he will be unable to           
distinguish between an apple and an     
onion1 if one be rubbed on the tongue   
after the other4 ,as soon as the        
nostrils are opened the difference is at
 once perceived4    ,experiment #adb4   
,put a drop of vinegar on a friend's    
tongue1 or on   your own4 ,notice how   
the papill of the tongue start up4      
,experiment #adc4 ,rub different parts  
of the tongue with the pointed   end of 
a piece of salt or gum-aloes1 to show   
that the back of the   tongue is most   
sensitive to salt and bitter substances4

    ,experiment #add4 ,repeat the same  
with some sweet or sour substances1   to
 show that the edges of the tongue are  
the most sensitive to these             
substances4    ,experiment #ade4 ,we    
often fail to distinguish between the   
sense of   taste and that of smell4     
,chew some pure1 roasted coffee1 and it 
seems to   have a distinct taste4 ,pinch
 the nose hard1 and there is little     
taste4   ,coffee has a powerful odor1   
but only a feeble taste4 ,the same is   
true of   garlic1 onions1 and various   
spices4    ,experiment #adf4 ,light     
helps the sense of taste4 ,shut the     
eyes1 and   palatable foods taste       
insipid4 ,pinch the nose1 close the     
eyes1 and see   how palatable one half  
of a teaspoonful of cod-liver oil       
becomes4    ,experiment #adg4 ,close the
 nostrils1 shut the eyes1 and attempt to
   distinguish by taste alone between a 
slice of an apple and one of a   potato4
  #cbj4 ,modifications of the ,sense of 
,taste4 ,taste is modified to a great   

extent by habit1 education1 and other   
circumstances4 ,articles of food that   
are unpleasant in early life often      
become agreeable in later years4 ,there 
is occasionally a craving1 especially   
with people of a peculiar nervous       
organization1 for certain unnatural     
articles 7as chalk and laundry starch7  
which are eaten without the least       
repugnance4 ,again1 the most savory     
dishes may excite disgust1 while the    
simplest articles may have a delicious  
flavor to one long deprived of them4    
,the taste for certain articles is      
certainly acquired4 ,this is often true 
of raw tomatoes1 olives1 and especially 
of tobacco4  ,the organs of taste and   
smell may be regarded as necessary      
accessories of the general apparatus of 
nutrition1 and are1 therefore1 more or  
less essential to the maintenance of    
animal life4 ,while taste and smell are 
generally maintained until the close of 
life1 sight and hearing are often       
impaired by time1 and may be altogether 

destroyed1 the other vital functions    
remaining unimpaired4  #cba4 ,effect of 
,tobacco and ,alcohol upon ,taste4 ,it  
would be remarkable if tobacco should   
fail to injure the sense of taste4 ,the 
effect produced upon the tender papill  
of the tongue by the nicotine-loaded    
juices and the acrid smoke tends to     
impair the delicate sensibility of the  
entire surface4 ,the keen appreciation  
of fine flavors is destroyed4 ,the once 
clear and enjoyable tastes of simple    
objects become dull and vapid2 thus     
highly spiced and seasoned articles of  
food are in demand1 and then follows    
continued indigestion1 with all its     
suffering4  ,again1 the burning1 almost 
caustic effect of the stronger alcoholic
 drinks1 and the acrid pungency of      
tobacco smoke1 are disastrous to the    
finer perceptions of both taste and     
odors4   #cbb4 ,smell4 ,the sense of    
smell is lodged in the delicate membrane
 which lines the nasal cavities4 ,the   
floor1 sides1 and roof of these cavities

 are formed by certain bones of the     
cranium and the face4 ,man1 in common   
with all air-breathing animals1 has two 
nasal cavities4 ,they communicate with  
the outer air by two nostrils opening in
 front1 while two other passages open   
into the pharynx behind4  ,to increase  
the area of the air passages1 the two   
light1 spongy turbinated bones1 one on  
each side1 form narrow1 winding         
channels4 ,the mucous membrane1 with the
 branches of the olfactory nerve1 lines 
the dividing wall and the inner surfaces
 of these winding passages4 ,below all  
these bones the lower turbinated bones  
may be said to divide the olfactory     
chamber above from the ordinary air     
passages4  ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#abf4--;,distribution of ,nerves over   
the ,interior of the ,nostrils4 7,outer 
wall47    ,a1 branches of the nerves of 
smell--olfactory nerve1 or ganglion2    
,b1 nerves of common sensation to the   
nostril2   ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 nerves to the1   
palate springing from a ganglion at ,c2 

,h1 vidian nerve1 from which branches   
,d1 ,i1 and ,j spring to be distributed 
to the nostrils4   ,the nerves which    
supply the nasal mucous membrane are    
derived from the branches of the fifth  
and the first pair of cranial           
nerves1--the olfactory4 ,the latter1    
however1 are the nerves of smell proper1
 and are spread out in a kind of thick  
brush of minute nerve filaments4 ,it is 
in the mucous membrane of the uppermost 
part of the cavity of the nostril that  
the nerve endings of smell proper       
reside4 ,the other nerves which supply  
the nostrils are those of common        
sensation 7sec4 #bga74   #cbc4 ,the     
,sense of ,smell4 ,the sense of smell is
 excited by the contact of odorous      
particles contained in the air1 with the
 fibers of the olfactory nerves1 which  
are distributed over the delicate       
surface of the upper parts of the nasal 
cavities4 ,in the lower parts are the   
endings of nerves of ordinary sensation4
 ,these latter nerves may be irritated  

by some substance like ammonia1         
resulting in a powerfully pungent       
sensation4 ,this is not a true sensation
 of smell1 but merely an irritation of a
 nerve of general sensation4  ,in       
ordinary quiet breathing1 the air simply
 flows along the lower nasal passages   
into the pharynx1 scarcely entering the 
olfactory chamber at all4 ,this is the  
reason why1 when we wish to perceive a  
faint odor1 we sniff up the air sharply4
 ,by so doing1 the air which is forcibly
 drawn into the nostrils passes up even 
into the higher olfactory chamber1 where
 some of the floating particles of the  
odorous material come into contact with 
the nerves of smell4  ,one of the most  
essential conditions of the sense of    
smell is that the nasal passages be kept
 well bathed in the fluid secreted by   
the lining membrane4 ,at the beginning  
of a cold in the head1 this membrane    
becomes dry and swollen1 thus preventing
 the entrance of air into the upper     
chamber1 deadening the sensibility of   

the nerves1 and thus the sense of smell 
is greatly diminished4  ,the delicacy of
 the sense of smell varies greatly in   
different individuals and in different  
animals4 ,it is generally more acute in 
savage races4 ,it is highly developed in
 both the carnivora and the herbivora4  
,many animals are more highly endowed   
with this sense than is man4 ,the dog1  
for example1 appears to depend on the   
sense of smell almost as much as on     
sight4 ,it is well known1 also1 that    
fishes have a sense of smell4 ,fragments
 of bait thrown into the water soon     
attract them to a fishing ground1 and at
 depths which little or no light can    
penetrate4 ,deer1 wild horses1 and      
antelopes probably surpass all other    
animals in having a vivid sense of      
smell4  ,smell has been defined as taste
 at a distance1 and it is obvious that  
these two senses not only form a natural
 group1 but are clearly associated in   
their physical action1 especially in    
connection with the perception of the   

flavor of food4 ,the sense of odor gives
 us information as to the quality of    
food and drink1 and more especially as  
to the quality of the air we breathe4   
,taste is at the gateway of the         
alimentary canal1 while smell acts as   
the sentinel of the respiratory tract4  
,just as taste and flavor influence     
nutrition by affecting the digestive    
process1 so the agreeable odors about   
us1 even those of the perfumes1 play an 
important part in the economy of life4  
#cbd4 ,the ,sense of ,sight4 ,the sight 
is well regarded as the highest and the 
most perfect of all our senses4 ,it     
plays so common and so beneficent a part
 in the animal economy that we scarcely 
appreciate this marvelous gift4 ,sight  
is essential not only to the simplest   
matters of daily comfort and necessity1 
but is also of prime importance in the  
culture of the mind and in the higher   
forms of pleasure4 ,it opens to us the  
widest and the most varied range of     
observation and enjoyment4 ,the         

pleasures and advantages it affords1    
directly and indirectly1 have neither   
cessation nor bounds4  ,apart from its  
uses1 the eye itself is an interesting  
and instructive object of study4 ,it    
presents beyond comparison the most     
beautiful example of design and artistic
 workmanship to be found in the bodily  
structure4 ,it is the watchful sentinel 
and investigator of the external world4 
,unlike the senses of taste and smell we
 seem1 by the sense of vision1 to become
 aware of the existence of objects which
 are entirely apart from us1 and which  
have no direct or material link         
connecting them with our bodies4 ,and   
yet we are told that in vision the eye  
is affected by something which is as    
material as any substance we taste or   
smell4      ,,note4 ,the higher         
intelligence of man is intimately       
associated with     the perfection of   
the eye4 ,crystalline in its            
transparency1 sensitive     in          
receptivity1 delicate in its            

adjustments1 quick in its motions1 the  
eye is a fitting servant for the eager  
soul1 and1 at times1 the truest         
interpreter between man and man of the  
spirit's inmost workings4 ,the          
rainbow's vivid hues and the pallor of  
the lily1 the fair creations of     art 
and the glance of mutual affection1 all 
are pictured in its     translucent     
depths1 and transformed and glorified by
 the mind within4     ,banish vision1   
and the material universe shrinks for us
 to that which     we may touch2 sight  
alone sets us free to pierce the        
limitless abyss     of                  
space4--,m',kendrick and ,snodgrass's   
,physiology of the ,senses4  ,physicists
 tell us that this material1 known as   
the luminiferous ether1 permeates the   
universe1 and by its vibrations         
transmits movements which affect the    
eye1 giving rise to the sensation of    
light1 and the perception of even the   
most distant objects4 ,our eyes are so  
constructed as to respond to the        

vibrations of this medium for the       
transmission of light4   #cbe4 ,the     
,eye4 ,the eye1 the outer instrument of 
vision1 is a most beautiful and         
ingenious machine4 ,all its parts are   
arranged with such a delicate adjustment
 to one another1 and such an exquisite  
adaptation of every part to the great   
object of the whole1 that the eye is    
properly regarded as one of the wonders 
of nature4  ,the eyeball is nearly      
spherical in shape1 but is slightly     
elongated from before backwards4 ,the   
front part is clear and transparent1 and
 bulges somewhat prominently to allow   
the entrance of the rays of light4 ,the 
eye rests in a bowl-shaped socket1      
called the orbit1 formed by parts of    
various bones of the head and face4 ,the
 margins of this cavity are formed of   
strong bone which can withstand heavy   
blows4 ,the socket is padded with loose1
 fatty tissue1 and certain membranes1   
which serve as a soft and yielding bed  
in which the eyeball can rest and move  

without injury4 ,in a severe sickness   
this fatty tissue is absorbed1 and this 
fact explains the sunken appearance of  
the eyes4  ,the orbit is pierced through
 its posterior surface by an opening    
through which the nerve of sight1 the   
optic1 passes to the eyeball4 ,we may   
think of the optic nerve holding the    
eyeball much as the stem holds the      
apple4 ,it is the function of this most 
important nerve to transmit retinal     
impressions to the seat of consciousness
 in the brain1 where they are           
interpreted4  ,the eye is bathed with a 
watery fluid1 and protected by the      
eyelids and the eyebrows2 it is moved in
 various directions1 by muscles1 all of 
which will soon be described4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4--,section of 
the ,human ,eye4  #cbf4 ,the ,coats of  
the ,eyeball4 ,the eyeball proper is    
elastic but firm1 and is composed of    
three coats1 or layers1 each of which   
performs important functions4 ,these    
coats are the sclerotic1 the choroid1   

and the retina4  ,the sclerotic coat is 
the outside layer and enclosing membrane
 of the eyeball4 ,it is a tough1 fibrous
 coat for the protection and maintenance
 of the shape of the eye4 ,it is white  
and glistening in appearance1 and is in 
part visible1 to which the phrase1 the  
white of the eye1 is applied4 ,to this  
coat1 which serves as a kind of         
framework for the eye1 are attached the 
muscles which move the eyeball4 ,in     
front of the globe1 the sclerotic passes
 into a transparent circular portion    
forming a window through which one can  
see into the interior4 ,this is the     
cornea4  ,the cornea1 a clear1          
transparent1 circular disk1 fits into   
the sclerotic1 somewhat as the crystal  
fits into the metallic case of a watch1 
forming a covering for its dial4 ,it    
projects from the general contour of the
 eyeball1 not unlike a rounded          
bay-window1 and is often spoken of as   
the window of the eye4  ,lining the     
inner surface of the sclerotic is the   

second coat1 the choroid4 ,it is dark in
 color and fragile in structure1 and is 
made up almost entirely of blood-vessels
 and nerves4 ,as the choroid approaches 
the front part of the eyeball1 its parts
 become folded upon themselves into a   
series of ridges1 called ciliary        
processes4 ,these folds gradually become
 larger1 and at last merge into the     
ciliary or accommodation muscle of the  
eye4 ,the circular space thus left in   
front by the termination of the choroid 
is occupied by the iris1 a thin1        
circular curtain1 suspended in the      
aqueous humor behind the cornea and in  
front of the crystalline lens4 ,in its  
center is a round opening for the       
admission of light4  ,this is the pupil1
 which appears as if it were a black    
spot4 ,the back of the iris is lined    
with dark pigment1 and as the coloring  
matter is more or less abundant1 we may 
have a variety of colors4 ,this pigment 
layer and that of the choroid and retina
 absorb the light entering the eye1 so  

that little is reflected4  ,the pupil   
appears black1 just as the open doorway 
to a dark closet seems black4 ,the      
margin of the iris is firmly connected  
with the eyeball all round1 at the      
junction of the sclerotic and the       
cornea4  #cbg4 ,the ,retina4 ,the third 
and innermost coat of the eyeball is the
 retina4 ,this is the perceptive coat1  
without which it would be impossible to 
see1 and upon which the images of       
external objects are received4 ,it lines
 nearly the whole of the inner surface  
of the posterior chamber1 resting on the
 inner surface of the choroid4 ,it is   
with the retina1 therefore1 that the    
vitreous humor is in contact4  ,the     
retina is a very thin1 delicate         
membrane4 ,although very thin1 it is    
made up of ten distinct layers1 and is  
so complicated in structure that not    
even a general description will be      
attempted in this book4 ,it does not    
extend quite to the front limits of the 
posterior chamber1 but stops short in a 

scalloped border1 a little behind the   
ciliary processes4 ,this is the nerve   
coat of the eye1 and forms the terminal 
organ of vision4 ,it is really an       
expansion of the ultimate fibers of the 
optic nerve1 by means of which          
impressions are sent to the brain4  ,the
 retina contains curious structures     
which can be seen only with the aid of  
the microscope4 ,for instance1 a layer  
near the choroid is made up of nerve    
cells arranged in innumerable cylinders 
called rods and cones1 and packed       
together not unlike the seeds of a      
sunflower4 ,these rods and cones are to 
be regarded as the peculiar modes of    
termination of the nerve filaments of   
the eye1 just as the taste buds are the 
modes of termination of the nerve of    
taste in the tongue1 and just as the    
touch corpuscles are the terminations of
 the nerves in the skin4    ,experiment 
#adh4 ,close one eye and look steadily  
at the small a in   the figure below4   
,the other letters will also be visible 

at the same   time4 ,if now the page be 
brought slowly nearer to the eye while  
the eye   is kept steadily looking at   
the small a1 the large ,a will disappear
 at a   certain point1 reappearing when 
the book is brought still nearer4       
,illustration3 a o,ax    ,on the        
reappearance of the ,a it will be noted 
that it comes into view   from the inner
 side1 the x being seen before it4 ,if  
now we move the book   towards its      
original place1 the ,a will again       
disappear1 coming again   into view from
 the outer side when the o is seen      
before it4  #cbh4 ,inner ,structure of  
the ,eye4 ,let us imagine an eyeball    
divided through the middle from above   
downwards4 ,let us now start in front   
and observe its parts 7,fig4 #abg74 ,we 
come first to the cornea1 which has just
 been described4 ,the iris forms a sort 
of vertical partition1 dividing the     
cavity of the eyeball into two chambers4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4--;,diagram 
illustrating the ,manner in which the   

,image of an ,object is brought to a    
,focus on the ,retina4  ,the anterior   
chamber occupies the space between the  
cornea and the iris1 and is filled with 
a thin1 watery fluid called the aqueous 
humor4  ,the portion behind the iris    
forms the posterior chamber1 and        
contains the crystalline lens and a     
transparent1 jelly-like fluid1 the      
vitreous humor4 ,this fluid is never    
renewed1 and its loss is popularly      
described by the phrase1 when the eye   
runs out4    ,experiment #adi4 ,the     
retina is not sensitive where the optic 
nerve   enters the eyeball4 ,this is    
called the blind spot4 ,put two         
ink-bottles   about two feet apart1 on a
 table covered with white paper4 ,close 
the   left eye1 and fix the right       
steadily on the left-hand inkstand1     
gradually varying the distance from the 
eye to the ink-bottle4 ,at a   certain  
distance the right-hand bottle will     
disappear2 but nearer or   farther than 
that1 it will be plainly seen4  ,the    

vitreous humor fills about four-fifths  
of the eyeball and prevents it from     
falling into a shapeless mass4 ,it also 
serves to hold the choroid and the      
retina in position1 and to maintain the 
proper relations of the inner structures
 of the eye4  ,the iris consists of a   
framework of connective tissue1 the     
surface of which is lined by cells      
containing pigment1 which gives color to
 the eye4  ,bundles of involuntary      
muscular fibers are found in the        
substance of the iris4 ,some are        
arranged in a ring round the margin of  
the pupil2 others radiate from it like  
the spokes of a wheel4 ,when the        
circular fibers contract1 the pupil is  
made smaller1 but if these fibers relax1
 the radiating fibers cause the pupil to
 dilate more or less widely4  #cbi4 ,the
 ,crystalline ,lens4 ,just behind the   
pupil and close to the iris is a        
semi-solid1 double-convex body1 called  
the crystalline lens4 ,it is shaped like
 a magnifying glass1 convex on each     

side1 but with the posterior surface    
more convex than the anterior4 ,in      
health it is perfectly clear and        
transparent1 and highly elastic4 ,when  
the lens becomes opaque1 from change in 
old age1 or from ulcers or wounds1 we   
have the disease known as cataract4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4--;,diagram   
showing the ,change in the ,lens during 
,accommodation4  ,on the right the lens 
is arranged for distant vision1 the     
ciliary muscle is relaxed and the       
ligament ,d is tense1 so flattening by  
its compression the front of the lens   
,c2 on the left the muscle ,a is acting1
 and this relaxes the ligament and      
allows the lens ,b to become more       
convex1 and so fitted for the vision of 
near objects4  ,the lens is not placed  
loosely in the eyeball1 but is enclosed 
in a transparent and elastic capsule    
suspended throughout its circumference  
by a ligament called the suspensory     
ligament4 ,this ligament not only       
retains the lens in place1 but is       

capable of altering its shape4 ,in      
ordinary conditions of the eye1 this    
ligament is kept tense so that the front
 part of the lens is flattened somewhat 
by the pressure on it4  ,all around the 
edge1 where the cornea1 sclerotic1 and  
choroid meet1 is a ring of involuntary  
muscular fibers1 forming the ciliary    
muscle4 ,when these fibers contract1    
they draw forwards the attachment of the
 suspensory ligament of the lens1 the   
pressure of which on the lens is        
consequently diminished4 ,the elasticity
 of the lens causes it at once to bulge 
forwards1 and it becomes more convex4   
,the ciliary muscle is thus known as the
 muscle of accommodation1 because it has
 the power to accommodate the eye to    
near and distant objects4 ,in this      
respect it corresponds in its use to the
 adjusting screw in the opera-glass and 
the microscope4   #ccj4 ,the ,eye       
,compared to the ,photographic ,camera4 
,as an optical instrument1 the eye may  
be aptly compared1 in many particulars1 

to the photographic camera4 ,the latter1
 of course1 is much simpler in          
structure4 ,the eyelid forms the cap1   
which being removed1 the light from the 
object streams through the eye and      
passes across the dark chamber to the   
retina behind1 which corresponds to the 
sensitive plate of the camera4 ,the     
transparent structures through which the
 rays of light pass represent the       
lenses4 ,to prevent any reflected light 
from striking the plate and interfering 
with the sharpness of the picture1 the  
interior of the photographic camera box 
is darkened4 ,the pigmented layer of the
 choroid coat represents this blackened 
lining4  ,in the camera1 the artist uses
 a thumb-screw to bring to a focus on   
the sensitive plate the rays of light   
coming from objects at different        
distances4 ,thus the lens of the camera 
may be moved nearer to or farther from  
the object4 ,in order to obtain clear   
images1 the same result must be         
accomplished by the eye4 ,when the eye  

is focused for near objects1 those at a 
distance are blurred1 and when focused  
for distant objects1 those near at hand 
are indistinct4 ,now1 in the eye there  
is no arrangement to alter the position 
of the lenses1 as in the camera1 but the
 same result is obtained by what is     
called accommodation4  ,again1 every    
camera has an arrangement of diaphragms 
regulating the amount of light4 ,this is
 a rude contrivance compared with the   
iris1 which by means of its muscular    
fibers can in a moment alter the size of
 the pupil1 thus serving a similar      
purpose4  ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#acj4--;,illustrating the manner in     
which the ,image of an ,object is       
brought to a ,focus in a ,photographer's
 ,camera4  #cca4 ,the ,refractive ,media
 of the ,eye4 ,the eye is a closed      
chamber into which no light can pass but
 through the cornea4 ,all the rays that 
enter the eye must also pass through the
 crystalline lens1 which brings them to 
a focus1 as any ordinary lens would do4 

,now1 if the media through which the    
light from an object passes to reach the
 retina were all of the same density as 
the air1 and were also plane surfaces1  
an impression would be produced1 but the
 image would not be distinct4 ,the      
action of the lens is aided by several  
refractive media in the eye4 ,these     
media are the cornea1 the aqueous humor1
 and the vitreous humor4 ,by reason of  
their shape and density these media     
refract the rays of light1 and bring    
them to a focus upon the retina1 thus   
aiding in producing a sharp and distinct
 image of the object4 ,each point of the
 image being the focus or meeting-place 
of a vast number of rays coming from the
 corresponding point of the object is   
sufficiently bright to stimulate the    
retina to action4#dd  ,thus1 the moment 
rays of light enter the eye they are    
bent out of their course4 ,by the action
 of the crystalline lens1 aided by the  
refractive media1 the rays of light that
 are parallel when they fall upon the   

normal eye are brought to a focus on the
 retina4  ,if the entire optical        
apparatus of the eye were rigid and     
immovable1 one of three things would be 
necessary1 in order to obtain a clear   
image of an object2 for only parallel   
rays 7that is1 rays coming from objects 
distant about thirty feet or more71 are 
brought to a focus in the average normal
 eye1 unless some change is brought     
about in the refractive media4 ,first1  
the posterior wall of the eye must be   
moved further back1 or the lens would   
have to be capable of movement1 or there
 must be some way of increasing the     
focusing power of the lens4 ,in the eye 
it is the convexity of the lens that is 
altered so that the eye is capable of   
adjusting itself to different           
distances4#de  ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#aca4--,the ,actual ,size of the        
,test-,type1 which should be seen by the
 ,normal ,eye at a ,distance of ,twenty 
,feet4  #ccb4 ,the ,more ,common        
,defects of ,vision4 ,the eye may be    

free from disease and perfectly sound1  
and yet vision be indistinct1 because   
the rays of light are not accurately    
brought to a focus on the retina4 ,old  
sight1 known as presbyopia1 is a common 
defect of vision in advancing years4    
,this is a partial loss of the power to 
accommodate the eye to different        
distances4 ,this defect is caused by an 
increase in the density of the          
crystalline lens1 and an accompanying   
diminution in the ability to change its 
form4 ,the far point of vision is not   
changed1 but the near point is removed  
so far from the eye1 that small objects 
are no longer visible4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #acb4--;,diagram illustrating the 
,hypermetropic 7far-sighted7 ,eye4  ,the
 image ,p of a point ,p falls behind the
 retina in the unaccommodated eye4 ,by  
means of a convex lens it may be focused
 on the retina without accommodation    
7dotted lines74 7,to save space ,p is   
placed much too near the eye47  ,hence1 
when a person about forty-five years of 

age complains of dim light1 poor print1 
and tired eyes1 the time has come to    
seek the advice of an optician4 ,a      
convex lens may be needed to aid the    
failing power to increase the convexity 
of the lens1 and to assist it in        
bringing the divergent rays of light to 
a focus4  ,in long sight1 or            
hypermetropia both the near and far     
point of vision are concerned1 and there
 is no distinct vision at any distance  
without a strain4 ,it is a defect in the
 focus1 dependent upon the form of the  
eyes1 and exists in childhood4 ,the axis
 of the eyeball is too short1 and the   
focus falls beyond the retina1 which is 
too near the cornea4 ,in childhood this 
strain may pass unnoticed1 but1 sooner  
or later it manifests itself by a sense 
of fatigue1 dizziness1 and a blurred and
 indistinct vision4 ,the remedy is in   
the use of convex glasses to converge   
parallel rays of light before they enter
 the eye4 ,the muscles of accommodation 
are thus relieved of their extra work4  

,short sight1 known as myopia1 is one of
 the commonest defects of vision4 ,in   
this defect the axis of the eye1 or the 
distance between the cornea and the     
retina1 is too long and the rays of     
light are brought to a focus in front of
 the retina4 ,the tendency to           
short-sightedness exists in many cases  
at birth1 and is largely hereditary4 ,it
 is alarmingly common with those who    
make a severe demand upon the eyes4     
,during childhood there is a marked     
increase of near-sightedness4 ,the      
results of imprudence and abuse1 in     
matters of eyesight1 are so disastrous1 
especially during school life1 that the 
question of short sight becomes one of  
paramount importance4    ,experiment    
#aej4 ,with a hand-mirror reflect the   
sunlight on a white   wall4 ,look       
steadily at the spot for a full minute1 
and then let the   mirror suddenly be   
removed4 ,the complementary color--a    
dark spot--will   appear4    ,experiment
 #aea4 ,to show that impressions made   

upon the retina do   not disappear at   
once4 ,look steadily at a bright light  
for a moment or   two1 and then turn    
away suddenly1 or shut the eyes4 ,a     
gleam of light   will be seen for a     
second or two4    ,look steadily at a   
well-lighted window for a few seconds1  
and then turn   the eyes suddenly to a  
darkened wall4 ,the window frame may be 
plainly   seen for a moment4    ,glance 
at the sun for a moment1 close the eyes 
and the image of the sun   may be seen  
for a few seconds4    ,experiment #aeb4 
,take a round piece of white cardboard  
the size of a   saucer1 and paint it in 
alternate rings of red and yellow1--two 
primary   colors4 ,thrust a pin through 
the center and rotate it rapidly4 ,the  
eye   perceives neither color1 but      
orange1--the secondary color4           
,experiment #aec4 ,to note the shadows  
cast upon the retina by opaque   matters
 in the vitreous humor 7popularly known 
as floating specks1 or   gossamer       
threads71 look through a small pin-hole 

in a card at a bright   light covered by
 a ground-glass shade4    ,experiment   
#aed4 ,to illustrate accommodation4     
,standing near a   source of light1     
close one eye1 hold up both forefingers 
not quite in a   line1 keeping one      
finger about six or seven inches from   
the other eye1   and the other          
forefinger about sixteen to eighteen    
inches from the eye4   ,look at the near
 finger2 a distinct image is obtained of
 it1 while the   far one is blurred or  
indistinct4 ,look at the far image2 it  
becomes   distinct1 while the near one  
becomes blurred4 ,observe that in       
accommodating for the near object1 one  
is conscious of a distinct   effort4    
,in many cases near-sightedness becomes 
a serious matter and demands skillful   
advice and careful treatment4 ,to remedy
 this defect1 something must be done to 
throw farther back the rays proceeding  
from an object so that they will come to
 a focus exactly on the retina4 ,this is
 done by means of concave glasses1      

properly adjusted to meet the conditions
 of the eyes4 ,the selection of suitable
 glasses calls for great care1 as much  
harm may be done by using glasses not   
properly fitted to the eye4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4--;,diagram   
illustrating the ,myopic 7near-sighted7 
,eye4  ,the image ,p of a distant object
 ,p falls in front of the retina even   
without accommodation4 ,by means of a   
concave lens 7,l7 the image may be made 
to fall on the retina 7dotted lines74   
7,to save space ,p is placed much too   
near the eye74  ,there is an optical    
condition of the eye known as           
astigmatism1 in which the cornea is     
usually at fault4 ,in this defect of    
vision the curvature of the cornea is   
greater in one meridian than in another4
 ,as a result the rays from an object   
are not all brought to the same focus4  
,objects appear distorted or are seen   
with unequal clearness4 ,glasses of a   
peculiar shape are required to          
counteract this defect4   #ccc4 ,the    

,movements of the ,eyes4 ,in order that 
our eyes may be efficient instruments of
 vision1 it is necessary that they have 
the power of moving independently of the
 head4 ,the mechanical arrangement by   
which the eyeballs are moved in         
different directions is quite simple4   
,it is done by six little muscles1      
arranged in three pairs1 which1 with one
 exception1 originate in the back of the
 cavity in which the eye rests4 ,four of
 these muscles run a straight course and
 are called the recti4 ,the remaining   
two muscles bend in their course and are
 called oblique4 ,the cordination of    
these tiny muscles is marvellous in its 
delicacy1 accuracy1 and rapidity of     
action4  ,when1 for any cause1 the      
cordination is faulty1 cross eye1       
technically called strabismus1 is       
produced4 ,thus1 if the internal rectus 
is shortened1 the eye turns in2 if the  
external rectus1 the eye turns out1     
producing what is known as wall eye4 ,it
 is thus evident that the beauty of the 

internal mechanism of the eye has its   
fitting complement in the precision1    
delicacy1 and range of movement         
conferred upon it by its muscles4  #ccd4
 ,the ,eyelids and ,eyebrows4 ,the eye  
is adorned and protected by the eyelids1
 eyelashes1 and eyebrows4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4--,muscles of 
the ,eyeball4    ,a1 attachment of      
tendon connected with the three recti   
muscles2   ,b1 external rectus1 divided 
and turned downward1 to expose the      
internus      rectus2   ,c1 inferior    
rectus2   ,d1 internal rectus2   ,e1    
superior rectus2   ,f1 superior oblique2
   ,h1 pulley and reflected portion of  
the superior oblique2   ,k1 inferior    
oblique2 ,l1 levator palpebri           
superioris2   ,m1 middle portion of the 
same muscle 7,l72   ,n1 optic nerve4    
,the eyelids1 two in number1 move over  
the front of the eyeball and protect it 
from injury4 ,they consist of folds of  
skin lined with mucous membrane1 kept in
 shape by a layer of fibrous material4  

,near the inner surface of the lids is a
 row of twenty or thirty glands1 known  
as the ,meibomian glands1 which open on 
the free edges of each lid4 ,when one of
 these glands is blocked by its own     
secretion1 the inflammation which       
results is called a sty4  ,the inner    
lining membrane of the eyelids is known 
as the conjunctiva2 it is richly        
supplied with blood-vessels and nerves4 
,after lining the lids it is reflected  
on to the eyeballs4 ,it is this membrane
 which is occasionally inflamed from    
taking cold4  ,the free edges of the    
lids are bordered with two or more rows 
of hairs called the eyelashes1 which    
serve both for ornament and for use4    
,they help to protect the eyes from     
dust1 and to a certain extent to shade  
them4 ,their loss gives a peculiar1     
unsightly look to the face4  ,the upper 
border of the orbit is provided with a  
fringe of short1 stiff hairs1 the       
eyebrows4 ,they help to shade the eyes  
from excessive light1 and to protect the

 eyelids from perspiration1 which would 
otherwise cause serious discomfort4     
#cce4 ,the ,lacrymal ,apparatus4 ,nature
 provides a special secretion1 the      
tears1 to moisten and protect the eye4  
,the apparatus producing this secretion 
consists of the lacrymal or tear gland  
and lacrymal canals or tear passages    
7,fig4 #acf74  ,outside of the eyeball1 
in the loose1 fatty tissue of the orbit1
 in the upper and outer corner is the   
lacrymal or tear gland4 ,it is about the
 size of a small almond and from it lead
 several little canals which open on the
 inner surface of the upper lid4 ,the   
fluid from the gland flows out by these 
openings over the eyeball1 and is       
collected at the inner or nasal corner4 
,here in each lid is a little reddish   
elevation1 or lacrymal caruncle1 in     
which is an opening1 communicating with 
a small canal in the lid which joins the
 lacrymal sac1 lodged between the orbit 
and the bridge of the nose 7,fig4 #acg74
  ,from this sac there passes a channel1

 the nasal duct1 about one-half of an   
inch long1 leading into the lower       
portion of the nostril4 ,the fluid which
 has flowed over the eye is drained off 
by these canals into the nose4 ,during  
sleep this secretion is much diminished4
 ,when the eyes are open the quantity is
 sufficient to moisten the eyeball1 the 
excess being carried into the nose so   
gradually that the attention is not     
attracted to it4  ,the lacrymal canals  
are at times blocked by inflammation of 
the nasal duct1 and the fluid collects  
in the corners of the eyelids and       
overflows down the cheeks1 producing    
much inconvenience4 ,the lining membrane
 of the eyelids through these canals is 
continuous with that of the nostrils4   
,hence1 when the lining membrane of the 
eye is red and swollen1 as during a     
cold1 the nasal passages are also       
irritated1 and when the nasal membrane  
is inflamed1 the irritation is apt to   
pass upwards and affect the eyelids4    
#ccf4 ,the ,tears4 ,the lacrymal or tear

 gland is under the control of the      
nervous system4 ,thus1 if anything      
irritates the eyelids1 the sensory      
nerves are stimulated and the impression
 is carried to the brain4 ,thence the   
nerve impulses travel to the lacrymal   
glands1 leading to an increased flow of 
their secretion4 ,the irritation of the 
sensory nerves in the nasal passages by 
smelling such substances as onions1 or  
pungent salts1 often causes a copious   
flow of tears4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ace4--,lacrymal ,gland and ,ducts4     
,a1 lachrymal gland1 the size of a small
 almond lodged in a shallow             
depression in the bones of the orbit2   
,b1 lachrymal ducts 7usually seven71    
which form a row of openings into       
the conjunctival fold4   ,various mental
 emotions1 as joy and grief1 may produce
 similar results4 ,in these cases the   
glands secrete the fluid in such        
quantities that it cannot escape by the 
lacrymal canals1 and the excess rolls   
over the cheeks as tears4 ,excessive    

grief sometimes acts on the nerve       
centers in exactly the opposite manner1 
so that the activity of the glands is   
arrested and less fluid is secreted4    
,this explains why some people do not   
shed tears in times of deep grief4      
,experiment #aee4 ,gently turn the inner
 part of your lower eyelid   down4 ,look
 in a mirror1 and the small lacrymal    
point1 or opening into   the nasal duct1
 may be observed4  #ccg4                
,color-blindness4 ,there is an abnormal 
condition of vision called              
color-blindness1 in which the power of  
discrimination between different colors 
is impaired4 ,experiment shows that     
ninety-six out of every one hundred men 
agree as to the identity or the         
difference of color1 while the remaining
 four show a defective perception of    
color4  ,the first may be said to have  
normal vision2 the second are called    
color-blind4 ,it is a curious fact that 
ten times more men than women are       
color-blind4  ,in its true sense1       

color-blindness is always congenital1   
often hereditary4 ,this condition of    
abnormal vision is totally incurable4 ,a
 person may be color-blind and not know 
it until the defect is accidentally     
revealed4 ,the common form of defective 
color-vision is the inability to        
distinguish between red and green4 ,as  
green lights mean safety1 and red lights
 danger1 on railroads1 on shipboard1 and
 elsewhere1 it becomes of paramount     
importance that no one who is           
color-blind should be employed in such  
service4 ,various tests are now required
 by statute law in many states to be    
used for the detection of such defects  
of vision among employees in certain    
occupations4   #cch4 ,school ,life and  
the ,eyesight4 ,the eyes of children    
need more care than those of adults1    
because their eyes are still in the     
course of development4 ,the eyes1 like  
any other organ which is yet to attain  
its full growth1 require more care in   
their use than one which has already    

reached its full size4 ,they are        
peculiarly liable to be affected by     
improper or defective light4 ,hence the 
care of the eyes during school life is a
 matter of the most practical           
importance4  ,in no matter of health can
 the teacher do a more distinct service 
than in looking after the eyesight of   
the pupils4 ,children suffering from    
defective vision are sometimes punished 
by teachers for supposed stupidity4     
,such pupils1 as well as the deaf1 are  
peculiarly sensitive to their defects4  
,every schoolroom should have plenty of 
light2 it should come from either side  
or the rear1 and should be regulated    
with suitable shades and curtains4      
,pupils should not be allowed to form   
the bad habit of reading with the book  
held close to the eyes4 ,the long search
 on maps for obscure names printed in   
letters of bad and trying type should be
 discouraged4 ,straining the eyes in    
trying to read from slates and          
blackboards1 in the last hour of the    

afternoon session1 or in cloudy weather1
 may do a lifelong injury to the        
eyesight4 ,avoid the use1 so far as     
possible1 especially in a defective     
light1 of text-books which are printed  
on battered type and worn plates4  ,the 
seat and desk of each scholar should be 
carefully arranged to suit the eyesight1
 as well as the bones and muscles4      
,special pains should be taken with the 
near-sighted pupils1 and those who      
return to school after an attack of     
scarlet fever1 measles1 or diphtheria4  
,experiment #aef4 ,to test              
color-blindness4 ,on no account is the  
person being tested to be asked to name 
a color4 ,in a large class of   students
 one is pretty sure to find some who are
 more or less   color-blind4 ,the common
 defects are for red and green4  ,place 
worsteds on a white background in a good
 light4 ,select1 as a test color1 a     
skein of light green color1 such as     
would be obtained by mixing a pure green
 with white4 ,ask the examinee to select

 and pick out from the heap all those   
skeins which appear to him to be of the 
same color1 whether of lighter or darker
 shades4 ,a color-blind person will     
select amongst others some of the       
confusion-colors1 e4g41 pink1 yellow4 ,a
 colored plate showing these should be  
hung up in the room4 ,any one who       
selects all the greens and no           
confusion-colors has normal color       
vision4 ,if1 however1 one or more       
confusion-colors be selected1 proceed as
 follows3 select as a test color a skein
 of pale rose4 ,if the person be        
red-blind1 he will choose blue and      
violet2 if green-blind1 gray and green4 
,select a bright red skein4 ,the        
red-blind will select green and brown2  
the green-blind picks out reds or       
lighter brown4  #cci4 ,practical ,hints 
on the ,care of the ,eyes4 ,the eye is  
an exceedingly delicate and sensitive   
organ4 ,while it is long-suffering1 its 
endurance has a limit4 ,like all the    
other organs of the body1 the eyes are  

better for moderate and rational use4   
,more than any other organ they require 
attention to the general health1 as the 
condition of the skin1 exercise in the  
open air1 good food1 and proper habits  
of daily living4  ,the tissues of the   
eyes are peculiarly sensitive to any    
general influence4 ,certain             
constitutional diseases1 like           
rheumatism1 lead-poisoning1 diphtheria1 
and measles often affect the eyes4      
,special care should be taken with      
children's eyes during and after an     
attack of measles and scarlet fever4    
,the eyes of young infants should not be
 exposed to glaring lights or to the    
direct rays of the sun1 as when taken   
out in baby carriages4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #acf4--,showing the ,relative     
,position of the ,lacrymal ,apparatus1  
the ,eyeball1 and the ,eyelids4    ,a1  
lacrymal canals1 with the minute        
orifices represented as two black       
dots 7puncta lacrymalia7 to the right2  
,b1 tendon of the orbicularis           

palpebrarum muscle2 apparently under ,b 
is      seen the lacrymal sac4 ,the     
minute openings of the ,meibomian glands
 are      seen on the free margins of   
the eyelids4  ,below ,a is seen a small 
conical elevation1 with black dots 7the 
lacrymal papilla or caruncle74  ,glasses
 should be worn when they are needed4 ,a
 failure to do this ususally causes much
 unnecessary suffering4 ,it is far from 
wise to postpone as long as possible the
 first use of glasses4 ,the selection   
and proper fitting of glasses call for  
the combined skill of both the physician
 and the optician4 ,obstinate headaches 
are often caused by defective vision1   
and may disappear after discontinuing   
improper glasses4  ,the habit of        
reading1 in the cars or elsewhere1 the  
daily paper and poorly printed books1   
with their blurred and indistinct type1 
is a severe strain on the accommodation 
apparatus of the eyes4 ,it is a         
dangerous practice to read in bed at    
night1 or while lying down in a darkened

 or shaded room4 ,this is especially    
true during recovery from illness4 ,the 
muscles of the eyes undergo excessive   
strain in accommodating themselves to   
the unnatural position4 ,the battered   
type1 wood-pulp paper1 and poor         
presswork1 now so commonly used in the  
cheap editions of books and periodicals1
 are often injurious to the eyesight4   
,reading-matter should not be held      
nearer to the eyes than is necessary to 
make the print appear perfectly sharp   
and distinct4 ,no print should be read  
continuously that cannot be seen clearly
 at about eighteen inches4 ,those who   
read music are especially liable to     
strain the eyes1 because exact vision is
 required to follow the notes4 ,persons 
who wear glasses for reading should be  
careful to use them while reading music1
 and good light is necessary to avoid   
any undue strain4  ,after reading       
steadily for some time1 the eyes should 
be rested by closing them a short period
 or by looking at some distant object1  

even if only for a few moments4 ,the    
book1 the sewing1 and work generally1   
should be held as far from the eyes as  
is compatible with good vision4 ,the    
natural tendency is to reverse this     
rule4 ,we should never read1 write1 sew1
 stitch1 or otherwise use the eyes when 
they smart or tingle1 or when the sight 
is dim or blurred4 ,the eyes are then   
tired and need a rest4 ,much injury may 
be done by reading in twilight1 or by   
artificial light in the early morning1  
and by reading and working in badly     
lighted and ill-ventilated rooms4  ,good
 artificial light is much to be         
preferred to insufficient sunlight4 ,the
 artificial light should be sufficiently
 bright and steady2 a fickering light is
 always bad4 ,riding against a strong   
wind1 especially on a bicycle1 may prove
 hurtful1 at least for eyes that are    
inclined to any kind of inflammation4   
,the light reflected from snow is a     
common source of injury to the eyes4 ,it
 is a wise caution in passing from a    

dark room to avoid looking immediately  
at the sun1 an incandescent light1 the  
glistening snow1 or other bright        
objects4  ,the eyes should never be     
rubbed1 or the fingers thrust into      
them1#df and much less when they are    
irritated by any foreign substance4 ,the
 sooner the offending substance is      
removed the better4  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #acg4--,lacrymal ,canals1         
,lacrymal ,sac1 and ,nasal ducts1 opened
 by their ,anterior ,portion4  #cdj4    
,effect of ,alcohol upon the ,eye4 ,the 
earlier and slighter forms of injury    
done to the eye by the use of           
intoxicants are quite familiar3 the     
watery condition of the eye and of the  
lids1 and the red and bleared aspect of 
the organ4 ,both are the result of      
chronic inflammation1 which crowds the  
blood into the vessels of the cornea1   
making them bloodshot and visible4 ,the 
nerves controlling the circulation of   
the eye are partially paralyzed1 and    
thus the relaxed vessels become         

distended4  ,but more serious results   
ensue4 ,long use of intoxicants produces
 diseases of the retina1 involving in   
many cases marked diminution of         
acuteness as well as quickness of       
vision1 and at times distorted images   
upon the surface of the retina4 ,in     
other instances1 the congestion of the  
optic nerve is so serious as to involve 
a progressive wasting of that organ1    
producing at first a hazy dimness of    
vision which gradually becomes worse and
 worse1 till total blindness may ensue4 
,it is beyond question that a wide      
comparison of cases by careful observers
 proves that a large fraction of those  
who indulge in strong drink suffer from 
some form of disease of the eye4   #cda4
 ,effect of ,tobacco upon ,vision4      
,tobacco1 in its distribution of evil   
effects1 does not neglect the senses and
 especially the eye4 ,a variety of      
vicious results is produced4 ,the       
pungent smoke inflames the lids4 ,the   
narcotic dilates the pupil1 causing     

dimness and confusion of vision4 ,a     
diseased condition occurs with severe   
pain in the eye followed by impaired    
vision4  ,oculists speak impressively of
 the ill effects of tobacco1 and        
especially of cigarettes1 upon the eyes 
of the young4 ,they mention a well-known
 disease1 tobacco blindness1 usually    
beginning with color-blindness1 and     
progressing occasionally with increasing
 dimness of vision to entire loss of    
sight4#dg   #cdb4 ,the ,sense of        
,hearing4 ,the structure of the human   
ear is much more complicated than is    
generally supposed4 ,it is an apparatus 
constructed to respond to the waves of  
sound4 ,as a whole1 it may be considered
 a peculiar form of nerve-ending4  ,the 
external ear forms only a part of a most
 elaborate apparatus whereby sound waves
 may be transmitted inwards to the real 
organ of hearing4 ,the really sensitive 
part of the ear1 in which the auditory  
nerve ends1 is buried for protection    
deep out of sight in the bones of the   

head2 so deep that sounds cannot        
directly affect it4 ,some arrangement1  
therefore1 is required for conducting   
the sounds inwards to this true organ4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4--,the ,pinna1
 or ,auricle4  ,in studying the         
structure of the ear1 and how it is     
fitted to respond to sonorous           
vibrations1 we may divide it into three 
parts3 the sound-conducting part1 known 
as the external ear1 the middle ear1 and
 the deeply placed nerve portion1 the   
inner ear4   #cdc4 ,the ,external ,ear4 
,the external ear consists of an        
expanded portion known as the pinna or  
auricle1 and of a passage1 the auditory 
canal or meatus1 leading inwards from   
it4 ,the surface of the auricle is      
convoluted to collect and transmit the  
vibrations of air by which sound is     
produced the auditory canal conducts    
these vibrations to the tympanic        
membrane4 ,many animals move the auricle
 in the direction of the sound4 ,thus   
the horse pricks up its ears when it    

hears a noise1 the better to judge of   
the direction of sounds4#dh  ,the       
external auditory meatus1 the passage to
 the middle ear1 is curved and is about 
an inch and a quarter long4 ,near its   
outer portion are a number of fine hairs
 slanting outwards to prevent the       
entrance of insects4 ,embedded in the   
deeper parts of the canal are glands    
which secrete the cerumen1 or ear-wax1  
which keeps the canal moist1 and helps  
to protect it against foreign bodies and
 insects4 ,as the result of a cold1 this
 wax may collect in sufficient          
quantities to block the passage1 and to 
diminish to a considerable extent the   
power of hearing4   #cdd4 ,the ,middle  
,ear4 ,at the inner end of the outer ear
 passage is the tympanum1 known as the  
drum of the ear4 ,it is a thin1 oval    
membrane1 stretched at an angle across  
the deep end of the passage1 which it   
completely closes4 ,the tympanum is thus
 a partition between the passage of the 
outer ear and the cavity of the middle  

ear4 ,on its inner side is a small air  
chamber in the petrous portion of the   
temporal bone1 called the cavity of the 
tympanum4 ,its bony walls are lined with
 mucous membrane similar to that lining 
the nose1 mouth1 and throat4 ,on the    
inner wall of the tympanum are two      
openings1 the round window1 or foramen  
rotundum1 and the oval window1 or       
foramen ovale4  ,the tympanic cavity    
communicates with the back part of the  
throat1 by the ,eustachian tube4 ,this  
tube is about one and a half inches long
 and lined with mucous membrane similar 
to that of the tympanic chamber and the 
throat4 ,this passage is usually closed1
 but is opened in the act of swallowing4
 ,in health there is no communication   
between the chamber of the middle ear   
and the outside1 except by the          
,eustachian tube4 ,thus a throat cold1  
with redness and swelling of the mucous 
membrane1 is usually accompanied with   
some degree of deafness1 because the    
swelling may block the lumen of the     

tube1 and thus prevent the free passage 
of air to and fro4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #aci4--;,general ,view of the ,organ of
 ,hearing4    ,a1 pinna2   ,b1 cavity of
 the concha1 showing the orifices of a  
great number of      sebaceous glands2  
,c1 external auditory meatus2   ,d1     
membrana tympani2   ,f1 incus2   ,h1    
malleus2   ,k1 handle of malleus applied
 to the internal surface of the membrana
      tympani2   ,l1 tensor tympani     
muscle2   between ,m and ,k is the      
tympanic cavity2   ,n1 ,eustachian tube2
   ,o1 ,p1 semicircular canals2   ,r1   
internal auditory canal2   ,s1 large    
nerve given off from the facial         
ganglion2   ,t1 facial and auditory     
nerves4   ,a most curious feature of the
 ear is the chain of tiny movable bones 
which stretch across the cavity of the  
middle ear4 ,they connect the tympanic  
membrane with the labyrinth1 and serve  
to convey the vibrations communicated to
 the membrane across the cavity of the  
tympanum to the internal ear4 ,these    

bones are three in number1 and from     
their shape are called the bmalleus_/b1 
or hammer1 bincus_/b1 or anvil2 and     
bstapes_/b1 or stirrup4  ,the hammer is 
attached by its long handle to the inner
 surface of the drum of the ear4 ,the   
round head is connected with the anvil  
by a movable joint1 while the long      
projection of the anvil is similarly    
connected with the stirrup bone4 ,the   
plate of the stirrup is fixed by a      
membrane into the oval window of the    
inner wall of the tympanic chamber4     
,these little bones are connected with  
each other and the tympanum by ligaments
 and moved by three tiny muscles4 ,two  
are attached to the hammer1 and tighten 
and relax the drum2 the other is        
attached to the stirrup1 and prevents it
 from being pushed too deeply into the  
oval window4  ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#adj4--;,ear-,bones4 7,anterior ,view47 
#a1 malleus1 or hammer2   #b1 incus1 or 
anvil2   #c1 stapes1 or stirrup4   #cde4
 ,the ,internal ,ear4 ,this forms one of

 the most delicate and complex pieces of
 mechanism in the whole body4 ,it is    
that portion of the organ which receives
 the impression of sound1 and carries it
 directly to the seat of consciousness  
in the brain4 ,we are then able to say  
that we hear4  ,the internal ear1 or    
bony labyrinth1 consists of three       
distinct parts1 or variously shaped     
chambers1 hollowed out in the temporal  
bone1--the vestibule1 the semicircular  
canals1 and the cochlea1 or snail's     
shell4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4--;,a 
,cast of the ,external ,auditory ,canal4
 7,posterior view7  ,the vestibule is   
the common cavity with which all the    
other portions of the labyrinth connect4
 ,it is an oval-shaped chamber1 about   
of an inch in diameter1 occupying the   
middle part of the internal ear4 ,it is 
on the inner side of the oval window1   
which was closed1 as we have seen1 by   
the stirrup bone4 ,from one side of this
 vestibule1 or central hall1 the three  
semicircular canals pass off1 and from  

the other side1 the cochlea4  ,the three
 semicircular canals1 so called from    
their shape1 are simply bony tubes about
 #a_/bj of an inch in width1 making a   
curve of about #a_/d of an inch in      
diameter4 ,they pass out from the       
vestibule1 and after bending around     
somewhat like a hoop1 they return again 
to the vestibule4 ,each bony canal      
contains within it a membranous canal1  
at the end of which it is dilated to    
form an ampulla4    ,experiment #aeg4   
,to vibrate the tympanic membrane and   
the little   ear-bones4 ,shut the mouth1
 and pinch the nose tightly4 ,try to    
force air   through the nose4 ,the air  
dilates the ,eustachian tube1 and is    
forced   into the ear-drum4 ,the        
distinct crackle1 or clicking sound1 is 
due to   the movement of the ear-bones  
and the tympanic membrane4  ,the        
cochlea1 or snail's shell1 is another   
chamber hollowed out in the solid bone4 
,it is coiled on itself somewhat like a 
snail's shell4 ,there is a central      

pillar1 around which winds a long spiral
 canal4 ,one passage from the cochlea   
opens directly into the vestibule2 the  
other leads to the chamber of the middle
 ear1 and is separated from it by the   
little round window already described4  
,the cochlea contains thousands of the  
most minute cords1 known as the fibers  
or organ of ,corti4#di ,under the       
microscope they present the appearance  
of the keyboard of a piano4 ,these      
fibers appear to vibrate in sympathy    
with the countless shades of sounds     
which daily penetrate the ear4 ,from the
 hair-like processes on these tightly   
stretched fibers1 auditory impulses     
appear to be transmitted to the brain4  
,the tubes and chambers of the inner ear
 enclose and protect a delicate         
membranous sac of exactly the same shape
 as themselves4 ,between the bony walls 
of the passages and the membranous bag  
inside is a thin1 clear fluid1 the      
perilymph4 ,the membranous bag itself   
contains a similar fluid1 the endolymph4

 ,in this fluid are found some minute   
crystals of lime like tiny particles of 
sand1 called otoliths1 or ear-stones4   
,every movement of the fluid itself     
throws these grains from side to side4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4--;,bony      
internal ,ear of ,right ,side4          
7,magnified2 the upper figure of the    
natural size47    ,a1 oval window       
7foramen ovale72   ,b1 ,c1 ,d1          
semicircular canals2   99 represents the
 bulging part 7ampulla7 of each canal2  
,e1 ,f1 ,g cochlea1 ,h1 round window    
7foramen rotundum74   ,the auditory     
nerve1 or nerve of hearing1 passes to   
the inner ear1 through a passage in the 
solid bone of the skull4 ,its minute    
filaments spread at last over the inner 
walls of the membranous labyrinth in two
 branches1--one going to the vestibule  
and the ampull at the ends of the       
semicircular canals1 the other leading  
to the cochlea4   #cdf4 ,mechanism of   
,hearing4 ,waves of sound reach the ear1
 and are directed by the concha to the  

external passage1 at the end of which   
they reach the tympanic membrane4 ,when 
the sound-waves beat upon this thin     
membrane1 it is thrown into vibration1  
reproducing in its movements the        
character of the air-vibrations that    
have fallen upon it4  ,now the          
vibrations of the tympanic membrane are 
passed along the chain of bones attached
 to its inner surface and reach the     
stirrup bone4 ,the stirrup now performs 
a to-and-fro movement at the oval       
window1 passing the auditory impulse    
inwards to the internal ear4  ,every    
time the stirrup bone is pushed in and  
drawn out of the oval window1 the watery
 fluid 7the perilymph7 in the vestibule 
and inner ear is set in motion more or  
less violently1 according to the        
intensity of the sound4 ,the membranous 
labyrinth occupies the central portion  
of the vestibule and the passages       
leading from it4 ,when1 therefore1 the  
perilymph is shaken it communicates the 
impulse to the fluid 7endolymph7        

contained in the inner membranous bag4  
,the endolymph and the tiny grains of   
ear-sand now perform their part in this 
marvelous and complex mechanism4 ,they  
are driven against the sides of the     
membranous bag1 and so strike the ends  
of the nerves of hearing1 which transmit
 the auditory impulses to the seat of   
sensation in the brain4  ,it is in the  
seat of sensation in the brain called   
the sensorium that the various auditory 
impulses received from different parts  
of the inner ear are fused into one1 and
 interpreted as sounds4 ,it is the      
extent of the vibrations that determines
 the loudness of the sound2 the number  
of them that determines the pitch4      
,experiment #aeh4 ,hold a ticking watch 
between the teeth1 or touch   the upper 
incisors with a vibrating tuning-fork2  
close both ears1 and   observe that the 
ticking or vibration is heard louder4   
,unstop one ear1   and observe that the 
ticking or vibration is heard loudest in
 the   stopped ear4    ,experiment #aei4

 ,hold a vibrating tuning-fork on the   
incisor teeth   until you cannot hear it
 sounding4 ,close one or both ears1 and 
you will   hear it4    ,experiment #afj4
 ,listen to a ticking watch or a        
tuning-fork kept   vibrating            
electrically4 ,close the mouth and      
nostrils1 and take either a   deep      
inspiration or deep expiration1 so as to
 alter the tension of the   air in the  
tympanum2 in both cases the sound is    
diminished4    ,experiment #afa4 ,with a
 blindfolded person test his sense of   
the   direction of sound1 e4g41 by      
clicking two coins together4 ,it is very
   imperfect4 ,let a person press both  
auricles against the side of the   head1
 and hold both hands vertically in front
 of each meatus4 ,on a   person making a
 sound in front1 the observed person    
will refer it to a   position behind    
him4  #cdg4 ,practical ,hints on the    
,care of the ,ear4 ,this very delicate  
and complicated organ is often neglected
 when skilled treatment is urgently     

needed1 and it is often ignorantly and  
carelessly tampered with when it should 
be let alone4  ,never insert into the   
ear canal the corners of towels1 ear    
spoons1 the ends of toothpicks1         
hairpins1 or any other pointed          
instruments4 ,it is a needless and      
dangerous practice1 usually causing1 in 
time1 some form of inflammation4 ,the   
abrasion of the skin in the canal thus  
produced affords a favorable soil for   
the growth of vegetable parasites4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4--;,diagram of
 the ,middle and ,internal ,ear4  ,this1
 in turn1 may lead to a chronic         
inflammation of the canal and of the    
tympanic membrane4 ,again1 there is     
always risk that the elbow may be jogged
 and the instrument pushed through the  
drum-head4 ,there is1 of course1 a      
natural impulse to relieve the itching  
of the ear4 ,this should be done with   
the tips of the fingers or not at all4  
,the popular notion that something      
should be put into the ear to cure      

toothache is erroneous4 ,this treatment 
does not cure a toothache1 and may lead 
to an injury to the delicate parts of   
the ear4 ,a piece of absorbent cotton1  
carefully inserted into the ear1 may be 
worn out of doors1 when the cold air    
causes pain1 but should be removed on   
coming into the house4  ,frequent       
bathing in the cold water of ponds and  
rivers is liable to injure both the ears
 and the general health4 ,in salt-water 
bathing1 the force of the waves striking
 against the ears often leads to        
earache1 long-continued inflammation1 or
 defective hearing2 to diminish this    
risk1 insert into the ears a small plug 
of absorbent cotton4  ,the ears are     
often carelessly exposed to cold water  
and inclement weather4 ,very cold water 
should never be used to bathe the ears  
and nostrils4 ,bathe moderately and     
gently in lukewarm water1 using a       
wash-rag in preference to a sponge2 dry 
gently and thoroughly4 ,children's ears 
are often rudely washed1 especially in  

the auditory canal4 ,this is not at all 
necessary to cleanliness1 and may result
 in a local inflammation4  ,never shout 
suddenly in a person's ear4 ,the ear is 
not prepared for the shock1 and deafness
 has occasionally resulted4 ,a sudden   
explosion1 the noise of a cannon1 may   
burst the drum-head1 especially if the  
,eustachian tube be closed at the time4 
,during heavy cannonading1 soldiers are 
taught to keep the mouth open to allow  
an equal tension of air4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #add4--,section of ,cochlea4     
,from ,a straight downwards is the      
direction of the central column1 to     
which ,e points4 ,b points to the       
projecting ridge1 almost dividing the   
canal of the tube into an upper         
compartment 7,d71 and a lower 7,c74     
,insects may gain entrance to the ears  
and occasion annoyance1 pain1 and       
fright1 perhaps leading to vomiting1    
even to convulsions1 with nervous       
children4 ,a lighted lamp held at the   
entrance of the ear will often induce   

the offending insect to crawl out       
towards the light4 ,a few drops of warm 
water1 sweet oil1 or molasses1 dropped  
into the ear1 will help remove the      
intruder4  ,when a discharge occurs from
 the ears1 it is not best to plug them  
with cotton wads4 ,it only keeps in what
 should be got rid of4 ,do not go to    
sleep with the head on a window sill or 
in any position1 with the ears exposed  
to draughts of cold or damp air4  ,no   
effort should be made to remove the ear 
wax unless it accumulates unduly4 ,the  
skin of the canal grows outward1 and the
 extra wax and dust will be naturally   
carried out1 if let alone4 ,never employ
 any of the many articles or drops1     
advertised to cure deafness4 ,neuralgic 
pain in the canal1 usually classed as   
earache1 may be due to decayed or       
improperly filled teeth4  ,quinine1 so  
generally used in its many preparations 
for malaria1 causes a peculiar ringing  
or buzzing in the ears4 ,this is a      
warning that it should be taken in      

smaller doses1 or perhaps stopped for a 
time4 ,in some cases quinine may produce
 temporary deafness4  ,the practice of  
snuffing up cold water into the nostrils
 is occasionally followed by an acute   
inflammation of the middle ear1 some of 
the water finding its way through the   
,eustachian tube into this part of the  
organ of hearing4 ,the nasal douche1 so 
often advised as a home remedy for nasal
 catarrh1 should be used only with great
 caution1 and always in accordance with 
detailed directions from a physician4   
#cdh4 ,effect of ,tobacco upon the      
,hearing4 ,the sense of hearing is often
 injured by the use of tobacco4 ,the    
irritating smoke filling all the inner  
cavity of the mouth and throat1 readily 
finds its way up the ,eustachian tube1  
dries the membrane1 and irritates or    
inflames the delicate mechanism of the  
inner ear4 ,thus may be produced a      
variety of serious aural disturbances1  
such as unnatural noises1 whistling1 and
 roaring1 followed oftentimes by a      

partial loss of hearing4  ,hearing may  
be impaired by the use of alcoholic     
beverages4 ,alcohol inflames the mucous 
membrane of the throat1 then by its     
nearness the lining of the ,eustachian  
tube1 and finally may injure the        
delicate apparatus of the internal ear4 
,additional ,experiments4    ,experiment
 #afb4 ,use a small pair of wooden      
compasses1 or an   ordinary pair of     
dividers with their points guarded by a 
small piece of   cork4 ,apply the points
 of the compasses lightly and           
simultaneously to   different parts of  
the body1 and ascertain at what distance
 apart the   points are felt as two4    
,the following is the order of          
sensibility3 tip   of tongue1 tip of the
 middle finger1 palm1 forehead1 and back
 of hand4    ,experiment #afc4 ,test as 
in preceding experiment the skin of the 
arm1 beginning at the shoulder and      
passing downwards4 ,observe that the    
sensibility is greater as one tests     
towards the fingers1 and also in the    

transverse than in the long axis of the 
limb4 ,in all cases compare the         
results obtained on both sides of the   
body4    ,experiment #afd4 ,by means of 
a spray-producer1 spray the back of the 
hand with ether1 and observe how the    
sensibility is abolished4    ,experiment
 #afe4 ,touch your forehead with your   
forefinger2 the   finger appears to feel
 the contact1 but on rubbing the        
forefinger   rapidly over the forehead1 
it is the latter which is interpreted as
   feeling the finger4    ,experiment   
#aff4 ,generally speaking1 the sensation
 of touch is   referred to the cutaneous
 surfaces4 ,in certain cases1 however1  
it is   referred even beyond this4      
,holding firmly in one hand a cane or a 
pencil1 touch an object therewith2 the  
sensation is referred to the   extremity
 of the cane or pencil4    ,if1 however1
 the cane or pencil be held loosely in  
one's hand1 one   experiences two       
sensations3 one corresponding to the    
object touched1 and   the other due to  

the contact of the rod with the skin4   
,the process of   mastication affords a 
good example of the reference of        
sensations to and   beyond the periphery
 of the body4    ,experiment #afg4      
,prepare a strong solution of sulphate  
of quinine   with the aid of a little   
sulphuric acid to dissolve it 7bitter71 
a   five-per-cent solution of sugar     
7sweet71 a ten-per-cent solution of     
common salt 7saline71 and a one-per-cent
 solution of acetic acid   7acid74 ,wipe
 the tongue dry1 and lay on its tip a   
crystal of sugar4 ,it   is not tasted   
until it is dissolved4    ,experiment   
#afh4 ,apply a crystal of sugar to the  
tip1 and another to   the back of the   
tongue4 ,the sweet taste is more        
pronounced at the tip4    ,experiment   
#afi4 ,repeat the process with sulphate 
of quinine in   solution4 ,it is        
scarcely tasted on the tip1 but is      
tasted immediately on   the back part of
 the tongue4 ,test where salines and    
acids are tasted   most acutely4        

,experiment #agj4 ,to illustrate the    
muscular sense4 ,take two equal   iron  
or lead weights2 heat one and leave the 
other cold4 ,the cold weight   will feel
 the heavier4    ,experiment #aga4      
,place a thin disk of cold lead1 the    
size of a   silver dollar1 on the       
forehead of a person whose eyes are     
closed2 remove   the disk1 and on the   
same spot place two warm disks of equal 
size4 ,the   person will judge the      
latter to be about the same weight1 or  
lighter1   than the single cold disk4   
,experiment #agb4 ,compare two similar  
wooden disks1 and let the   diameter of 
one be slightly greater than that of the
 other4 ,heat the   smaller one to over 
#abj ,f41 and it will be judged heavier 
than the   larger cold one4             
,experiment #agc4 ,to illustrate the    
influence of excitation of one   sense  
organ on the other sense organs4 ,small 
colored patches the shape   and color of
 which are not distinctly visible may   
become so when a   tuning-fork is kept  

vibrating near the ears4 ,in other      
individuals the   visual impressions are
 diminished by the same process4    ,on 
listening to the ticking of a watch1 the
 ticking sounds feebler or   louder on  
looking at a source of light through    
glasses of different   colors4    ,if   
the finger be placed in cold or warm    
water the temperature appears to   rise 
when a red glass is held in front of the
 eyes4    ,experiment #agd4 ,formation  
of an inverted image on the retina4     
,take a freshly removed ox-eye2 dissect 
the sclerotic from that part of   its   
posterior segment near the optic nerve4 
,roll up a piece of blackened   paper in
 the form of a tube1 black surface      
innermost1 and place the eye   in it    
with the cornea directed forward4 ,look 
at an object--e4g41 a                   
candle-flame--and observe the inverted  
image of the flame shining   through the
 retina and choroid1 and notice how the 
image moves when the   candle is moved4 
,experiment #age4 ,focus a candle-flame 

or other object on the   ground-glass   
plate of an ordinary photographic       
camera1 and observe the   small inverted
 image4    ,experiment #agf4 ,to        
illustrate spherical aberration4 ,make a
   pin-hole in a blackened piece of     
cardboard2 look at a light placed at a  
greater distance than the normal        
distance of accommodation4 ,one will see
   a radiate figure with four to eight  
radii4 ,the figures obtained from       
opposite eyes will probably differ in   
shape4    ,experiment #agg4 ,hold a thin
 wooden rod or pencil about a foot from 
the eyes and look at a distant object4  
,note that the object appears   double4 
,close the right eye2 the left image    
disappears1 and vice   versa4           
,experiment #agh4 ,to show the movements
 of the iris4 ,it is an   extremely     
beautiful experiment1 and one that can  
easily be made4 ,look   through a       
pin-hole in a card at a uniform white   
surface as the white   shade of an      
ordinary reading-lamp4 ,with the right  

eye look through the   pin-hole1 the    
left eye being closed4 ,note the size of
 the 7slightly   dull7 circular visual  
field4 ,open the left eye1 the field    
becomes   brighter and smaller          
7contraction of pupil72 close the left  
eye1 after   an appreciable time1 the   
field 7now slightly dull7 is seen       
gradually to   expand4 ,one can thus see
 and observe the rate of movements of   
his own   iris4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#ade4    ,experiment #agi4 ,to show the 
blind spot4 ,the left eye being shut1   
let the right eye be fixed upon the     
cross as in ,fig4 #ade4 ,when the book  
is held at arm's length1 both cross and 
round spot will be visible2 but   if the
 book be brought to about #h inches from
 the eye1 the gaze being   kept steadily
 upon the cross1 the round spot will at 
first disappear1   but as the book1 is  
brought still nearer both cross and     
round spot will   again be seen4        
,experiment #ahj4 ,to illustrate the    
duration of retinal   impressions4 ,on a

 circular white disk1 about halfway     
between the center   and circumference1 
fix a small1 black1 oblong disk1 and    
rapidly rotate   it by means of a       
rotating wheel4 ,there appears a ring of
 gray on the   black1 showing that the  
impression on the retina lasts a certain
 time4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#adf4--,optic ,disks4    ,the disk ,a1  
having black and white sectors1 when    
rotated rapidly gives   an even gray    
tint as in ,b4    ,experiment #aha4     
,mark off a round piece of cardboard    
into black and   white sectors as in ,a 
7,fig4 #adf74 ,attach it so as to rotate
 it rapidly1   as on a sewing machine4  
,an even gray tint will be produced as  
in ,b4    ,experiment #ahb4,to          
illustrate imperfect visual judgments4  
,make   three round black dots1 ,a1 ,b1 
,c1 of the same size1 in the same line1 
and   let ,a and ,c be equidistant from 
,b4 ,between ,a and ,b make several more
   dots of the same size4 ,a and ,b will
 then appear to be farther apart than   

,b and ,c4      ,illustration3       99 
99 99 99 99 99          99       ,a     
,b          ,c         ,for the same    
reason1 of two squares absolutely       
identical in size1 one   marked with    
alternately clear and dark cross-bands1 
and the other with   alternately clear  
and dark upright markings1 the former   
will appear   broader and the latter    
higher than the other4    ,experiment   
#ahc4 ,make on a white card two squares 
of equal size4   ,across the one draw   
horizontal lines at equal distances1 and
 in the   other make similar vertical   
lines4 ,hold them at some distance4 ,the
 one   with horizontal lines appears    
higher than it really is1 while the one 
with vertical lines appears broader1    
i4e41 both appear oblong4    ,experiment
 #ahd4 ,look at the row of letters 7,s7 
and figures 7#h74 ,to                   
,illustration3       ,s ,s ,s ,s ,s ,s  
,s ,s       #h #h #h #h #h #h #h #h     
some the upper halves of the letters and
 figures may appear to be of the   same 

size as the lower halves1 to others the 
lower halves may appear   larger4 ,hold 
the figure upside down1 and observe that
 there is a   considerable difference   
between the two1 the lower halves being 
considerably larger4    ,experiment     
#ahe4 ,to illustrate imperfect visual   
judgment4 ,the   length of a line       
appears to vary according to the angle  
and direction of   certain other lines  
in relation to it 7,fig4 #adg74 ,the    
length of the two   vertical lines is   
the same1 yet ,b appears much longer    
than ,a4      ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#adg4--,to show ,false ,estimate of     
,size4                   _/             
_/         _/             _/            
,a     ,b                           _/  
_/                     _/               
_/            ,experiment #ahf4 ,in     
indirect vision the appreciation of     
direction is   still more imperfect4    
,while leaning on a large table1 fix a  
point on the   table1 and then try to   
arrange three small pieces of colored   

paper in a   straight line4 ,invariably1
 the papers1 being at a distance from   
the   fixation-point1 and being seen by 
indirect vision1 are arranged1 not in   
a straight line1 but in the arc of a    
circle with a long radius4    ,chapter  
,,xii4  ,the ,throat and the ,voice4    
#cdi4 ,the ,throat4 ,the throat is a    
double highway1 as it were1 through     
which the air we breathe traverses the  
larynx on its way to the lungs1 and     
through which the food we swallow       
reaches the sophagus on its passage to  
the stomach4 ,it is1 therefore1 a very  
important region of the body1 being     
concerned in the great acts of          
respiration and digestion4  ,the throat 
is enclosed and protected by various    
muscles and bony structures1 along which
 run the great blood-vessels that supply
 the head1 and the great nerve trunks   
that pass from the brain to the parts   
below4  ,we have already described the  
food passages 7,chapter ,,vi47 and the  
air passages 7,chapter ,,viii474  ,to   

get a correct idea of the throat we     
should look into the wide-open mouth of 
some friend4 ,depressing the tongue we  
can readily see the back wall of the    
pharynx1 which is common to the two main
 avenues leading to the lungs and the   
stomach4 ,above1 we notice the air      
passages1 which lead to the posterior   
cavities of the nose4 ,we have already  
described the hard palate1 the soft     
palate1 the uvula1 and the tonsils      
7,fig4 #df74  ,on looking directly      
beyond these organs1 we see the         
beginning of the downward passage1--the 
pharynx4 ,if now the tongue be forcibly 
drawn forward1 a curved ridge may be    
seen behind it4 ,this is the epiglottis1
 which1 as we have already learned shuts
 down1 like the lid of a box1 over the  
top of the larynx 7secs4 #acg and #bjc74
  ,the throat is lined with mucous      
membrane covered with ciliated          
epithelium1 which secretes a lubricating
 fluid which keeps the parts moist and  
pliable4 ,an excess of this secretion   

forms a thick1 tenacious mass of mucus1 
which irritates the passages and gives  
rise to efforts of hawking and coughing 
to get rid of it4  #cej4 ,the ,larynx4  
,the larynx1 the essential organ of     
voice1 forms the box-like top of the    
windpipe4 ,it is built of variously     
shaped cartilages1 connected by         
ligaments4 ,it is clothed on the outside
 with muscles2 on the inside it is lined
 with mucous membrane1 continuous with  
that of the other air passages4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4--,view of the
 ,cartilages in front project and form  
the lages and ,ligaments of the ,adam's 
apple1 plainly seen and ,larynx4        
7,anterior view47    ,a1 hyoid bone2    
,b1 thyro-hyoid membrane2   ,c1 thyroid 
cartilage2   ,d1 erico-thyroid membrane2
   ,e1 cricoid cartilage1 lateral       
ligaments seen on each side2   ,f1 upper
 ring of the trachea4   7,adam's apple  
is in the ,v-shaped groove on a line    
with ,b and ,c47   ,the larynx has for a
 framework two cartilages1 the thyroid  

and the cricoid1 one above the other4   
,the larger of these1 called the        
thyroid1 from a supposed resemblance to 
a shield1 consists of two extended wings
 which join in front1 but are separated 
by a wide interval behind4 ,the united  
edges in front project and form the     
,adam's apple plainly seen and easily   
felt on most people1 especially on very 
lean men4  ,above and from the sides    
rise two horns connected by bands to the
 hyoid bone from which the larynx is    
suspended4 ,this bone is attached by    
muscles and ligaments to the skull4 ,it 
lies at the base of the tongue1 and can 
be readily felt by the finger behind the
 chin at the angle of the jaw and the   
neck 7sec4 #da and ,fig4 #df74 ,from the
 under side of the thyroid two horns    
project downwards to become jointed to  
the cricoid4 ,the thyroid thus rests    
upon1 and is movable on1 the cricoid    
cartilage4  ,the cricoid cartilage1 so  
called from its fancied resemblance to a
 signet-ring1 is smaller but thicker and

 stronger than the thyroid1 and forms   
the lower and back part of the cavity of
 the larynx4 ,this cartilage is quite   
sensitive to pressure from the fingers1 
and is the cause of the sharp pain felt 
when we try to swallow a large and hard 
piece of food not properly chewed4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4--;,diagram of
 a ,sectional of ,nasal and ,throat     
,passages4    ,c1 nasal cavities2   ,t1 
tongue2   ,l1 lower jaw2   ,m1 mouth2   
,u1 uvula2   ,e1 epiglottis2   ,g1      
larynx2   ,o1 sophagus4   ,on the upper 
edge of the cricoid cartilage are       
perched a pair of very singular         
cartilages1 pyramidal in shape1 called  
the arytenoid1 which are of great       
importance in the production of the     
voice4 ,these cartilages are capped with
 little horn-like projections1 and give 
attachment at their anterior angles to  
the true vocal cords1 and at their      
posterior angles to the muscles which   
open and close the glottis1 or upper    
opening of the windpipe4 ,when in their 

natural position the arytenoid          
cartilages resemble somewhat the mouth  
of a pitcher1 hence their name4  #cea4  
,the ,vocal ,cords4 ,the mucous membrane
 which lines the various cartilages of  
the larynx is thrown into several folds4
 ,thus1 one fold1 the free edge of which
 is formed of a band of elastic fibers1 
passes horizontally outwards from each  
side towards the middle line1 at the    
level of the base of the arytenoid      
cartilages4 ,these folds are called the 
true vocal cords1 by the movements of   
which the voice is produced4  ,above    
them are other folds of mucous membrane 
called the false vocal cords1 which take
 no part in the production of the voice4
 ,the arrangement of the true vocal     
cords1 projecting as they do towards the
 middle line1 reduces to a mere chink   
the space between the part of the larynx
 above them and the part below them4    
,this constriction of the larynx is     
called the glottis4  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #aej4--,view of the ,cartilages   

and ,ligaments of ,larynx4 7,posterior  
view47    ,a1 epiglottis2   ,b1 thyroid 
cartilage2   ,c1 arytenoid cartilage2   
,d1 ligament connecting lower cornu of  
the thyroid with the back of the        
cricoid cartilage2   ,e1 cricoid        
cartilage2   ,f1 upper ring of the      
trachea4   #ceb4 ,the ,mechanism of the 
,voice4 ,the mechanism of the voice may 
be more easily understood by a study of 
,fig4 #aej4 ,we have here the larynx1   
viewed from behind1 with all the soft   
parts in connection with it4 ,on looking
 down1 the folds forming the true vocal 
cords are seen enclosing a ,v-shaped    
aperture 7the glottis71 the narrow part 
being in front4  ,the form of this      
aperture may be changed by the          
delicately coordinate activities of the 
muscles of the larynx4 ,for instance1   
the vocal cords may be brought so       
closely together that the space becomes 
a mere slit4 ,air forced through the    
slit will throw the edges of the folds  
into vibration and a sound will be      

produced4  ,the ,variations in the form 
of the opening will determine the       
variations in the sound4 ,now1 if the   
various muscles of the larynx be        
relaxed1 the opening of the glottis is  
wider4 ,thus the air enters and leaves  
the larynx during breathing1 without    
throwing the cords into vibration enough
 to produce any sound4  ,we may say that
 the production of the voice is effected
 by an arrangement like that of some    
musical instruments1 the sounds produced
 by the vibrations of the vocal cords   
being modified by the tubes above and   
below4 ,all musical sounds are due to   
movements or vibrations occurring with a
 certain regularity1 and they differ in 
loudness1 pitch1 and quality4 ,loudness 
of the sound depends upon the extent of 
the vibrations1 pitch on the rapidity of
 the vibrations1 and quality on the     
admixture of tones produced by          
vibrations of varying rates of rapidity1
 related to one another4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #aea4--,longitudinal ,section of 

the ,larynx4 7,showing the vocal cords47
    ,a1 epiglottis2   ,b1 section of    
hyoid bone2   ,c1 superior vocal cord2  
,d1 ventricle of the larynx2   ,e1      
inferior vocal cord2   ,f1 section of   
the thyroid cartilage2   ,h1 section of 
anterior portion of the cricoid         
cartilage2   ,k1 trachea2   ,l1 section 
of the posterior portion of the cricoid 
cartilage2   ,m1 arytenoid cartilage2   
,n1 section of the arytenoid muscle4    
#cec4 ,factors in the ,production of the
 ,voice4 ,muscles which pass from the   
cricoid cartilage to the outer angle of 
the arytenoids act to bring the vocal   
cords close together1 and parallel to   
one another1 so that the space between  
them is narrowed to a slit4 ,a strong   
expiration now drives the air from the  
lungs through the slit1 between the     
cords1 and throws them into vibration4  
,the vibration is small in amount1 but  
very rapid4 ,other muscles are connected
 with the arytenoid cartilages which    
serve to seperate the vocal cords and to

 widely open the glottis4 ,the force of 
the outgoing current of air determines  
the extent of the movement of the cords1
 and thus the loudness of the sound will
 increase with greater force of         
expiration4  ,we have just learned that 
the pitch of sound depends on the       
rapidity of the vibrations4 ,this       
depends on the length of cords and their
 tightness for the shorter and tighter a
 string is1 the higher is the note which
 its vibration produces4 ,the vocal     
cords of women are about one-third      
shorter than those of men1 hence the    
higher pitch of the notes they produce4 
,in children the vocal cords are shorter
 than in adults4#ej ,the cords of tenor 
singers are also shorter than those of  
basses and baritones4 ,the muscles      
within the larynx1 of course1 play a    
very important part in altering the     
tension of the vocal cords4 ,those      
qualities of the voice which we speak of
 as sweet1 harsh1 and sympathetic depend
 to a great extent upon the peculiar    

structure of the vocal cords of the     
individual4  ,besides the physical      
condition of the vocal cords1 as their  
degree of smoothness1 elasticity1       
thickness1 and so on1 other factors     
determine the quality of an individual's
 voice4 ,thus1 the general shape and    
structure of the trachea1 the larynx1   
the throat1 and mouth all influence the 
quality of voice4 ,in fact1 the air     
passages1 both below and above the      
vibrating cords1 act as resonators1 or  
resounding chambers1 and intensify and  
modify the sounds produced by the cords4
 ,it is this fact that prompts skillful 
teachers of music and elocution to urge 
upon their pupils the necessity of the  
mouth being properly opened during      
speech1 and especially during singing4  
,experiment #ahg4 ,to show the anatomy  
of the throat4 ,study the   general     
construction of the throat by the help  
of a hand mirror4 ,repeat   the same on 
the throat of some friend4              
,experiment #ahh4 ,to show the          

construction of the vocal organs4 ,get  
a butcher to furnish two windpipes from 
a sheep or a calf4 ,they differ         
somewhat from the vocal organs of the   
human body1 but will enable us to       
recognize the different parts which have
 been described1 and thus to get   a    
good idea of the gross anatomy4    ,one 
specimen should be cut open lengthwise  
in the middle line in front1   and the  
other cut in the same way from behind4  
#ced4 ,speech4 ,speech is to be         
distinguished from voice4 ,it may exist 
without voice1 as in a whisper4 ,speech 
consists of articulated sounds1 produced
 by the action of various parts of the  
mouth1 throat1 and nose4 ,voice is      
common to most animals1 but speech is   
the peculiar privilege of man4          
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#aeb4--;,diagramatic ,horizontal        
,section of ,larynx to show the         
,direction of ,pull of the ,posterior   
,crico-,arytenoid ,muscles1 which abduct
 the ,vocal ,cords4 7,dotted lines show 

position in abduction47  ,the organ of  
speech is perhaps the most delicate and 
perfect motor apparatus in the whole    
body4 ,it has been calculated that      
upwards of #ijj movements per minute can
 be made by the movable organs of speech
 during reading1 speaking1 and singing4 
,it is said that no less than a hundred 
different muscles are called into action
 in talking4 ,each part of this delicate
 apparatus is so admirably adjusted to  
every other that all parts of this most 
complex machinery act in perfect        
harmony4  ,there are certain articulate 
sounds called vowel or vocal1 from the  
fact that they are produced by the vocal
 cords1 and are but slightly modified as
 they pass out of the mouth4 ,the true  
vowels1 a1 e1 i1 o1 u1 can all be       
sounded alone1 and may be prolonged in  
expiration4 ,these are the sounds       
chiefly used in singing4 ,the           
differences in their characters are     
produced by changes in the position of  
the tongue1 mouth1 and lips4            

,consonants are sounds produced by      
interruptions of the outgoing current of
 air1 but in some cases have no sound in
 themselves1 and serve merely to modify 
vowel sounds4 ,thus1 when the           
interruption to the outgoing current    
takes place by movements of the lips1 we
 have the labial consonants1 p1 b1 f1   
and v4 ,when the tongue1 in relation    
with the teeth or hard palate1 obstructs
 the air1 the dental consonants1 d1 t1  
l1 and s are produced4 ,gutturals1 such 
as k1 g1 ch1 gh1 and r1 are due to the  
movements of the root of the tongue in  
connection with the soft palate or      
pharynx4  ,to secure an easy and proper 
production of articulate sounds1 the    
mouth1 teeth1 lips1 tongue1 and palate  
should be in perfect order4 ,the        
modifications in articulation occasioned
 by a defect in the palate1 or in the   
uvula1 by the loss of teeth1 from       
disease1 and from congenital defects1   
are sufficiently familiar4 ,we have seen
 that speech consists essentially in a  

modification of the vocal sounds by the 
accessory organs1 or by parts above the 
larynx1 the latter being the essential  
vocal instrument4  ,many animals have   
the power of making articulated sounds2 
a few have risen1 like man1 to the      
dignity of sentences1 but these are only
 by imitation of the human voice4 ,both 
vowels and consonants can be            
distinguished in the notes of birds1 the
 vocal powers of which are generally    
higher than those of mammals4 ,the      
latter1 as a rule1 produce only vowels1 
though some are also able to form       
consonants4  ,persons idiotic from birth
 are incapable of producing any other   
vocal sounds than inarticulate cries1   
although supplied with all the internal 
means of articulation4 ,persons deaf and
 dumb are in the same situation1 though 
from a different cause2 the one being   
incapable of imitating1 and the other   
being deprived of hearing the sounds to 
be imitated4  ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#aec4--;,direction of ,pull of the      

,lateral ,crico-,arytenoids1 which      
adduct the ,vocal ,cords4 7,dotted lines
 show position in adduction47  ,in      
whispering1 the larynx takes scarcely   
any part in the production of the       
sounds2 the vocal cords remain apart and
 comparatively slack1 and the expiratory
 blast rushes through without setting   
them in vibration4  ,in stammering1     
spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm  
interrupts the effort of expiration4    
,the stammerer has full control of the  
mechanism of articulation1 but not of   
the expiratory blast4 ,his larynx and   
his lips are at his command1 but not his
 diaphragm4 ,to conquer this defect he  
must train his muscles of respiration to
 calm and steady action during speech4  
,the stutterer1 on the other hand1 has  
full control of the muscles of          
expiration4 ,his diaphragm is well      
drilled1 but his lips and tongue are    
insubordinate4  #cee4 ,the ,care of the 
,throat and ,voice4 ,the throat1 exposed
 as it is to unwholesome and overheated 

air1 irritating dust of the street1     
factories1 and workshops1 is often      
inflamed1 resulting in that common      
ailment1 sore throat4 ,the parts are    
red1 swollen1 and quite painful on      
swallowing4 ,speech is often indistinct1
 but there is no hoarseness or cough    
unless the uvula is lengthened and      
tickles the back part of the tongue4    
,slight sore throat rarely requires any 
special treatment1 aside from simple    
nursing4  ,the most frequent cause of   
throat trouble is the action of cold    
upon the heated body1 especially during 
active perspiration4 ,for this reason a 
cold bath should not be taken while a   
person is perspiring freely4 ,the       
muscles of the throat are frequently    
overstrained by loud talking1 screaming1
 shouting1 or by reading aloud too much4
 ,people who strain or misuse the voice 
often suffer from what is called        
clergyman's sore throat4 ,attacks of    
sore throat due to improper methods of  
breathing and of using the voice should 

be treated by judicious elocutionary    
exercises and a system of vocal         
gymnastics1 under the direction of      
proper teachers4  ,persons subject to   
throat disease should take special care 
to wear suitable underclothing1 adapted 
to the changes of the seasons4 ,frequent
 baths are excellent tonics to the skin1
 and serve indirectly to protect one    
liable to throat ailments from changes  
in the weather4 ,it is not prudent to   
muffle the neck in scarfs1 furs1 and    
wraps1 unless perhaps during an unusual 
exposure to cold4 ,such a dress for the 
neck only makes the parts tender1 and   
increases the liability to a sore       
throat4  ,every teacher of elocution or 
of vocal music1 entrusted with the      
training of a voice of some value to its
 possessor1 should have a good1         
practical knowledge of the mechanism of 
the voice4 ,good voices are often       
injured by injudicious management on the
 part of some incompetent instructor4   
,it is always prudent to cease speaking 

or singing in public the moment there is
 any hoarseness or sore throat4  ,the   
voice should not be exercised just after
 a full meal1 for a full stomach        
interferes with the free play of the    
diaphragm4 ,a sip of water taken at     
convenient intervals1 and held in the   
mouth for a moment or two1 will relieve 
the dryness of the throat during the use
 of the voice4   #cef4 ,effect of       
,alcohol upon the ,throat and ,voice4   
,alcoholic beverages seriously injure   
the throat1 and consequently the voice1 
by causing a chronic inflammation of the
 membrane lining the larynx and the     
vocal cords4 ,the color is changed from 
the healthful pink to red1 and the      
natural smooth surface becomes roughened
 and swollen1 and secretes a tough      
phlegm4  ,the vocal cords usually suffer
 from this condition4 ,they are         
thickened1 roughened1 and enfeebled1 the
 delicate vibration of the cords is     
impaired1 the clearness and purity of   
the vocal tones are gone1 and instead   

the voice has become rough and husky4   
,so well known is this result that      
vocalists1 whose fortune is the purity  
and compass of their tones1 are         
scrupulously careful not to impair these
 fine qualities by convivial            
indulgences4   #ceg4 ,effect of ,tobacco
 upon the ,throat and ,voice4 ,the      
effect of tobacco is often specially    
serious upon the throat1 producing a    
disease well known to physicians as the 
smoker's sore throat4 ,still further1 it
 produces inflammation of the larynx1   
and thus entails disorders of the vocal 
cords1 involving rough voice and harsh  
tones4 ,for this reason vocalists rarely
 allow themselves to come under the     
narcotic influence of tobacco smoke4 ,it
 is stated that habitual smokers rarely 
have a normal condition of the throat4  
,additional ,experiments4    ,experiment
 #ahi4 ,to illustrate the importance of 
the resonating   cavity of the nose in  
articulation4 ,pinch the nostrils1 and  
try to   pronounce slowly the words     

,lincoln1 something1 or any other words 
which require the sound of m1 ln1 or ng4
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4          
,experiment #aij4 ,to illustrate the    
passage of air through the   glottis4   
,take two strips of ,india rubber1 and  
stretch them over the   open end of a   
boy's bean-blower1 or any kind of a     
tube4 ,tie them   tightly with thread1  
so that a chink will be left between    
them1 as shown   in ,fig4 #aed4 ,force  
the air through such a tube by blowing  
hard1 and if   the strips are not too   
far apart a sound will be produced4 ,the
 sound   will vary in character1 just as
 the bands are made tight or loose4     
,experiment #aia4 ,a very good          
illustration of the action of the       
vocal bands in the production of the    
voice may be given by means of a   piece
 of bamboo or any hollow wooden tube1   
and a strip of rubber1 about   an inch  
or an inch and a half wide1 cut from the
 pure sheet rubber used   by dentists4  
,one end of the tube is to be cut       

sloping in two directions1 and the      
strip of sheet rubber is then to be     
wrapped round the tube1 so as to   leave
 a narrow slit terminating at the upper 
corners of the tube4    ,by blowing into
 the other end of the tube the edges of 
the rubber bands   will be set in       
vibration1 and by touching the vibrating
 membrane at   different points so as to
 check its movements it may be shown    
that the   pitch of the note emitted    
depends upon the length and breadth of  
the   vibrating portion of the vocal    
bands4#ea--;,dr4 ,h4 ,p4 ,bowditch4     
,,note4 ,the limitations of a text-book 
on physiology for schools do not        
permit so full a description of the     
voice as the subject deserves4 ,for     
additional details1 the student is      
referred to ,cohen's ,the ,throat and   
the ,voice1 a volume in the ,american   
,health ,primer ,series4 ,price #dj     
cents4     ,chapter ,,xiii4  ,accidents 
and ,emergencies4    #ceh4 ,prompt ,aid 
to the ,injured4 ,a large proportion of 

the accidents1 emergencies1 and sudden  
sicknesses that happen do not call for  
medical or surgical attention4 ,for     
those that do require the services of a 
physician or surgeon1 much can be often 
done before the arrival of professional 
help4 ,many a life has been saved and   
much suffering and anxiety prevented by 
the prompt and efficient help of some   
person with a cool head1 a steady hand1 
and a practical knowledge of what to do 
first4 ,many of us can recall with      
mingled admiration and gratitude the    
prompt services rendered our families by
 some neighbor or friend in the presence
 of an emergency or sudden illness4  ,in
 fact1 what we have studied in the      
preceding chapters becomes tenfold more 
interesting1 instructive1 and of value  
to us1 if we are able to supplement such
 study with its practical application to
 the treatment of the more common and   
less serious accidents and emergencies4 
,while no book can teach one to have    
presence of mind1 a cool head1 or to    

restrain a more or less excitable       
temperament in the midst of sudden      
danger1 yet assuredly with proper       
knowledge for a foundation1 a certain   
self-confidence may be acquired which   
will do much to prevent hasty action1   
and to maintain a useful amount of      
self-control4  ,space allows us to      
describe briefly in this chapter only a 
few of the simplest helps in the more   
common accidents and emergencies which  
are met with in everyday life4#eb       
#cei4 ,hints as to what to ,do ,first4  
,retain so far as possible your presence
 of mind1 or1 in other words1 keep cool4
 ,this is an all-important direction4   
,act promptly and quietly1 but not with 
haste4 ,whatever you do1 do in earnest2 
and never act in a half-hearted manner  
in the presence of danger4 ,of course1 a
 knowledge of what to-do and how to do  
it will contribute much towards that    
self-control and confidence that command
 success4 ,be sure and send for a doctor
 at once if the emergency calls for     

skilled service4 ,all that is expected  
of you under such circumstances is to   
tide over matters until the doctor      
comes4  ,illustration3 ,fig4            
#aee4--,showing how ,digital            
,compression should be applied to the   
,brachial ,artery4  ,do not presume upon
 any smattering of knowledge you have1  
to assume any risk that might lead to   
serious results4 ,make the sufferer     
comfortable by giving him an abundance  
of fresh air and placing him in a       
restful position4 ,do all that is       
possible to keep back the crowd of      
curious lookers-on1 whom a morbid       
curiosity has gathered about the injured
 person4 ,loosen all tight articles of  
clothing1 as belts1 collars1 corsets1   
and elastics4 ,avoid the use of         
alcoholic liquors4 ,they are rarely of  
any real service1 and in many instances1
 as in bleeding1 may do much harm4      
#cfj4 ,incised and ,lacerated ,wounds4  
,an incised or cut wound is one made by 
a sharp instrument1 as when the finger  

is cut with a knife4 ,such a wound      
bleeds freely because the clean-cut     
edges do not favor the clotting of      
blood4 ,in slight cuts the bleeding     
readily ceases1 and the wound heals by  
primary union1 or by first intention1 as
 surgeons call it4  ,lacerated and      
contused wounds are made by a tearing or
 bruising instrument1 for example1      
catching the finger on a nail4 ,such    
wounds bleed but little1 and the edges  
and surfaces are rough and ragged4  ,if 
the incised wound is deep or extensive1 
a physician is necessary to bring the   
cut edges together by stitches in order 
to get primary union4 ,oftentimes1 in   
severe cuts1 and generally in           
lacerations1 there is a loss of tissue1 
so that the wound heals by second       
intention2 that is1 the wound heals from
 the bottom by a deposit of new cells   
called granulations1 which gradually    
fill it up4 ,the skin begins to grow    
from the edges to the center1 covering  
the new tissue and leaving a cicatrix or

 scar with which every one is familiar4 
#cfa4 ,contusion and ,bruises4 ,an      
injury to the soft tissues1 caused by a 
blow from some blunt instrument1 or a   
fall1 is a contusion1 or bruise4 ,it is 
more or less painful1 followed by       
discoloration due to the escape of blood
 under the skin1 which often may not be 
torn through4 ,a black eye1 a knee      
injured by a fall from a bicycle1 and a 
finger hurt by a baseball1 are familiar 
examples of this sort of injury4 ,such  
injuries ordinarily require very simple 
treatment4  ,the blood which has escaped
 from the capillaries is slowly         
absorbed1 changing color in the process1
 from blue black to green1 and fading   
into a light yellow4 ,wring out old     
towels or pieces of flannel in hot      
water1 and apply to the parts1 changing 
as they become cool4 ,for cold          
applications1 cloths wet with equal     
parts of water and alcohol1 vinegar1 and
 witch-hazel may be used4 ,even if the  
injury is apparently slight it is always

 safe to rest the parts for a few days4 
,when wounds are made with ragged edges1
 such as those made by broken glass and 
splinters1 more skill is called for4    
,remove every bit of foreign substance4 
,wash the parts clean with one of the   
many antiseptic solutions1 bring the    
torn edges together1 and hold them in   
place with strips of plaster4 ,do not   
cover such an injury all over with      
plaster1 but leave room for the escape  
of the wound discharges4 ,for an outside
 dressing1 use compresses made of clean 
cheese-cloth or strips of any clean     
linen cloth4 ,the antiseptic            
corrosive-sublimate gauze on sale at any
 drug store should be used if it can be 
had4  ,wounds made by toy pistols1      
percussion-caps1 and rusty nails and    
tools1 if neglected1 often lead to      
serious results from blood-poisoning4 ,a
 hot flaxseed poultice may be needed for
 several days4 ,keep such wounds clean  
by washing or syringing them twice a day
 with hot antiseptics1 which are poisons

 to bacteria and kill them or prevent   
their growth4 ,bacteria are widely      
distributed1 and hence the utmost care  
should be taken to have everything which
 is to come in contact with a wounded   
surface free from the germs of          
inflammation4 ,in brief1 such injuries  
must be kept scrupulously neat and      
surgically clean4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#aef4--;,dotted ,line showing the       
,course of the ,brachial ,artery4  ,the 
injured parts should be kept at rest4   
,movement and disturbance hinder the    
healing process4   #cfb4 ,bites of ,mad 
,dogs4 ,remove the clothing at once1 if 
only from the bitten part1 and apply a  
temporary ligature above the wound4     
,this interrupts the activity of the    
circulation of the part1 and to that    
extent delays the absorption of the     
poisonous saliva by the blood-vessels of
 the wound4 ,a dog bite is really a     
lacerated and contused wound1 and lying 
in the little roughnesses1 and between  
the shreds1 is the poisonous saliva4 ,if

 by any means these projections and     
depressions affording the lodgment can  
be removed1 the poison cannot do much   
harm4 ,if done with a knife1 the wound  
would be converted1 practically1 into an
 incised wound1 and would require       
treatment for such4  ,if a surgeon is at
 hand he would probably cut out the     
injured portion1 or cauterize it        
thoroughly4 ,professional aid is not    
always at our command1 and in such a    
case it would be well to take a poker1  
or other suitable piece of iron1 heat it
 red hot in the fire1 wipe off and      
destroy the entire surface of the wound4
 ,as fast as destroyed1 the tissue      
becomes white4 ,an iron1 even at a white
 heat1 gives less pain and at once      
destroys the vitality of the part with  
which it comes in contact4  ,if the     
wound is at once well wiped out1 and a  
stick of solid nitrate of silver 7lunar 
caustic7 rapidly applied to the entire  
surface of the wound1 little danger is  
to be apprehended4 ,poultices and warm  

fomentations should be applied to the   
injury to hasten the sloughing away of  
the part whose vitality has been        
intentionally destroyed4  ,any dog1     
after having bitten a person1 is apt1   
under a mistaken belief1 to be at once  
killed4 ,this should not be done4 ,there
 is no more danger from a dog-bite1     
unless the dog is suffering from the    
disease called rabies or is mad1 than   
from any other lacerated wound4 ,the    
suspected animal should be at once      
placed in confinement and watched1 under
 proper safeguards1 for the appearance  
of any symptoms that indicate rabies4   
,should no pronounced symptoms indicate 
this disease in the dog1 a great deal of
 unnecessary mental distress and worry  
can be saved both on the part of the    
person bitten and his friends4  #cfc4   
,injuries to the ,blood-vessels4 ,it is 
very important to know the difference   
between the bleeding from an artery and 
that from a vein4  ,if an artery bleeds1
 the blood leaps in spurts1 and is of a 

bright scarlet color4  ,if a vein       
bleeds1 the blood flows in a steady     
stream1 and is of a dark purple color4  
,if the capillaries are injured the     
blood merely oozes4  ,bleeding from an  
artery is a dangerous matter in         
proportion to the size of the vessel1   
and life itself may be speedily lost4   
,hemorrhage from a vein or from the     
capillaries is rarely troublesome1 and  
is ordinarily easily checked1 aided1 if 
need be1 by hot water1 deep pressure1   
the application of some form of iron    
styptic1 or even powdered alum4 ,when an
 artery is bleeding1 always remember to 
make deep pressure between the wound and
 the heart4 ,in all such cases send at  
once for the doctor4  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #aeg4--,showing how ,digital      
,compression should be applied to the   
,femoral ,artery4  ,do not be afraid to 
act at once4 ,a resolute grip in the    
right place with firm fingers will do   
well enough1 until a twisted            
handkerchief1 stout cord1 shoestring1   

suspender1 or an improvised             
tourniquet#ec is ready to take its      
place4 ,if the flow of blood does not   
stop1 change the pressure until the     
right spot is found4  ,sometimes it will
 do to seize a handful of dry earth and 
crowd it down into the bleeding wound1  
with a firm pressure4 ,strips of an old 
handkerchief1 underclothing1 or cotton  
wadding may also be used as a compress1 
provided pressure is not neglected4  ,in
 the after-treatment it is of great     
importance that the wound and the       
dressing should be kept free from       
bacteria by keeping everything          
surgically clean4   #cfd4 ,where and how
 to ,apply ,pressure4 ,the principal    
places in which to apply pressure when  
arteries are injured and bleeding should
 always be kept in mind4    ,experiment 
#aib4 ,how to tie a square knot4 ,if the
 student would   render efficient help  
in accidents and emergencies1 to say    
nothing of   service on scores of other 
occasions1 he must learn how to tie a   

square   or reef knot4 ,this knot is    
secure and does not slip as does the    
granny knot4 ,the square knot is the one
 used by surgeons in ligating   vessels 
and securing bandages4 ,unless one knew 
the difference1 the   insecure granny   
knot might be substituted4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--,showing how
 a ,square ,knot may be tied with a     
,cord and a ,handkerchief4    ,a square 
knot is tied by holding an end of a     
bandage or cord in   each hand1 and then
 passing the end in the right hand over 
the one in   the left and tying2 the end
 now in the left hand is passed over the
   one in the right and again tied4  ,if
 in the finger1 grasp it with the thumb 
and forefinger1 and pinch it firmly on  
each side2 if in the hand1 press on the 
bleeding spot1 or press with the thumb  
just above and in front of the wrist4   
,for injuries below the elbow1 grasp the
 upper part of the arm with the hands1  
and squeeze hard4 ,the main artery runs 
in the middle line of the bend of the   

elbow4 ,tie the knotted cord here1 and  
bend the forearm so as to press hard    
against the knot4  ,for the upper arm1  
press with the fingers against the bone 
on the inner side1 and just on the edge 
of the swell of the biceps muscle4 ,now 
we are ready for the knotted cord4 ,take
 a stout stick of wood1 about a foot    
long1 and twist the cord hard with it1  
bringing the knot firmly over the       
artery4  ,for the foot or leg1 pressure 
as before1 in the hollow behind the     
knee1 just above the calf of the leg4   
,bend the thigh towards the abdomen and 
bring the leg up against the thigh1 with
 the knot in the bend of the knee4      
#cfe4 ,bleeding from the ,stomach and   
,lungs4 ,blood that comes from the lungs
 is bright red1 frothy1 or soapy4 ,there
 is rarely much2 it usually follows     
coughing1 feels warm1 and has a salty   
taste4 ,this is a grave symptom4        
,perfect rest on the back in bed and    
quiet must be insisted upon4 ,bits of   
ice should be eaten freely4 ,loosen the 

clothing1 keep the shoulders well       
raised1 and the body in a reclining     
position and absolutely at rest4 ,do not
 give alcoholic drinks4  ,blood from the
 stomach is not frothy1 has a sour      
taste1 and is usually dark colored1     
looking somewhat like coffee grounds4   
,it is more in quantity than from the   
lungs1 and is apt to be mixed with food4
 ,employ the same treatment1 except that
 the person should be kept flat on the  
back4   #cff4 ,bleeding from the ,nose4 
,this is the most frequent and the least
 dangerous of the various forms of      
bleeding4 ,let the patient sit upright2 
leaning forward with the head low only  
increases the hemorrhage4 ,raise the arm
 on the bleeding side2 do not blow the  
nose4 ,wring two towels out of cold     
water2 wrap one around the neck and the 
other properly folded over the forehead 
and upper part of the nose4  ,add a     
teaspoonful of powdered alum to a cup of
 water1 and snuff it up from the hand4  
,if necessary1 soak in alum water a     

piece of absorbent cotton1 which has    
been wound around the pointed end of a  
pencil or penholder2 plug the nostril by
 pushing it up with a twisting motion   
until firmly lodged4   #cfg4 ,burns or  
,scalds4 ,burns or scalds are dangerous 
in proportion to their extent and depth4
 ,a child may have one of his fingers   
burned off with less danger to life than
 an extensive scald of his back and     
legs4 ,a deep or extensive burn or scald
 should always have prompt medical      
attendance4  ,in burns by acids1 bathe  
the parts with an alkaline fluid1 as    
diluted ammonia1 or strong soda in      
solution1 and afterwards dress the burn4
  ,in burns caused by lime1 caustic     
potash1 and other alkalies1 soak the    
parts with vinegar diluted with water2  
lemon juice1 or any other diluted acid4 
,remove the clothing with the greatest  
care4 ,do not pull1 but carefully cut   
and coax the clothes away from the      
burned places4 ,save the skin unbroken  
if possible1 taking care not to break   

the blisters4 ,the secret of treatment  
is to prevent friction1 and to keep out 
the air4 ,if the burn is slight1 put on 
strips of soft linen soaked in a strong 
solution of baking-soda and water1 one  
heaping table spoonful to a cupful of   
water4 ,this is especially good for     
scalds4  ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#aei4--;,dotted ,line showing the       
,course of the ,femoral ,artery4        
,carron oil is one of the best          
applications4 ,it is simply half        
linseed-oil and half lime-water shaken  
together4 ,a few tablespoonfuls of      
carbolic acid solution to one pint may  
be added to this mixture to help deaden 
the pain4 ,soak strips of old linen or  
absorbent cotton in this time-honored   
remedy1 and gently apply4  ,if          
carbolized or even plain vaseline is at 
hand1 spread it freely on strips of old 
linen1 and cover well the burnt parts1  
keeping out the air with other strips   
carefully laid on4 ,simple cold water is
 better than flour1 starch1 toilet      

powder1 cotton batting1 and other things
 which are apt to stick1 and make an    
after-examination very painful4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4--,showing how
 ,hemorrhage from the ,femoral ,artery  
may be arrested by the ,use of an       
,improvised ,apparatus 7technically     
called a ,tourniquet74  #cfh4 ,frost    
,bites4 ,the ears1 toes1 nose1 and      
fingers are occasionally frozen1 or     
frost-bitten4 ,no warm air1 warm water1 
or fire should be allowed near the      
frozen parts until the natural          
temperature is nearly restored4 ,rub the
 frozen part vigorously with snow or    
snow-water in a cold room4 ,continue    
this until a burning1 tingling pain is  
felt1 when all active treatment should  
cease4  ,pain shows that warmth and     
circulation are beginning to return4    
,the after effects of a frost bite are  
precisely like those of a burn1 and     
require similar treatment4 ,poultices   
made from scraped raw potatoes afford   
much comfort for an after treatment4    

#cfi4 ,catching the ,clothing on ,fire4 
,when the clothing catches fire1 throw  
the person down on the ground or floor1 
as the flames will tend less to rise    
toward the mouth and nostrils4 ,then    
without a moment's delay1 roll the      
person in a carpet or hearth-rug1 so as 
to stifle the flames1 leaving only the  
head out for breathing4  ,if no carpet  
or rug can be had1 then take off your   
coat1 shawl1 or cloak and use it        
instead4 ,keep the flame as much as     
possible from the face1 so as to prevent
 the entrance of the hot air into the   
lungs4 ,this can be done by beginning at
 the neck and shoulders with the        
wrapping4   #cgj4 ,foreign ,bodies in   
the ,throat4 ,bits of food or other     
small objects sometimes get lodged in   
the throat1 and are easily extracted by 
the forefinger1 by sharp slaps on the   
back1 or expelled by vomiting4 ,if it is
 a sliver from a toothpick1 match1 or   
fishbone1 it is no easy matter to remove
 it2 for it generally sticks into the   

lining of the passage4 ,if the object   
has actually passed into the windpipe1  
and is followed by sudden fits of       
spasmodic coughing1 with a dusky hue to 
the face and fingers1 surgical help must
 be called without delay4  ,if a foreign
 body1 like coins1 pencils1 keys1       
fruit-stones1 etc41 is swallowed1 it is 
not wise to give a physic4 ,give plenty 
of hard-boiled eggs1 cheese1 and        
crackers1 so that the intruding         
substance maybe enfolded in a mass of   
solid food and allowed to pass off in   
the natural way4   #cga4 ,foreign       
,bodies in the ,nose4 ,children are apt 
to push beans1 peas1 fruit-stones1      
buttons1 and other small objects1 into  
the nose4 ,sometimes we can get the     
child to help by blowing the nose hard4 
,at other times1 a sharp blow between   
the shoulders will cause the substance  
to fall out4 ,if it is a pea or bean1   
which is apt to swell with the warmth   
and moisture1 call in medical help at   
once4   #cgb4 ,foreign ,bodies in the   

,ear4 ,it is a much more difficult      
matter to get foreign bodies out of the 
ear than from the nose4 ,syringe in a   
little warm water1 which will often wash
 out the substance4 ,if live insects get
 into the ear1 drop in a little sweet   
oil1 melted vaseline1 salt and water1 or
 even warm molasses4  ,if the tip of the
 ear is pulled up gently1 the liquid    
will flow in more readily4 ,if a light  
is held close to the outside ear1 the   
insect may be coaxed to crawl out       
towards the outer opening of the ear1   
being attracted by the bright flame4    
#cgc4 ,foreign ,bodies in the ,eye4     
,cinders1 particles of dust1 and other  
small substances1 often get into the    
eye1 and cause much pain4 ,it will only 
make bad matters worse to rub the eye4  
,often the copious flow of tears will   
wash the substance away4 ,it is         
sometimes seen1 and removed simply by   
the twisted corner of a handkerchief    
carefully used4 ,if it is not removed1  
or even found1 in this way1 the upper   

lid must be turned back4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #afa4--,showing how the ,upper   
,eyelid may be everted with a ,pencil or
 ,penholder4  ,this is done usually as  
follows3 ,seize the lashes between the  
thumb and forefinger1 and draw the edge 
of the lid away from the eyeball4 ,now1 
telling the patient to look down1 press 
a slender lead-pencil or penholder      
against the lid1 parallel to and above  
the edge1 and then pull the edge up1 and
 turn it over the pencil by means of the
 lashes4  ,the eye is now readily       
examined1 and usually the foreign body  
is easily seen and removed4 ,do not     
increase the trouble by rubbing the eye 
after you fail1 but get at once skilled 
help4 ,after the substance has been     
removed1 bathe the eye for a time with  
hot water4  ,if lime gets into the eye1 
it may do a great amount of mischief1   
and generally requires medical advice1  
or permanent injury will result4 ,until 
such advice can be had1 bathe the       
injured parts freely with a weak        

solution of vinegar and hot water4      
#cgd4 ,broken ,bones4 ,loss of power1   
pain1 and swelling are symptoms of a    
broken bone that may be easily          
recognized4 ,broken limbs should always 
be handled with great care and          
tenderness4 ,if the accident happens in 
the woods1 the limb should be bound with
 handkerchiefs1 suspenders1 or strips of
 clothing1 to a piece of board1         
pasteboard1 or bark1 padded with moss or
 grass1 which will do well enough for a 
temporary splint4 ,always put a broken  
arm into a sling after the splints are  
on4  ,illustration3 ,fig4               
#afb4--,showing how an ,umbrella may be 
used as a ,temporary ,splint in         
,fracture of the ,leg4  ,never move the 
injured person until the limb is made   
safe from further injuries by putting on
 temporary splints4 ,if you do not need 
to move the person1 keep the limb in a  
natural1 easy position1 until the doctor
 comes4  ,remember that this treatment  
for broken bones is only to enable the  

patient to be moved without further     
injury4 ,a surgeon is needed at once to 
set the broken bone4   ,illustration3   
,fig4 #afc4--,showing how a ,pillow may 
be used as a ,temporary ,splint in      
,fracture of the ,leg4  #cge4 ,fainting4
 ,a fainting person should be laid flat 
at once4 ,give plenty of fresh air1 and 
dash cold water1 if necessary1 on the   
head and neck4 ,loosen all tight        
clothing4 ,smelling-salts may be held to
 the nose1 to excite the nerves of      
sensation4  #cgf4 ,epileptic and        
,hysterical ,fits1 ,convulsions of      
,children4 ,sufferers from fits are more
 or less common4 ,in epilepsy1 the      
sufferer falls with a peculiar cry2 a   
loss of consciousness1 a moment of      
rigidity1 and violent convulsions       
follow4 ,there is foaming at the mouth1 
the eyes are rolled up1 and the tongue  
or lips are often bitten4 ,when the fit 
is over the patient remains in a dazed1 
stupid state for some time4 ,it is a    
mistake to struggle with such patients1 

or to hold them down and keep them      
quiet4 ,it does more harm than good4    
,see that the person does not injure    
himself2 crowd a pad made from a folded 
handkerchief or towel between the teeth1
 to prevent biting of the lips or       
tongue4 ,do not try to make the sufferer
 swallow any drink4 ,unfasten the       
clothes1 especially about the neck and  
chest4 ,persons who are subject to such 
fits should rarely go out alone1 and    
never into crowded or excited gatherings
 of any kind4  ,hysterical fits almost  
always occur in young women4 ,such      
patients never bite their tongue nor    
hurt themselves4 ,placing a towel wrung 
out in cold water across the face1 or   
dashing a little cold water on the face 
or neck1 will usually cut short the fit1
 speaking firmly to the patient at the  
same time4 ,never sympathize too much   
with such patients2 it will only make   
them a great deal worse4  #cgg4         
,asphyxia4 ,asphyxia is from the ,greek1
 and means an absence of pulse4 ,this   

states a fact1 but not the cause4 ,the  
word is now commonly used to mean       
suspended animation4 ,when for any      
reason the proper supply of oxygen is   
cut off1 the tissues rapidly load up    
with carbon dioxid4 ,the blood turns    
dark1 and does not circulate4 ,the      
healthy red or pink look of the lips and
 finger-nails becomes a dusky purple4   
,the person is suffering from a lack of 
oxygen2 that is1 from asphyxia1 or      
suffocation4 ,it is evident there can be
 several varieties of asphyxia1 as in   
apparent drowning1 strangulation and    
hanging1 inhalation of gases1 etc4  ,the
 first and essential thing to do is to  
give fresh air4 ,remove the person to   
the open air and place him on his back4 
,remove tight clothing about the throat 
and waist1 dash on cold water1 give a   
few drops of ammonia in hot water or hot
 ginger tea4 ,friction applied to the   
limbs should be kept up4 ,if necessary1 
use artificial respiration by the       
,sylvester method 7sec4 #chj74  ,the    

chief dangers from poisoning by noxious 
gases come from the fumes of burning    
coal in the furnace1 stove1 or range2   
from blowing out gas1 turning it down1  
and having it blown out by a draught2   
from the foul air often found in old    
wells2 from the fumes of charcoal and   
the foul air of mines4  #cgh4 ,apparent 
,drowning4 ,remove all tight clothing   
from the neck1 chest1 and waist4 ,sweep 
the forefinger1 covered with a          
handkerchief or towel1 round the mouth1 
to free it from froth and mucus4 ,turn  
the body on the face1 raising it a      
little1 with the hands under the hips1  
to allow any water to run out from the  
air passages4 ,take only a moment for   
this4  ,lay the person flat upon the    
back1 with a folded coat1 or pad of any 
kind1 to keep the shoulders raised a    
little4 ,remove all the wet1 clinging   
clothing that is convenient4 ,if in a   
room or sheltered place1 strip the body1
 and wrap it in blankets1 overcoats1    
etc4 ,if at hand1 use bottles of hot    

water1 hot flats1 or bags of hot sand   
round the limbs and feet4 ,watch the    
tongue3 it generally tends to slip back1
 and to shut off the air from the       
glottis4 ,wrap a coarse towel round the 
tip of the tongue1 and keep it well     
pulled forward4  ,the main thing to do  
is to keep up artificial respiration    
until the natural breathing comes1 or   
all hope is lost4 ,this is the simplest 
way to do it3 ,the person lies on the   
back2 let some one kneel behind the     
head4 ,grasp both arms near the elbows1 
and sweep them upward above the head    
until they nearly touch4 ,make a firm   
pull for a moment4 ,this tends to fill  
the lungs with air by drawing the ribs  
up1 and making the chest cavity larger4 
,now return the arms to the sides of the
 body until they press hard against the 
ribs4 ,this tends to force out the air4 
,this makes artificially a complete act 
of respiration4 ,repeat this act about  
fifteen times every minute4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4--,the        

,sylvester ,method4 7,first             
movement--inspiration47  ,all this may  
be kept up for several hours4 ,the first
 sign of recovery is often seen in the  
slight pinkish tinge of the lips or     
finger-nails4 ,that the pulse cannot be 
felt at the wrist is of little value in 
itself as a sign of death4 ,life may be 
present when only the most experienced  
ear can detect the faintest heart-beat4 
,when a person can breathe1 even a      
little1 he can swallow4 ,hold           
smelling-salts or hartshorn to the nose4
 ,put one teaspoonful of the aromatic   
spirits of ammonia1 or even of ammonia  
water1 into a half-glass of hot water1  
and give a few teaspoonfuls of this     
mixture every few minutes4 ,meanwhile do
 not fail to keep up artificial warmth  
in the most vigorous manner4  #cgi4     
,methods of ,artificial ,respiration4   
,there are several well-established     
methods of artificial respiration4 ,the 
two known as the ,sylvester and the     
,marshall ,hall methods are generally   

accepted as efficient and practical4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4--,the        
,sylvester ,method4 7,second            
movement--expiration47  #chj4 ,the      
,sylvester ,method4 ,the water and mucus
 are supposed to have been removed from 
the interior of the body by the means   
above described 7sec4 #cgh74  ,the      
patient is to be placed on his back1    
with a roll made of a coat or a shawl   
under the shoulders2 the tongue should  
then be drawn forward and retained by a 
handkerchief which is placed across the 
extended organ and carried under the    
chin1 then crossed and tied at the back 
of the neck4 ,an elastic band or small  
rubber tube or a suspender may be used  
for the same purpose4  ,the attendant   
should kneel at the head and grasp the  
elbows of the patient and draw them     
upward until the hands are carried above
 the head and kept in this position     
until one1 two1 three1 can be slowly    
counted4 ,this movement elevates the    
ribs1 expands the chest1 and creates a  

vacuum in the lungs into which the air  
rushes1 or in other words1 the movement 
produces inspiration4 ,the elbows are   
then slowly carried downward1 placed by 
the side1 and pressed inward against the
 chest1 thereby diminishing the size of 
the latter and producing expiration4    
,these movements should be repeated     
about fifteen times each minute for at  
least two hours1 provided no signs of   
animation show themselves4  #cha4 ,the  
,marshall ,hall ,method4 ,the patient   
should be placed face downwards1 the    
head resting on the forearm with a roll 
or pillow placed under the chest2 he    
should then be turned on his side1 an   
assistant supporting the head and       
keeping the mouth open2 after an        
interval of two or three seconds1 the   
patient should again be placed face     
downward and allowed to remain in this  
position the same length of time4 ,this 
operation should be repeated fifteen or 
sixteen times each minute1 and continued
 7unless the patient recovers7 for at   

least two hours4  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#aff4--,the ,marshall ,hall ,method4    
7,first position47  ,if1 after using one
 of the above methods1 evidence of      
recovery appears1 such as an occasional 
gasp or muscular movement1 the efforts  
to produce artificial respiration must  
not be discontinued1 but kept up until  
respiration is fully established4 ,all  
wet clothing should then be removed1 the
 patient rubbed dry1 and if possible    
placed in bed1 where warmth and warm    
drinks can be properly administered4 ,a 
small amount of nourishment1 in the form
 of hot milk or beef tea1 should be     
given1 and the patient kept quiet for   
two or three days4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #afg4--,the ,marshall ,hall ,method4   
7,second position47  #chb4 ,sunstroke or
 ,heatstroke4 ,this serious accident1 so
 far-reaching oftentimes in its result1 
is due to an unnatural elevation of the 
bodily temperature by exposure to the   
direct rays of the sun1 or from the     
extreme heat of close and confined      

rooms1 as in the cook-rooms and         
laundries of hotel basements1 from      
overheated workshops1 etc4  ,there is   
sudden loss of consciousness1 with deep1
 labored breathing1 an intense burning  
heat of the skin1 and a marked absence  
of sweat4 ,the main thing is to lower   
the temperature4 ,strip off the         
clothing2 apply chopped ice1 wrapped in 
flannel to the head4 ,rub ice over the  
chest1 and place pieces under the       
armpits and at the sides4 ,if there is  
no ice1 use sheets or cloths wet with   
cold water4 ,the body may be stripped1  
and sprinkled with ice-water from a     
common watering-pot4  ,if the skin is   
cold1 moist1 or clammy1 the trouble is  
due to heat exhaustion4 ,give plenty of 
fresh air1 but apply no cold to the     
body4 ,apply heat1 and give hot drinks1 
like hot ginger tea4 ,sunstroke or      
heatstroke is a dangerous affliction4   
,it is often followed by serious and    
permanent results4 ,persons who have    
once suffered in this way should        

carefully avoid any risk in the future4 
,chapter ,,xiv4  ,in ,sickness and in   
,health4    #chc4 ,arrangement of the   
,sick-room4 ,this room1 if possible1    
should be on the quiet and sunny side of
 the house4 ,pure1 fresh air1 sunshine1 
and freedom from noise and odor are     
almost indispensable4 ,a fireplace as a 
means of ventilation is invaluable4 ,the
 bed should be so placed that the air   
may get to it on all sides and the nurse
 move easily around it4 ,screens should 
be placed1 if necessary1 so as to       
exclude superfluous light and draughts4 
,the sick-room should be kept free from 
all odors which affect the sick         
unpleasantly1 as perfumery1 highly      
scented soaps1 and certain flowers4     
,remove all useless ornaments and       
articles likely to collect dust1 as     
unnecessary pieces of furniture and     
heavy draperies4 ,a clean floor1 with a 
few rugs to deaden the footsteps1 is    
much better than a woolen carpet4       
,rocking-chairs should be banished from 

the sick-room1 as they are almost sure  
to disturb the sick4  ,a daily supply of
 fresh flowers tends to brighten the    
room4 ,keep the medicines close at hand1
 but all poisonous drugs should be kept 
carefully by themselves and ordinarily  
under lock and key4 ,a small table      
should be placed at the bedside1 and on 
it the bell1 food tray1 flowers and     
other small things which promote the    
comfort of the patient4  ,the nurse     
should not sleep with the patient4      
,sofas and couches are not commonly     
comfortable enough to secure needed     
rest4 ,a cot bed is at once convenient  
and inexpensive1 and can be readily     
folded and put out of sight in the      
daytime4 ,it can also be used by the    
patient occasionally1 especially during 
convalescence4  #chd4 ,ventilation of   
the ,sick-room4 ,proper ventilation is  
most essential to the sick-room1 but    
little provision is ordinarily made for 
so important a matter4 ,it is seldom    
that one of the windows cannot be let   

down an inch or more at the top1 a      
screen being arranged to avoid any      
draught on the patient4 ,remove all     
odors by ventilation and not by spraying
 perfumery1 or burning pastilles1 which 
merely conceal offensive odors without  
purifying the air4 ,during cold weather 
and in certain diseases1 the patient may
 be covered entirely with blankets and  
the windows opened wide for a few       
minutes4  ,avoid ventilation by means of
 doors1 for the stale air of the house1 
kitchen smells1 and noises made by the  
occupants of the house1 are apt to reach
 the sick-room4 ,the entire air of the  
room should be changed at least two or  
three times a day1 in addition to the   
introduction of a constant supply of    
fresh air in small quantities4   #che4  
,hints for the ,sick-room4 ,always      
strive to look cheerful and pleasant    
before the patient4 ,whatever may       
happen1 do not appear to be annoyed1    
discouraged1 or despondent4 ,do your    
best to keep up the courage of sick     

persons under all circumstances4 ,in all
 things keep in constant mind the       
comfort and ease of the patient4  ,do   
not worry the sick with unnecessary     
questions1 idle talk1 or silly gossip4  
,it is cruel to whisper in the          
sick-room1 for patients are always      
annoyed by it4 ,they are usually        
suspicious that something is wrong and  
generally imagine that their condition  
has changed for the worse4  ,symptoms of
 the disease should never be discussed  
before the patient1 especially if he is 
thought to be asleep4 ,he may be only   
dozing1 and any such talk would then be 
gross cruelty4 ,loud talking must1 of   
course1 be avoided4 ,the directions of  
the physician must be rigidly carried   
out in regard to visitors in the        
sick-room4 ,this is always a matter of  
foremost importance1 for an hour or even
 a night of needed sleep and rest may be
 lost from the untimely call of some    
thoughtless visitor4 ,a competent nurse1
 who has good sense and tact1 should be 

able to relieve the family of any       
embarrassment under such circumstances4 
,do not ever allow a kerosene light with
 the flame turned down to remain in the 
sick-room4 ,use the lamp with the flame 
carefully shaded1 or in an adjoining    
room1 or better still1 use a sperm      
candle for a night light4  ,keep1 so far
 as possible1 the various bottles of    
medicine1 spoons1 glasses1 and so on in 
an adjoining room1 rather than to make a
 formidable array of them on a bureau or
 table near the sick-bed4 ,a few simple 
things1 as an orange1 a tiny bouquet1   
one or two playthings1 or even a pretty 
book1 may well take their place4  ,the  
ideal bed is single1 made of iron or    
brass1 and provided with woven wire     
springs and a hair mattress4            
,feather-beds are always objectionable  
in the sick-room for many and obvious   
reasons4 ,the proper making of a        
sick-bed1 with the forethought and skill
 demanded in certain diseases1 is of    
great importance and an art learned only

 after long experience4 ,the same       
principle obtains in all that concerns  
the lifting and the moving of the sick4 
,sick people take great comfort in the  
use of fresh linen and fresh pillows4   
,two sets should be used1 letting one be
 aired while the other is in use4 ,in   
making changes the fresh linen should be
 thoroughly aired and warmed and        
everything in readiness before the      
patient is disturbed4   #chf4 ,rules for
 ,sick-room4 ,do not deceive sick       
people4 ,tell what is proper or safe to 
be told1 promptly and plainly4 ,if a    
physician is employed1 carry out his    
orders to the very letter1 as long as he
 visits you4 ,make on a slip of paper a 
note of his directions4 ,make a brief   
record of exactly what to do1 the       
precise time of giving medicines1 etc4  
,this should always be done in serious  
cases1 and by night watchers4 ,then     
there is no guesswork4 ,you have the    
record before you for easy reference4   
,all such things are valuable helps to  

the doctor4  ,whatever must be said in  
the sick-room1 say it openly and aloud4 
,how often a sudden turn in bed1 or a   
quick glance of inquiry1 shows that     
whispering is doing harm6 ,if the       
patient is in his right mind1 answer his
 questions plainly and squarely4 ,it may
 not be best to tell all the truth1 but 
nothing is gained in trying to avoid a  
straightforward reply4  ,noises that are
 liable to disturb the patient1 in other
 parts of the house than the sick-room1 
should be avoided4 ,sounds of a         
startling character1 especially those   
not easily explained1 as the rattling or
 slamming of distant blinds and doors1  
are always irritating to the sick4      
,always attract the attention of a      
patient before addressing him1 otherwise
 he may be startled and a nervous spell 
be induced4 ,the same hint applies      
equally to leaning or sitting upon the  
sick-bed1 or running against furniture  
in moving about the sick-room4   #chg4  
,rest of ,mind and ,body4 ,the great    

importance of rest for the sick is not  
so generally recognized as its value    
warrants4 ,if it is worry and not work  
that breaks down the mental and physical
 health of the well1 how much more      
important is it that the minds and      
bodies of the sick should be kept at    
rest1 free from worry and excitement6   
,hence the skilled nurse does her best  
to aid in restoring the sick to a       
condition of health by securing for her 
patient complete rest both of mind and  
body4 ,to this end1 she skillfully      
removes all minor causes of alarm1      
irritation1 or worry4 ,there are        
numberless ways in which this may be    
done of which space does not allow even 
mention4 ,details apparently trifling1  
as noiseless shoes1 quietness1 wearing  
garments that do not rustle1 use of     
small pillows of different sizes1 and   
countless other small things that make  
up the refinement of modern nursing1    
play an important part in building up   
the impaired tissues of the sick4       

#chh4 ,care of ,infectious and          
,contagious ,diseases4 ,there are       
certain diseases which are known to be  
infectious and can be communicated from 
one person to another1 either by direct 
contact1 through the medium of the      
atmosphere1 or otherwise4  ,of the more 
prevalent infectious and contagious     
diseases are scarlet fever1 diphtheria1 
erysipelas1 measles1 and typhoid fever4 
,considerations of health demand that a 
person suffering from any one of these  
diseases should be thoroughly isolated  
from all other members of the family4   
,all that has been stated in regard to  
general nursing in previous sections of 
this chapter1 applies1 of course1 to    
nursing infectious and contagious       
diseases4 ,in addition to these certain 
special directions must be always kept  
in mind4  ,upon the nurse1 or the person
 having the immediate charge of the     
patient1 rests the responsibility of    
preventing the spread of infectious     
diseases4 ,the importance must be fully 

understood of carrying out in every     
detail the measures calculated to check 
the spread or compass the destruction of
 the germs of disease4   #chi4 ,hints on
 ,nursing ,infectious and ,contagious   
,diseases4 ,strip the room of           
superfluous rugs1 carpets1 furniture1   
etc4 ,isolate two rooms1 if possible1   
and have these1 if convenient1 at the   
top of the house4 ,tack sheets1 wet in  
some proper disinfectant1 to the outer  
frame of the sick-room door4 ,boil these
 sheets every third day4 ,in case of    
diseases to which young folks are very  
susceptible1 send the children away1 if 
possible1 to other houses where there   
are no children4  ,most scrupulous care 
should be taken in regard to cleanliness
 and neatness in every detail4 ,old     
pieces of linen1 cheese-cloth1 paper    
napkins1 should be used wherever        
convenient or necessary and then at once
 burnt4 ,all soiled clothing that cannot
 well be burnt should be put to soak at 
once in disinfectants1 and afterward    

boiled apart from the family wash4      
,dishes and all utensils should be kept 
scrupulously clean by frequent boiling4 
,for the bed and person old and worn    
articles of clothing that can be        
destroyed should be worn so far as      
possible4  ,during convalescence1 or    
when ready to leave isolation1 the      
patient should be thoroughly bathed in  
water properly disinfected1 the hair and
 nails especially being carefully       
treated4  ,many details of the after    
treatment depend upon the special       
disease1 as the rubbing of the body with
 carbolized vaseline after scarlet      
fever1 the care of the eyes after       
measles1 and other particulars of which 
space does not admit mention here4      
,poisons and ,their ,antidotes4   #cij4 
,poisons4 ,a poison is a substance      
which1 if taken into the system in      
sufficient amounts1 will cause serious  
trouble or death4 ,for convenience      
poisons may be divided into two classes1
 irritants and narcotics4  ,the effects 

of irritant poisons are evident         
immediately after being taken4 ,they    
burn and corrode the skin or membrane or
 other parts with which they come in    
contact4 ,there are burning pains in the
 mouth1 throat1 stomach1 and abdomen1   
with nausea and vomiting4 ,a certain    
amount of faintness and shock is also   
present4  ,with narcotic poisoning1 the 
symptoms come on more slowly4 ,after a  
time there is drowsiness1 which         
gradually increases until there is a    
profound sleep or stupor1 from which the
 patient can be aroused only with great 
difficulty4 ,there are some substances  
which possess both the irritant and     
narcotic properties and in which the    
symptoms are of a mixed character4      
#cia4 ,treatment of ,poisoning4 ,an     
antidote is a substance which will      
either combine with a poison to render  
it harmless1 or which will have a       
directly opposite effect upon the body1 
thus neutralizing the effect of the     
poison4 ,hence in treatment of poisoning

 the first thing to do1 if you know the 
special poison1 is to give its antidote 
at once4  ,if the poison is unknown1 and
 there is any delay in obtaining the    
antidote1 the first thing to do is to   
remove the poison from the stomach4     
,therefore cause vomiting as quickly as 
possible4 ,this may be done by an emetic
 given as follows3 ,stir a tablespoonful
 of mustard or of common salt in a glass
 of warm water and make the patient     
swallow the whole4 ,it will usually be  
vomited in a few moments4 ,if mustard or
 salt is not at hand1 compel the patient
 to drink lukewarm water very freely    
until vomiting occurs4  ,vomiting may be
 hastened by thrusting the forefinger   
down the throat4 ,two teaspoonfuls of   
the syrup of ipecac1 or a heaping       
teaspoonful of powdered ipecac taken in 
a cup of warm water1 make an efficient  
emetic1 especially if followed with     
large amounts of warm water4  ,it is to 
be remembered that in some poisons1 as  
certain acids and alkalies1 no emetic   

should be given4 ,again1 for certain    
poisons 7except in case of arsenic7     
causing local irritation1 but which also
 affect the system at large1 no emetic  
should be given4   #cib4 ,reference     
,table of ,common ,poisons2 ,prominent  
,symptoms2 ,antidotes and ,treatment4   
,the common poisons with their leading  
symptoms1 treatment1 and antidotes1 may 
be conveniently arranged for easy       
reference in the form of a table4  ,it  
is to be remembered1 of course1 that a  
complete mastery of the table of        
poisons1 as set forth on the two        
following pages1 is really a physician's
 business4 ,at the same time1 no one of 
fair education should neglect to learn a
 few of the essential things to do in   
accidental or intentional poisoning4    
,a ,table of the ,more ,common ,poisons1
         ,with their prominent symptoms1
 antidotes1 and treatment4              
,poison           ,prominent ,symptoms  
,antidotes and ,treatment    ,strong    
,acids3     ,muriatic1                  

,burning sensation in   ,no emetic      
,saleratus2    ,nitric1                 
mouth1 throat1 and     chalk2 soap2     
plaster from    ,sulphuric 7vitriol71   
stomach2 blisters      the wall2 lime2  
magnesia2    ,oxalic4              about
 mouth2 vomiting2 baking soda 7#c or #d 
great weakness         teaspoonfuls in a
 glass of                               
water74    ,alkalies3     ,caustic      
potash and  ,burning sensation in   ,no 
emetic ,olive oil      soda1            
the parts2 severe pain freely2 lemon    
juice1 vinegar2    ,ammonia1            
in stomach2 vomiting2  melted butter and
 vaseline2    ,lye1                     
difficulty in          thick cream4     
,pearlash1           swallowing2 cold   
skin2    ,saltpeter4          weak      
pulse4    ,arsenic3     ,paris green1   
,intense pains in       ,vomit patient  
repeatedly1    ,rough on rats1          
stomach and bowels2    give hydrated    
oxide of iron    ,white arsenic1        
thirst2 vomiting1      with magnesia1   

usually kept    ,fowler's solution1     
perhaps with blood2    by druggists for 
emergencies2    ,scheele's green4       
cold and clammy skin4  follow with      
strong solution                         
of common salt and water4    ,other     
,metallic ,poisons3     ,blue vitriol1  
,symptoms in general1   ,emetic with    
lead2 none with    ,copperas1           
same as in arsenical   copper and iron2 
white of    ,green vitriol1             
poisoning4  ,with lead  eggs in         
abundance with    ,sugar of lead1       
and mercury there may  copper2 with iron
 and lead    ,corrosive           be a  
metallic taste in give epsom salts      
freely2    sublimate1          the      
mouth4             afterwards1 oils1    
flour1 and    ,bedbug poison4           
water4 ,no emetic with                  
mercury2 raw eggs2                      
milk1 or flour1 and water4              
,phosphorus from     ,matches1 rat      
,pain in the stomach2  ,cause vomiting4 
poisons1etc4         vomiting2 purging2 

,strong soapsuds2                       
general collapse4     magnesia in water4
                                        
,never give oils4    ,opium3            
,morphine1            ,sleepiness2      
dullness2 ,cause vomiting4 ,keep        
,laudanum1            stupor2 pin-hole  
patient awake by any means1             
,paregoric1           pupils2 slow      
especially by vigorous    ,dover's      
powder1      breathing2 profuse         
walking2 give strong coffee    ,soothing
 syrups1     sweat4                     
freely2 dash cold water on    ,cholera  
and diarrha                       face  
and chest4    mixtures4     ,carbolic   
,acid3    ,creasote4           ,severe  
pain in abdomen2 ,no emetic4 ,milk or   
odor of carbolic acid1  flour and water2
 white of                        mucous 
membrane in      eggs4                  
around mouth white and                  
benumbed2 cold and                      
clammy skin4    ,aconite3    ,wolfsbane 
,numbness everywhere1    ,vomit patient 

freely4    ,monkshood           great   
weakness2 cold    ,stimulating drinks4  
sweat4    ,belladonna    ,deadly        
,nightshade   ,eyes bright1 with pupil  
,vomit patient freely4    ,atropia      
enlarged2 dry mouth and                 
throat4    ,various ,vegetable ,poisons 
,wild parsley1       ,stupor1 nausea1   
great   ,cause brisk vomiting4          
,indian tobacco1     weakness and other 
,stimulating drinks4    ,toadstools1    
symptoms according to    ,tobacco plant1
      the poison4    ,hemlock1          
,berries of the mountain ash1    ,bitter
 sweet etc4  #cic4 ,practical ,points   
about ,poisons4 ,poisons should never be
 kept in the same place with medicines  
or other preparations used in the       
household4 ,they should always be put in
 some secure place under lock and key4  
,never use internally or externally any 
part of the contents of any package or  
bottle unless its exact nature is known4
 ,if there is the least doubt about the 
substance1 do not assume the least risk1

 but destroy it at once4 ,many times the
 unknown contents of some bottle or     
package has been carelessly taken and   
found to be poison4  ,careless and      
stupid people often take1 by mistake1   
with serious1 and often fatal1 results1 
poisonous doses of carbolic acid1       
bed-bug poison1 horse-liniment1 oxalic  
acid1 and other poisons4 ,a safe rule is
 to keep all bottles and boxes          
containing poisonous substances securely
 bottled or packed1 and carefully       
labeled with the word ,,poison plainly  
written in large letters across the     
label4 ,fasten the cork of a bottle     
containing poison to the bottle itself  
with copper or iron wire twisted into a 
knot at the top4 ,this is an effective  
means of preventing any mistakes1       
especially in the night4  ,this subject 
of poisons assumes nowadays great       
importance1 as it is a common custom to 
keep about stables1 workshops1          
bathrooms1 and living rooms generally a 
more or less formidable array of        

germicides1 disinfectants1              
horse-liniments1 insect-poisons1 and    
other preparations of a similar         
character4 ,for the most part they      
contain poisonous ingredients4          
,bacteria4   #cid4 ,nature ,of          
,bacteria4 ,the word bacteria is the    
name applied to very low forms of plant 
life of microscopic size4 ,thus1 if hay 
be soaked in water for some time1 and a 
few drops of the liquid are examined    
under a high power of the microscope1   
the water is found to be swarming with  
various forms of living vegetable       
organisms1 or bacteria4 ,these          
microscopic plants belong to the great  
fungus division1 and consist of many    
varieties1 which may be roughly divided 
into groups1 according as they are      
spherical1 rod-like1 spiral1 or         
otherwise in shape4  ,each plant        
consists of a mass of protoplasm        
surrounded by an ill-defined cell wall4 
,the bacteria vary cably in size4 ,some 
of the rod-shaped varieties are from    

#a_/ab1jjj to #a_/h1jjj of an inch in   
length1 and average about #a_/ej1jjj of 
an inch in diameter4 ,it has been       
calculated that a space of one cubic    
millimeter would contain #bej1jjj1jjj of
 these minute organisms1 and that they  
would not weigh more than a milligram4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4--;,examples  
of ,micro-,organisms called ,bacteria4  
7,drawn from photographs47    ,a1       
spheroidal bacteria 7called cocci7 in   
pairs2   ,b1 same kind of bacteria in   
chains2   ,c1 bacteria found in pus     
7grouped in masses like a bunch of      
grapes74      ,bacteria in ,a1 ,b1 and  
,c magnified about #ajjj diameters4     
,d1 bacteria found in pus 7tendency to  
grow in the form of chains74            
,magnified about #ejj diameters4        
,bacteria are propagated in a very      
simple manner4 ,the parent cell divides 
into two2 these two into two others1 and
 so on4 ,the rapidity with which these  
organisms multiply under favorable      
conditions1 makes them1 in some cases1  

most dangerous enemies4 ,it has been    
calculated that if all of the organisms 
survived1 one bacterium would lead to   
the production of several billions of   
others in twenty-four hours4   #cie4    
,the ,struggle of ,bacteria for         
,existence4 ,like all kinds of living   
things1 many species of bacteria are    
destroyed if exposed to boiling water or
 steam1 but seem able to endure         
prolonged cold1 far below the           
freezing-point4 ,thus ice from ponds and
 rivers may contain numerous germs which
 resume their activity when the ice is  
melted4 ,typhoid fever germs have been  
known to take an active and vigorous    
growth after they have been kept for    
weeks exposed in ice to a temperature   
below zero4  ,the bacteria of           
consumption 7bacillus tuberculosis7 may 
retain their vitality for months1 and   
then the dried expectoration of the     
invalids may become a source of danger  
to those who inhale air laden with such 
impurities 7sec4 #bbj and ,fig4 #id74   

,like other living organisms1 bacteria  
need warmth1 moisture1 and some chemical
 compound which answers for food1 in    
order to maintain the phenomena of life4
 ,some species grow only in contact with
 air1 others need no more oxygen than   
they can obtain in the fluid or         
semi-fluid which they inhabit4   #cif4  
,importance of ,bacteria in ,nature4 ,we
 might well ask why the myriads of      
bacteria do not devastate the earth with
 their marvelous rapidity of            
propagation4 ,so indeed they might1 were
 it not for the winds1 rains1 melting   
snow and ice which scatter them far and 
wide1 and destroy them4  ,again1 as in  
countless other species of living       
organisms1 bacteria are subject to the  
relentless law which allows only the    
fittest to survive4 ,the bacteria of    
higher and more complex types devour    
those of a lower type4 ,myriads perish  
in the digestive tract of man and other 
animals4 ,the excreta of some species of
 bacteria act as poison to destroy other

 species4  ,it is true from the         
strictest scientific point of view that 
all living things literally return to   
the dust whence they came4 ,while living
 they borrow a few elementary substances
 and arrange them in new combinations1  
by aid of the energy given them by the  
sun1 and after a time die and leave     
behind all they had borrowed both of    
energy and matter4  ,countless myriads  
of bacteria are silently at work        
changing dead animal and vegetable      
matter into useful substances4 ,in      
brief1 bacteria prepare food for all the
 rest of the world4 ,were they all      
destroyed1 life upon the earth would be 
impossible1 for the elements necessary  
to maintain it would be embalmed in the 
bodies of the dead4  #cig4 ,action of   
,bacteria4 ,in certain well-known       
processes bacteria have the power of    
bringing about decomposition of various 
kinds4 ,thus a highly organized fungus1 
like the yeast plant1 growing in the    
presence of sugar1 has the power of     

breaking down this complex body into    
simpler ones1 viz41 alcohol and carbon  
dioxid4  ,in the same way1 various forms
 of bacteria have the power of breaking 
down complex bodies in their immediate  
neighborhood1 the products depending    
upon the substance1 the kind of         
bacteria1 and the conditions under which
 they act4 ,thus the bacteria lactis act
 upon the milk sugar present in milk1   
and convert it into lactic acid1 thus   
bringing about the souring of milk4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4--;,examples  
of ,pathogenic ,bacteria4 7,drawn from  
photographs47    ,a1 spiral form of     
bacteria found in cholera 7,magnified   
about #ajjj      diameters7   ,b1       
rod-shaped bacteria 7called bacilli7    
from a culture obtained      in anthrax 
or malignant fustule of the face4       
,diseased hides      carry this         
micro-organism1 and thus may occasion   
disease among those      who handle     
hides and wool4 7,magnified about #ajjj 
diameters7   ,now1 while most species of

 bacteria are harmless1 some are the    
cause of sickness and death when they   
gain admittance to the body under       
certain conditions4 ,these              
disease-producing bacteria 7known as    
pathogenic71 when established in the    
blood and tissues of the body1 bring    
about important chemical changes1       
depending upon the species of bacteria1 
and also produce a particular form of   
disease4 ,the production of certain     
diseases by the agency of bacteria has  
now been proved beyond all doubt4 ,in   
yellow fever1 erysipelas1 diphtheria1   
typhoid fever1 consumption and other    
diseases1 the connection has been       
definitely established4  ,the evil      
results these germs of disease produce  
vary greatly in kind and severity4 ,thus
 the bacteria of ,asiatic cholera and   
diphtheria may destroy life in a few    
hours1 while those of consumption may   
take years to produce a fatal result4   
,again1 the bacteria may attack some    
particular organ1 or group of organs1   

and produce mostly local symptoms4 ,thus
 in a boil there is painful swelling due
 to the local effect of the bacteria1   
with slight general disturbance4  #cih4 
,the ,battle against ,bacteria4 ,when we
 reflect upon the terrible ravages made 
by infectious diseases1 and all their   
attendant evils for these many years1 we
 can the better appreciate the work done
 of late years by tireless scientists in
 their efforts to modify the activity of
 disease-producing bacteria4 ,it is now 
possible to cultivate certain pathogenic
 bacteria1 and by modifying the         
conditions under which they are grown1  
to destroy their violence4  ,in brief1  
science has taught us1 within certain   
limitations1 how to change the virulent 
germs of a few diseases into harmless   
microbes4  #cii4 ,alcoholic             
,fermentation and ,bacteria4 ,men of the
 lowest1 as well as of the highest1 type
 of civilization have always known that 
when the sugary juice of any fruit is   
left to itself for a time1 at a         

moderately warm temperature1 a change   
takes place under certain conditions1   
and the result is a liquid which1 when  
drank1 produces a pronounced effect upon
 the body4 ,in brief1 man has long known
 how to make for himself alcoholic      
beverages1 by means of which he may     
become intoxicated with their poisonous 
ingredients4  ,whether it is a degraded 
,south ,sea ,islander making a crude    
intoxicant from a sugary plant1 a       
,japanese preparing his favorite        
alcoholic beverage from the fermentation
 of rice by means of a fungus plant     
grown for the purpose1 a farmer of this 
country making cider from fermenting    
apple juice1 or a ,french expert        
manufacturing costly champagne by a     
complicated process1 the outcome and the
 intent are one and the same4 ,the      
essential thing is to produce an        
alcoholic beverage which will have a    
marked physiological effect4 ,this      
effect is poisonous1 and is due solely  
to the alcoholic ingredient1 without    

which man would have little or no use   
for the otherwise harmless liquid4      
,while the practical process of making  
some form of alcoholic beverage has been
 understood for these many centuries1   
the real reason of this remarkable      
change in a wholesome fruit juice was   
not known until revealed by recent      
progress in chemistry1 and by the use of
 the microscope4 ,we know now that the  
change is due to fermentation1 brought  
about from the influence1 and by the    
action1 of bacteria 7sec4 #abe74  ,in   
other words1 fermentation is the result 
of the growth of low form of vegetable  
life known as an organised ferment4 ,the
 ferment1 whether it be the commonly    
used brewer's yeast1 or any other       
species of alcoholic ferment1 has the   
power to decompose or break down a large
 part of the sugar present in the liquid
 into alcohol1 which remains as a       
poison1 and carbon dioxid1 which escapes
 more or less completely4  ,thus man1   
ever prone to do evil1 was once obliged1

 in his ignorance1 to make his alcoholic
 drinks in the crudest manner2 but now  
he has forced into his service the      
latest discoveries in science1 more     
especially in bacteriology1 that he may 
manufacture more scientifically and more
 economically alcoholic beverages of all
 sorts and kinds1 and distribute them   
broadcast all over ,god's earth for the 
physical and moral ruin of the people4  
,disinfectants4   #djj4 ,disinfectants1 
,antiseptics1 and ,deodorants4 ,the word
 disinfectant is synonymous with the    
term bactericide or germicide4 ,a       
disinfectant is a substance which       
destroys infectious material4 ,an       
antiseptic is an agent which may hinder 
the growth1 but does not destroy the    
vitality1 of bacteria4 ,a deodorant is  
not necessarily a disinfectant1 or even 
an antiseptic1 but refers to a substance
 that destroys or masks offensive odors4
  #dja4 ,air and ,water as              
,disinfectants4 ,nature has provided for
 our protection two most efficient means

 of disinfection1--pure air 7sec4 #bah7 
and pure water 7sec4 #aai74 ,the air of 
crowded rooms contains large quantities 
of bacteria1 whereas in pure air there  
are comparatively few1 especially after 
rain1 which carries them to the earth4  
,living micro-organisms have never been 
detected in breezes coming from the sea1
 but in those blowing out from the shore
 large numbers may be found4  ,in water 
tainted with organic matter putrefactive
 bacteria will flourish1 whereas pure   
water is fatal to their existence4      
,surface water1 because it comes from   
that part of the soil where bacteria are
 most active1 and where there is most   
organic matter1 generally contains great
 quantities of these organisms4 ,in the 
deeper strata of the soil there is      
practically no decomposition of organic 
matter going on1 hence1 water taken from
 deep sources is comparatively free from
 bacteria4 ,for this reason1 deep well  
water is greatly to be preferred for    
drinking purposes to that from surface  

wells4   #djb4 ,disinfectants4 ,it is   
evident that air and water are not      
always sufficient to secure             
disinfection1 and this must be          
accomplished by other means4 ,the       
destruction of infected material by fire
 is1 of course1 a sure but costly means 
of disinfection4 ,dry heat1 steam1 and  
boiling water are valuable disinfectants
 and do not injure most fabrics4 ,these 
agents are generally used in combination
 with various chemical disinfectants4   
,certain chemical agents that are       
capable of destroying micro-organisms   
and their spores have come1 of late     
years1 into general use4 ,a form of     
mercury1 called corrosive sublimate1 is 
a most efficacious and powerful         
germicide1 but is exceedingly poisonous 
and can be bought only under            
restrictions4#ed ,carbolic acid1        
chloride of lime1 permanganate of       
potash1 and various other preparations  
made from zinc1 iron1 and petroleum1 are
 the chemical disinfectants most        

commonly and successfully used at the   
present time4 ,there are also numerous  
varieties of commercial disinfectants   
now in popular use1 such as ,platt's    
chlorides1 bromo-chloral1 sanitas1 etc41
 which have proved efficient germicides4
    ,instructions for the ,management of
 ,contagious ,diseases4   ,the following
 instructions for the management of     
contagious diseases were prepared for   
the ,national ,board of ,health by an   
able corps of scientists and experienced
 physicians4  #djc4 ,instructions for   
,disinfection4 ,disinfection is the     
destruction of the poisons of infectious
 and contagious diseases4 ,deodorizers1 
or substances which destroy smells1 are 
not necessarily disinfectants1 and      
disinfectants do not necessarily have an
 odor4 ,disinfection cannot compensate  
for want of cleanliness nor of          
ventilation4  #djd4 ,disinfectants to be
 ,employed4 #a4 ,roll sulphur           
7brimstone72 for fumigation4  #b4       
,sulphate of iron 7copperas7 dissolved  

in water in the proportion of one and a 
half pounds to the gallon2 for soil1    
sewers1 etc4      ,,note4 ,a most useful
 little manual to consult in connection 
with this     chapter is the ,hand-,book
 of ,sanitary ,information1 written by  
,roger     ,s4 ,tracy1 ,sanitary        
,inspector of the ,new ,york ,city      
,health ,department4     ,price1 #ej    
cents4  #c4 ,sulphate of zinc and common
 salt1 dissolved together in water in   
the proportion of four ounces sulphate  
and two ounces salt to the gallon2 for  
clothing1 bed-linen1 etc4   #dje4 ,how  
to ,use ,disinfectants4 #a4 ,in the     
sick-room4 ,the most available agents   
are fresh air and cleanliness4 ,the     
clothing1 towels1 bed-linen1 etc41      
should1 on removal from the patient1 and
 before they are taken from the room1 be
 placed in a pail or tub of the zinc    
solution1 boiling-hot1 if possible4     
,all discharges should either be        
received in vessels containing copperas 
solution1 or1 when this is              

impracticable1 should be immediately    
covered with copperas solution4 ,all    
vessels used about the patient should be
 cleansed with the same solution4       
,unnecessary furniture1 especially that 
which is stuffed1 carpets1 and hangings1
 should1 when possible1 be removed from 
the room at the outset2 otherwise they  
should remain for subsequent fumigation 
and treatment4  #b4 ,fumigation4        
,fumigation with sulphur is the only    
practicable method for disinfecting the 
house4 ,for this purpose1 the rooms to  
be disinfected must be vacated4 ,heavy  
clothing1 blankets1 bedding1 and other  
articles which cannot be treated with   
zinc solution1 should be opened and     
exposed during fumigation1 as directed  
below4 ,close the rooms as tightly as   
possible1 place the sulphur in iron pans
 supported upon bricks placed in        
washtubs containing a little water1 set 
it on fire by hot coals or with the aid 
of a spoonful of alcohol1 and allow the 
room to remain closed for twenty-four   

hours4 ,for a room about ten feet       
square1 at least two pounds of sulphur  
should be used2 for larger rooms1       
proportionally increased quantities4#ee 
#c4 ,premises4 ,cellars1 yards1 stables1
 gutters1 privies1 cesspools1           
water-closets1 drains1 sewers1 etc41    
should be frequently and liberally      
treated with copperas solution4 ,the    
copperas solution is easily prepared by 
hanging a basket containing about sixty 
pounds of copperas in a barrel of       
water4#ef  #d4 ,body and bed clothing1  
etc4 ,it is best to burn all articles   
which have been in contact with persons 
sick with contagious or infectious      
diseases4 ,articles too valuable to be  
destroyed should be treated as follows3 
7a7 ,cotton1 linen1 flannels1 blankets1 
etc41 should be treated with the        
boiling-hot zinc solution2 introduce    
piece by piece1 secure thorough wetting1
 and boil for at least half an hour4    
7b7 ,heavy woolen clothing1 silks1 furs1
 stuffed bed-covers1 beds1 and other    

articles which cannot be treated with   
the zinc solution1 should be hung in the
 room during fumigation1 their surfaces 
thoroughly exposed and pockets turned   
inside out4 ,afterward they should be   
hung in the open air1 beaten1 and       
shaken4 ,pillows1 beds1 stuffed         
mattresses1 upholstered furniture1 etc41
 should be cut open1 the contents spread
 out and thoroughly fumigated4 ,carpets 
are best fumigated on the floor1 but    
should afterward be removed to the open 
air and thoroughly beaten4   ,books for 
,collateral ,study4 ,among the many     
works which may be consulted with       
profit1 the following are recommended as
 among those most useful3 ,parkes       
,elements of ,health2 ,canfield's       
,hygiene of the ,sick-,room2 ,coplin    
,bevan's ,practical ,hygiene2 ,lincoln's
 ,school ,hygiene2 ,edward ,smith's     
,health2 ,mc,sherrys ,health2 ,american 
,health ,primers 7#ab little volumes1   
edited by ,dr4 ,keen of ,philadelphia72 
,reynold's ,primer of ,health2          

,corfield's ,health2 ,appleton's ,health
 ,primers2 ,clara ,s4 ,weeks' ,nursing2 
,church's ,food2 ,yeo's ,food in ,health
 and ,disease2 ,hampton's ,nursing1 its 
,principles and ,practice2 ,price's     
,nurses and ,nursing2 ,cullinworth's    
,manual of ,nursing2 ,wise's ,text-,book
 of ,nursing 7#b vols472 and ,humphrey's
 ,manual of ,nursing4     ,chapter ,,xv4
  ,experimental ,work in ,physiology4   
#djf4 ,the ,limitations of ,experimental
 ,work in ,physiology in ,schools4      
,unlike other branches of science taught
 in the schools from the experimental   
point of view1 the study of physiology  
has its limitations4 ,the scope and     
range of such experiments is necessarily
 extremely limited compared with what   
may be done with the costly and         
elaborate apparatus of the medical      
laboratory4 ,again1 the foundation of   
physiology rests upon systematic and    
painstaking dissection of the dead human
 body and the lower animals1 which mode 
of study very properly is not permitted 

in ordinary school work4 ,experiments   
upon the living human body and the lower
 animals1 now so generally depended upon
 in our medical and more advanced       
scientific schools1 for obvious reasons 
can be performed only in a crude and    
quite superficial manner in secondary   
schools4  ,hence in the study of        
physiology in schools many things must  
be taken for granted4 ,the observation  
and experience of medical men1 and the  
experiments of the physiologist in his  
laboratory must be depended upon for    
data which cannot be well obtained at   
first hand by young students4  #djg4    
,value of ,experiments in ,physiology in
 ,secondary ,schools4 ,while            
circumstances and regard for certain    
proprieties of social life forbid the   
use of a range of experiments1 in       
anatomy and physiology1 such as are     
permitted in other branches of science  
in secondary schools1 it by no means    
follows that we are shut out altogether 
from this most important and interesting

 part of the study4 ,however simple and 
crude the apparatus1 the skillful and   
enthusiastic teacher has at his command 
a wide series of materials which can be 
profitably utilized for experimental    
instruction4 ,as every experienced      
teacher knows1 pupils gain a far better 
knowledge1 and keep up a livelier       
interest in any branch of science1 if   
they see with their own eyes and do with
 their own hands that which serves to   
illuminate and illustrate the           
subject-matter4      ,,note4 ,for       
additional suggestions and practical    
helps on the subject     of experimental
 work in physiology the reader is       
referred to     ,blaisdell's ,how to    
,teach ,physiology1 a handbook for      
teachers4 ,a copy     of this pamphlet  
will be sent postpaid to any address by 
the     publishers of this book on      
receipt of ten cents4  ,the experimental
 method of instruction rivets the       
attention and arouses and keeps alive   
the interest of the young student2 in   

fact1 it is the only true method of     
cultivating a scientific habit of       
study#eg4 ,the subject-matter as set    
forth on the printed pages of this book 
should be mastered1 of course1 but at   
the same time the topics discussed      
should be illuminated and made more     
interesting and practical by a          
well-arranged series of experiments1 a  
goodly show of specimens1 and a certain 
amount of microscopical work4   #djh4   
,the ,question of ,apparatus4 ,the      
author well understands from personal   
experience the many practical           
difficulties in the way of providing a  
suitable amount of apparatus for        
classroom use4 ,if there are ample funds
 for this purpose1 there need be no     
excuse or delay in providing all that is
 necessary from dealers in apparatus in 
the larger towns1 from the drug store1  
markets1 and elsewhere4 ,in schools     
where both the funds and the time for   
such purposes are limited1 the zeal and 
ingenuity of teachers and students are  

often put to a severe test4 ,fortunately
 a very little money and a great deal of
 ingenuity and patience will do apparent
 wonders towards providing a working    
supply of apparatus4  ,it will be       
noticed that many of the experiments in 
the preceding chapters of this book can 
be performed with very simple1 and often
 a crude and home-made sort of          
apparatus4 ,this plan has been rigidly  
followed by the author1 first1 because  
he fully realizes the limitations and   
restrictions of the subject2 and        
secondly1 because he wishes to emphasize
 the fact that expensive and complicated
 apparatus is by no means necessary to  
illustrate the great principles of      
anatomy and physiology4  #dji4 ,use of  
the ,microscope4 ,to do thorough and    
satisfactory work in physiology in our  
higher schools a compound microscope is 
almost indispensable4 ,inasmuch as many 
of our best secondary schools are       
equipped with one or more microscopes   
for use in other studies1 notably       

botany1 it is much less difficult than  
it was a few years ago to obtain this   
important help for the classes in       
physiology4  ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#agj4--;,a ,compound ,microscope  ,for  
elementary class work a moderate-priced1
 but well-made and strong1 instrument   
should be provided4 ,if the school does 
not own a microscope1 the loan of an    
instrument should be obtained for at    
least a few weeks from some person in   
the neighborhood4  ,the appearance of   
the various structures and tissues of   
the human body as revealed by the       
microscope possesses a curious          
fascination for every observer1         
especially for young people4 ,no one    
ever forgets the first look at a drop of
 blood1 or the circulation of blood in a
 frog's foot as shown by the microscope4
      ,,note4 ,for detailed suggestions 
in regard to the manipulation and use   
of the microscope the student is        
referred to any of the standard works   
on the subject4 ,the catalogues of      

scientific-instrument makers of our     
larger cities generally furnish a list  
of the requisite materials or           
handbooks which describe the use of the 
various microscopes of     standard     
make4      ,the author is indebted to   
,bergen's ,elements of ,botany for the  
following information concerning the    
different firms which deal in           
microscopes4 ,several of the ,german    
makers furnish excellent     instruments
 for use in such a course as that here  
outlined4 ,the author     is most       
familar with the ,leitz microscopes1    
which are furnished by ,wm4     ,krafft1
 #daa ,west #eith ,st41 ,new ,york city1
 or by the ,franklin     ,educational   
,co41 #ae and #ag ,harcourt ,st41       
,boston4 ,the ,leitz ,stand1 ,no4       
,,iv41 can be furnished duty free 7for  
schools only71 with objectives #a1      
#c1 and #e1 eye-pieces ,i4 and ,,iii41  
for #bd4ej4 ,if several instruments     
are being provided1 it would be well to 
have part of them equipped     with     

objectives #c and #g1 and eye-pieces ,i4
 and ,,iii4      ,the ,american         
manufacturers1 ,bausch  ,lomb ,optical  
,company1 ,rochester1     ,n4,y41 and   
,no4 #acj ,fulton ,st41 ,new ,york city1
 have this year produced a              
microscope of the ,continental type     
which is especially designed to     meet
 the requirements of the secondary      
schools for an instrument with     rack 
and pinion coarse adjustment and        
serviceable fine adjustment1 at     a   
low price4 ,they furnish this new stand1
 ',,aab1' to schools and     teachers at
 'duty-free' rates1 the prices being for
 the stand with two     eye-pieces 7any 
desired power71 -inch and -inch         
objectives1     #be4fj1 or with         
#b-;inch1 -inch1 and -inch objectives1  
and two     eye-pieces1 #bi4bj4 ,stand  
',a1' the same stand as the ',,aab1'    
without     joint and with sliding tube 
coarse adjustment 7as in the ,leitz     
,stand     ,,iv471 and with three       
eye-pieces and -inch and -inch          

objectives1     is furnished for #bj4dj4
 ,stand ',a1' with two eye-pieces1 -inch
 and     -inch objectives1 #bj4dj4      
#daj4 ,the ,use of the ,skeleton and    
,manikin4 ,the study of the bones by the
 help of a skeleton is almost a         
necessity4 ,to this intent1 schools of a
 higher grade should be provided both   
with a skeleton and a manikin4 ,if the  
former is not owned by the school1      
oftentimes a loan of one can be secured 
of some medical man in the vicinity4    
,separate bones will also prove useful4 
,in fact1 there is no other way to study
 properly the structure and use of the  
bones and joints than by the bones      
themselves4 ,a good manikin is also     
equally serviceable1 although not so    
commonly provided for schools on account
 of its cost4  #daa4 ,the ,question of  
,vivisection and ,dissection4 ,there    
should be no question at all concerning 
vivisection4 ,in no shape or form should
 it be allowed in any grade of our      
schools4 ,nor is there any need of much 

dissection in the grammar-school grades4
 ,a few simple dissections to be        
performed with fresh beef-joints1       
tendons of turkey legs1 and so on1 will 
never engender cruel or brutal feelings 
toward living things4 ,in the lower     
grades a discreet teacher will rarely   
advise his pupils to dissect a dead cat1
 dog1 frog1 or any other animal4        
,instead of actual dissection1 the      
pupils should examine specimens or      
certain parts previously dissected by   
the teacher1--as the muscles and tendons
 of a sheep1 the heart of an ox1 the eye
 of a codfish1 and so on4 ,even under   
these restrictions the teacher should   
not use the knife or scissors before the
 class to open up any part of the       
specimen4 ,in brief1 avoid everything   
that can possibly arouse any cruel or   
brutal feeling on the part of young     
students4  ,in the higher schools1 in   
normal and other training schools1      
different conditions prevail4 ,never    
allow vivisection in any form whatever1 

either in school or at home4 ,under the 
most exact restrictions students in     
these schools may be taught to make a   
few simple dissections4  ,most teachers 
will find1 however1 even in schools of a
 higher grade1 that the whole subject is
 fraught with many difficulties4 ,it    
will not require much oftentimes to     
provoke in a community a deal of unjust 
criticism4 ,a teacher's good sense and  
discretion are often put to a severe    
test4    ,additional ,experiments4   ,to
 the somewhat extended list of          
experiments as described in the         
preceding chapters a few more are       
herewith presented which may be used as 
opportunity allows to supplement those  
already given4    ,experiment #aic4 ,to 
examine white fibrous tissue4 ,snip off 
a very   minute portion from the muscle 
of a rabbit1 or any small animal        
recently   dead4 ,tease the specimen    
with needles1 mount in salt solution and
   examine under a high power4 ,note the
 course and characters of the   fibers4 

,experiment #aid4 ,to examine elastic   
tissue4 ,tease out a small   piece of   
ligament from a rabbit's leg in salt    
solution2 mount in the   same1 and      
examine as before4 ,note the curled     
elastic fibers4    ,experiment #aie4 ,to
 examine areolar tissue4 ,gently tease  
apart   some muscular fibers1 noting    
that they are attached to each other by 
connective tissue4 ,remove a little of  
this tissue to a slide and examine   as 
before4 ,examine the matrix with curled 
elastic fiber mixed with   straight     
white fibers4    ,experiment #aif4 ,to  
examine adipose tissue4 ,take a bit of  
fat from   the mesentery of a rabbit4   
,tease the specimen in salt solution and
 mount   in the same4 ,note the fat     
cells lying in a vascular meshwork4     
,experiment #aig4 ,to examine connective
 tissues4 ,take a very small   portion  
from one of the tendons of a rabbit1 or 
any animal recently   dead2 place upon a
 glass slide with a drop of salt        
solution2 tease it   apart with needles1

 cover with thin glass and examine with 
microscope4   ,the fine wavy filaments  
will be seen4 ,allow a drop of dilute   
acetic acid   to run under the cover    
glass2 the filaments will swell and     
become   transparent4    ,experiment    
#aih4 ,tease out a small piece of       
ligament from the   rabbit's leg in salt
 solution2 mount in the same1 and       
examine under a   high power4 ,note the 
curled elastic fibers4    ,experiment   
#aii4 ,a crude experiment to represent  
the way in which a   person's neck is   
broken4 ,bring the ends of the left     
thumb and the left   second finger      
together in the form of a ring4 ,place a
 piece of a wooden   toothpick across it
 from the middle of the finger to the   
middle of the   thumb4 ,put the right   
forefinger of the other hand up through 
the front   part to represent the       
odontoid process of the axis1 and place 
some   absorbent cotton through the     
other part to represent the spinal cord4
   ,push backwards with the forefinger  

with just enough force to break the     
toothpick and drive its fragments on to 
the cotton4    ,experiment #bjj4 ,to    
illustrate how the pulse-wave is        
transmitted   along an artery4 ,use the 
same apparatus as in ,experiment #ajf1  
p4 #bja4   ,take several thin1 narrow   
strips of pine wood4 ,make little flags 
by   fastening a small piece of tissue  
paper on one end of a wooden            
toothpick4 ,wedge the other end of the  
toothpick into one end of the   strips  
of pine wood4 ,use these strips like    
levers by placing them across   the long
 rubber tube at different points4 ,let  
each lever compress the   tube a little 
by weighting one end of it with a       
blackboard eraser or   book of          
convenient size4    ,as the pulse-wave  
passes along under the levers they will 
be   successively raised1 causing a     
slight movement of the tissue-paper     
flags4    ,experiment #bja4 ,the        
dissection of a sheep's heart4 ,get a   
sheep's   heart with the lungs attached1

 as the position of the heart will be   
better understood4 ,let the lungs be    
laid upon a dish so that the heart   is 
uppermost1 with its apex turned toward  
the observer4    ,the line of fat which 
extends from the upper and left side of 
the heart   downwards and across towards
 the right side1 indicates the division 
between the right and left ventricles4  
,examine the large vessels1 and1 by     
reference to the text and               
illustrations1 make quite certain which 
are the aorta1 the pulmonary   artery1  
the superior and inferior ven cav1 and  
the pulmonary   veins4    ,tie variously
 colored yarns to the vessels1 so that  
they may be   distinguished when        
separated from the surrounding parts4   
,having separated the heart from the    
lungs1 cut out a portion of the wall    
of the right ventricle towards its lower
 part1 so as to lay the cavity   open4  
,gradually enlarge the opening until the
 chord tendine and the   flaps of the   
tricuspid valve are seen4 ,continue to  

lay open the   ventricle towards the    
pulmonary artery until the semilunar    
valves come   into view4    ,the        
pulmonary artery may now be opened from 
above so as to display the   upper      
surfaces of the semilunar valves4       
,remove part of the wall of the   right 
auricle1 and examine the right          
auriculo-ventricular opening4    ,the   
heart may now be turned over1 and the   
left ventricle laid open in   a similar 
manner4 ,notice that the mitral valve   
has only two flaps4 ,the   form of the  
valves is better seen if they are placed
 under water1 and   allowed to float    
out4 ,observe that the walls of the left
 ventricle are   much thicker than those
 of the right4    ,open the left        
auricle1 and notice the entrance of the 
pulmonary veins1   and the passage into 
the ventricle4    ,the ventricular      
cavity should now be opened up as far as
 the aorta1 and   the semilunar valves  
examined4 ,cut open the aorta1 and      
notice the form   of the semilunar      

valves4    ,experiment #bjb4 ,to show   
the circulation in a frog's foot 7see   
,fig4 #gh1 p4 #aib74 ,in order to see   
the blood circulating in the membrane   
of a frog's foot it is necessary to     
firmly hold the frog4 ,for this         
purpose obtain a piece of soft wood1    
about six inches long and three   wide1 
and half an inch thick4 ,at about two   
inches from one end of this1   cut a    
hole three-quarters of an inch in       
diameter and cover it with a   piece of 
glass1 which should be let into the     
wood1 so as to be level   with the      
surface4 ,then tie up the frog in a wet 
cloth1 leaving one of   the hind legs   
outside4 ,next1 fasten a piece of cotton
 to each of the two   longest toes1 but 
not too tightly1 or the circulation will
 be stopped   and you may hurt the frog4
    ,tie the frog upon the board in such
 a way that the foot will just come     
over the glass in the aperture4 ,pull   
carefully the pieces of cotton tied   to
 the toes1 so as to spread out the      

membrane between them over the   glass4 
,fasten the threads by drawing them into
 notches cut in the sides   of the      
board4 ,the board should now be fixed by
 elastic bands1 or by any   other       
convenient means1 upon the stage of the 
microscope1 so as to bring   the        
membrane of the foot under the object   
glass4    ,the flow of blood thus shown 
is indeed a wonderful sight1 and never  
to   be forgotten4 ,the membrane should 
be occasionally moistened with water4   
,care should be taken not to occasion   
any pain to the frog4    ,experiment    
#bjc4 ,to illustrate the mechanics of   
respiration#eh   7see ,experiment #abb1 
p4 #bcd74 ,in a large lamp-chimney1 the 
top of which   is closed by a tightly   
fitting perforated cork 7,a71 is        
arranged a pair   of rubber bags 7,c7   
which are attached to a ,y connecting   
tube 7,b71 to be   had of any dealer in 
chemical apparatus or which can be made 
by a   teacher having a bunsen burner   
and a little practice in the            

manipulation   of glass 7,fig4 #aga74   
,from the center of the cork is attached
 a rubber   band by means of a staple   
driven through the cork1 the other end  
of   which 7,d7 is attached to the      
center of a disk of rubber 7,e7 such as 
dentists use4 ,this disk is held to the 
edge of the chimney by a wide   elastic 
band 7,f74 ,there is a string 7,g7 also 
attached to the center of   the rubber  
disk by means of which the diaphragm may
 be lowered4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#aga4    ,such is a description of the  
essentials of the model4 ,the           
difficulties   encountered in its       
construction are few and easily         
overcome4 ,in the   first place1 the    
cork must be air-tight1 and it is best  
made so by   pouring a little melted    
paraffin over it1 care being taken not  
to close   the tube4 ,the rubber bags   
were taken from toy balloon-whistles4   
,in the construction of the diaphragm1  
it is to be remembered that it   also   
must be air-tight1 and in order to      

resemble the human diaphragm1 it   must 
have a conical appearance when at rest4 
,in order to avoid making   any holes in
 the rubber1 the two attachments 7one of
 the rubber band1   and the other of the
 string7 were made in this wise3 the    
rubber was   stretched over a button    
having an eye1 then under the button was
 placed   a smaller ring from an old    
umbrella2 to this ring was attached the 
rubber band1 and to the eye of the      
button was fastened the operating       
string4 ,when not in use the diaphragm  
should be taken off to relieve the      
strain on the rubber band4              
,experiment #bjd4 ,to illustrate the    
action of the intercostal   muscles 7see
 sec4 #baj74 ,the action of the         
intercostal muscles is not at   first   
easy to understand2 but it will be      
readily comprehended by   reference to a
 model such as that represented in ,fig4
 #agb4 ,this maybe   easily made by the 
student himself with four laths of wood1
 fastened   together at the corners1 ,a1

 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 with pins or small screws1 
so as   to be movable4 ,at the points   
,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 pins are placed1 to     
which   elastic bands may be attached   
7,a74 ,b ,d represents the vertebral    
column2   ,a ,c1 the sternum2 and ,a ,b 
and ,c ,d1 the ribs4 ,the elastic band  
,f ,g   represents the external         
intercostal muscles1 and ,e ,h1 the     
internal   intercostals4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4    ,if now   
the elastic band ,e ,h be removed1 the  
remaining band1 ,f ,g1 will   tend to   
bring the two points to which it is     
attached1 nearer together1   and the    
result will be that the bars ,a ,b and  
,c ,d will be drawn upwards   7,b71 that
 is1 in the same direction as the ribs  
in the act of   inspiration4 ,when the  
elastic band ,e ,h is allowed to exert  
its force1   the opposite effect will be
 produced 7,c72 in this case            
representing the   position of the ribs 
in an act of expiration4    ,experiment 
#bje4 ,pin a round piece of bright red  

paper 7large as a   dinner-plate7 to a  
white wall1 with a single pin4 ,fasten a
 long piece of   thread to it1 so it can
 be pulled down in a moment4 ,gaze      
steadily at the   red paper4 ,have it   
removed while looking at it intently1   
and a greenish   spot takes its place4  
,experiment #bjf4 ,lay on different     
parts of the skin a small1 square       
piece of paper with a small central hole
 in it4 ,let the person close his       
eyes1 while another person gently       
touches the uncovered piece of skin     
with cotton wool1 or brings near it a   
hot body4 ,in each case ask the         
observed person to distinguish between  
them4 ,he will always succeed on   the  
volar side of the hand1 but occasionally
 fail on the dorsal surface   of the    
hand1 the extensor surface of the arm1  
and very frequently on the   skin of the
 back4    ,experiment #bjg4             
,wheatstone's fluttering hearts4 ,make a
 drawing of   a red heart on a bright   
blue ground4 ,in a dark room lighted by 

a candle   hold the picture below the   
level of the eyes and give it a gentle  
to-and-fro motion4 ,on continuing to    
look at the heart it will appear to     
move or flutter over the blue           
background4    ,experiment #bjh4 ,at a  
distance of six inches from the eyes    
hold a   veil or thin gauze in front of 
some printed matter placed at a distance
   of about two feet4 ,close one eye1   
and with the other we soon see either   
the letters distinctly or the fine      
threads of the veil1 but we cannot   see
 both equally distinct at the same time4
 ,the eye1 therefore1 can form   a      
distinct image of a near or distant     
object1 but not of both at the   same   
time2 hence the necessity for           
accommodation4    ,experiment #bji4     
,place a person in front of a bright    
light opposite   a window1 and let him  
look at the light2 or place one's self  
opposite a   well-illuminated mirror4   
,close one eye with the hand and observe
 the   diameter of the other pupil4     

,then suddenly remove the hand from the 
closed eye3 light falls upon it2 at the 
same time the pupil of the other   eye  
contracts4    ,experiment #baj4 ,to     
illustrate the blind spot4 ,marriott's  
experiment4 ,on a white card make a     
cross and a large dot1 either black   or
 colored4 ,hold the card vertically     
about ten inches from the right   eye1  
the left being closed4 ,look steadily at
 the cross with the right   eye1 when   
both the cross and the circle will be   
seen4 ,gradually approach   the card    
toward the eye1 keeping the axis of     
vision fixed on the cross4   ,at a      
certain distance the circle will        
disappear1 i4e41 when its image   falls 
on the entrance of the optic nerve4 ,on 
bringing the card nearer1   the circle  
reappears1 the cross1 of course1 being  
visible all the time   7see ,experiment 
#ahj1 p4 #cee74    ,experiment #baa4 ,to
 map out the field of vision4 ,a crude  
method is   to place the person with his
 back to a window1 ask him to close one 

eye1   stand in front of him about two  
feet distant1 hold up the forefingers of
   both hands in front of and in the    
plane of your own face4 ,ask the person 
to look steadily at your nose1 and as he
 does so observe to what extent   the   
fingers can be separated horizontally1  
vertically1 and in oblique   directions 
before they disappear from his field of 
vision4    ,experiment #bab4 ,to        
illustrate imperfect judgment of        
distance4   ,close one eye and hold the 
left forefinger vertically in front of  
the   other eye1 at arm's length1 and   
try to strike it with the right         
forefinger4    ,on the first trial one  
will probably fall short of the mark1   
and fail to   touch it4 ,close one eye1 
and rapidly try to dip a pen into an    
inkstand1   or put a finger into the    
mouth of a bottle placed at a convenient
   distance4 ,in both cases one will not
 succeed at first4    ,in these cases   
one loses the impressions produced by   
the convergence of   the optic axes1    

which are important factors in judging  
of distance4    ,experiment #bac4 ,hold 
a pencil vertically about twelve inches 
from   the nose1 fix it with both eyes1 
close the left eye1 and then hold the   
right index finger vertically1 so as to 
cover the lower part of the   pencil4   
,with a sudden move1 try to strike the  
pencil with the finger4 ,in   every case
 one misses the pencil and sweeps to the
 right of it4    ,experiment #bad4 ,to  
illustrate imperfect judgment of        
direction4 ,as   the retina is          
spherical1 a line beyond a certain      
length when looked at   always shows an 
appreciable curvature4    ,hold a       
straight edge just below the level of   
the eyes4 ,its upper margin   shows a   
slight concavity4    ,surface ,anatomy  
and ,landmarks4   ,in all of our leading
 medical colleges the students are      
carefully and thoroughly drilled on a   
study of certain persons selected as    
models4 ,the object is to master by     
observation and manipulation the details

 of what is known as surface anatomy and
 landmarks4 ,now while detailed work of 
this kind is not necessary in secondary 
schools1 yet a limited amount of study  
along these lines is deeply interesting 
and profitable4 ,the habit of looking at
 the living body with anatomical eyes   
and with eyes at our fingers' ends1     
during the course in physiology1 cannot 
be too highly estimated4  ,in elementary
 work it is only fair to state that many
 points of surface anatomy and many of  
the landmarks cannot always be defined  
or located with precision4 ,a great deal
 in this direction can1 however1 be done
 in higher schools with ingenuity1      
patience1 and a due regard for the      
feelings of all concerned4 ,students    
should be taught to examine their own   
bodies for this purpose4 ,two friends   
may thus work together1 each serving as 
a model to the other4  ,to the following
 syllabus may be added such other       
similar exercises as ingenuity may      
suggest or time permit4     ,syllabus4  

,i4 ,bony ,landmarks4   #a4 ,the        
occipital protuberance can be distinctly
 felt at the back of the head4 ,this is 
always the thickest part 7often         
three-quarters of an inch or more7 of   
the skull-cap1 and is more prominent in 
some than in others4 ,the thinnest part 
is over the temples1 where it may be    
almost as thin as parchment4  #b4 ,the  
working of the condyle of the lower jaw 
vertically and from side to side can be 
distinctly felt and seen in front of the
 ear4 ,when the mouth is opened wide1   
the condyle advances out of the glenoid 
cavity1 and returns to its socket when  
the mouth is shut4 ,in front of the ear1
 lies the zygoma1 one of the most marked
 and important landmarks to the touch1  
and in lean persons to the eye4  #c4    
,the sliding movement of the scapula on 
the chest can be properly understood    
only on the living subject4 ,it can move
 not only upwards and downwards1 as in  
shrugging the shoulders1 backwards and  
forwards1 as in throwing back the       

shoulders1 but it has a rotary movement 
round a movable center4 ,this rotation  
is seen while the arm is being raised   
from the horizontal to the vertical     
position1 and is effected by the        
cooperation of the trapezius with the   
serratus magnus muscles4  #d4 ,the      
patella1 or knee-pan1 the two condyles  
of the tibia1 the tubercle on the tibia 
for the attachment of the ligament of   
the patella1 and the head of the fibula 
are the chief bony landmarks of the     
knee4 ,the head of the fibula lies at   
the outer and back part of the tibia4   
,in extension of the knee1 the patella  
is nearly all above the condyles4 ,the  
inner border of the patella is thicker  
and more prominent than the outer1 which
 slopes down toward its condyle4  #e4   
,the short1 front edge of the tibia1    
called the shin1 and the broad1 flat1   
subcutaneous surface of the bone can be 
felt all the way down4 ,the inner edge  
can be felt1 but not so plainly4  #f4   
,the head of the fibula is a good       

landmark on the outer side of the leg1  
about one inch below the top of the     
tibia4 ,note that it is placed well     
back1 and that it forms no part of the  
knee joint1 and takes no share in       
supporting the weight4 ,the shaft of the
 fibula arches backwards and is buried  
deep among the muscles1 except at the   
lower fourth1 which can be distinctly   
felt4  #g4 ,the malleoli form the great 
landmarks of the ankle4 ,the outer      
malleolus descends lower than the inner4
 ,the inner malleolus advances more to  
the front and does not descend so low as
 the outer4  #h4 ,the line of the       
clavicle1 or collar bone1 and the       
projection of the joint at either end of
 it can always be felt4 ,its direction  
is not perfectly horizontal1 but        
slightly inclined downwards4 ,we can    
distinctly feel the spine of the scapula
 and its highest point1 the acromion4   
#i4 ,projecting beyond the acromion 7the
 arm hanging by the side71 we can feel1 
through the fibers of the deltoid1 the  

upper part of the humerus4 ,it          
distinctly moves under the hand when the
 arm is rotated4 ,it is not the head of 
the bone which is felt1 but its         
prominences 7the tuberosities74 ,the    
greater1 externally2 the lesser in      
front4  #aj4 ,the tuberosities of the   
humerus form the convexity of the       
shoulder4 ,when the arm is raised1 the  
convexity disappears1--there is a slight
 depression in its place4 ,the head of  
the bone can be felt by pressing the    
fingers high up in the axilla4  #aa4    
,the humerus ends at the elbow in two   
bony prominences 7internal and external 
condyles74 ,the internal is more        
prominent4 ,we can always feel the      
olecranon4 ,between this bony projection
 of the ulna and the internal condyle is
 a deep depression along which runs the 
ulna nerve 7commonly called the funny or
 crazy bone74  #ab4 ,turn the hand over 
with the palm upwards1 and the edge of  
the ulna can be felt from the olecranon 
to the prominent knob 7styloid process7 

at the wrist4 ,turn the forearm over    
with the palm down1 and the head of the 
ulna can be plainly felt and seen       
projecting at the back of the wrist4    
#ac4 ,the upper half of the radius      
cannot be felt because it is so covered 
by muscles2 the lower half is more      
accessible to the touch4  #ad4 ,the     
three rows of projections called the    
knuckles are formed by the proximal     
bones of the several joints4 ,thus the  
first row is formed by the ends of the  
metacarpals1 the second by the ends of  
the first phalanges1 and the third by   
the ends of the second phalanges4 ,that 
is1 in all cases the line of the joints 
is a little in advance of the knuckles  
and nearer the ends of the fingers4     
,,ii4 ,muscular ,landmarks4   #a4 ,the  
position of the sterno-mastoid muscle as
 an important and interesting landmark  
of the neck has already been described  
7p4 #gj74  #b4 ,if the left arm be      
raised to a vertical position and       
dropped to a horizontal1 somewhat       

vigorously1 the tapering ends of the    
pectoralis major and the tendons of the 
biceps and deltoid may be felt by       
pressing the parts in the axilla between
 the fingers and thumb of the right     
hand4  #c4 ,the appearance of the biceps
 as a landmark of the arm has already   
been described 7p4 #gj74 ,the action of 
its antagonist1 the triceps1 may be     
studied in the same manner4  #d4 ,the   
sartorius is one of the fleshy landmarks
 of the thigh1 as the biceps is of the  
arm1 and the sterno-cleido-mastoid of   
the neck4 ,its direction and borders may
 be easily traced by raising the leg1--a
 movement which puts the muscle in      
action4  #e4 ,if the model be directed  
to stand on tiptoe1 both of the large   
muscles of the calf1 the gastrocnemius  
and soleus1 can be distinguished4  #f4  
,direct the model1 while sitting        
upright1 to cross one leg over the      
other1 using his utmost strength4 ,the  
great muscles of the inner thigh are    
fully contracted4 ,note the force       

required to pull the legs to the        
ordinary position4  #g4 ,with the model 
lying in a horizontal position with both
 legs firmly held together1 note the    
force required to pull the feet apart   
while the great muscles of the thigh are
 fully contracted4  #h4 ,in forcible and
 resisted flexion of the wrist two      
tendons come up in relief4 ,on the outer
 side of one we feel the pulse at the   
wrist1 the radial artery here lying     
close to the radius4  #i4 ,on the outer 
side of the wrist we can distinctly see 
and feel when in action1 the three      
extensor tendons of the thumbs4 ,between
 two of them is a deep depression at the
 base of the thumb1 which the ,french   
call the anatomical tobacco box4  #aj4  
,the relative position of the several   
extensor tendons on the back of the     
wrist and fingers as they play in their 
grooves over the back of the radius and 
ulna can be distinctly traced when the  
several muscles are put in action4  #aa4
 ,there are several strong tendons to be

 seen and felt about the ankle4 ,behind 
is the tendo ,achillis4 ,it forms a high
 relief with a shallow depression on    
each side of it4 ,behind both the inner 
and outer ankle several tendons can be  
felt4 ,over the front of the ankle1 when
 the muscles are in action1 we can see  
and feel several tendons4 ,they start up
 like cords when the action is resisted4
 ,they are kept in their proper relative
 position by strong pulleys formed by   
the annular ligament4 ,most of these    
tendons can be best seen by stand a     
model on one foot1 i4e4 in unstable     
equilibrium4    ,,iii4 ,landmarks of the
 ,heart4   ,to have a general idea of   
the form and position of the heart1 map 
its outline with colored pencils or     
crayon on the chest wall itself1 or on  
some piece of clean1 white cloth1       
tightly pinned over the clothing4 ,a    
pattern of the heart may be cut out of  
pasteboard1 painted red1 or papered with
 red paper1 and pinned in position      
outside the clothing4 ,the apex of the  

heart is at a point about two inches    
below the left nipple and one inch to   
its sternal side4 ,this point will be   
between the fifth and sixth ribs1 and   
can generally be determined by feeling  
the apex beat4     ,,iv4 ,landmarks of a
 ,few ,arteries4   ,the pulsation of the
 temporal artery can be felt in front of
 the ear1 between the zygoma and the    
ear4 ,the facial artery can be          
distinctly felt as it passes over the   
upper jaw at the front edge of the      
masseter muscle4 ,the pulse of a        
sleeping child can often be counted at  
the anterior fontanelle by the eye      
alone4  ,about one inch above the       
clavicle1 near the outer border of the  
sterno-mastoid1 we can feel the         
pulsation of the great subclavian       
artery4 ,at the back of the knee the    
popliteal artery can be felt beating4   
,the dorsal artery of the foot can be   
felt beating on a line from the middle  
of the ankle to the interval between the
 first and second metatarsal bones4     

,when the arm is raised to a right angle
 with the body1 the axillary artery can 
be plainly felt beating in the axilla4  
,extend the arm with palm upwards and   
the brachial artery can be felt close to
 the inner side of the biceps4 ,the     
position of the radial artery is        
described in ,experiment #ajb4          
,glossary4    ,abdomen 7,lat4 abdo1     
abdere1 to conceal74 ,the largest cavity
 of the body1 containing the liver1     
stomach1 intestines1 and other organs4  
,abductor 7,lat4 abduco1 to draw from74 
,a muscle which draws a limb from the   
middle line of the body1 or a finger or 
toe from the middle line of the foot or 
hand4  ,absorbents 7,lat4 absorbere1 to 
suck up74 ,the vessels which take part  
in the process of absorption4           
,absorption4 ,the process of sucking up 
nutritive or waste matters by the       
blood-vessels or lymphatics4            
,accommodation of the ,eye4 ,the        
alteration in the shape of the          
crystalline lens1 which accommodates1 or

 adjusts1 the eye for near or remote    
vision4  ,acetabulum 7,lat4 acetabulum1 
a small vinegar-cup74 ,the cup-shaped   
cavity of the innominate bone for       
receiving the head of the femur4  ,acid 
7,lat4 acidus1 from acere1 to be sour74 
,a substance usually sour1 sharp1 or    
biting to the taste4  ,acromion 7,gr4   
the tip1 and 1 the shoulder74 ,the part 
of the scapula forming the tip of the   
shoulder4  ,adam's ,apple4 ,an angular  
projection of cartilage in the front of 
the neck4 ,it may be particularly       
prominent in men4  ,adductor 7,lat4     
adduco1 to draw to74 ,a muscle which    
draws towards the middle line of the    
body1 or of the hand or foot4  ,adenoid 
7,gr4 1 a gland74 ,tissue resembling    
gland tissue4  ,afferent 7,lat4 ad1 to1 
and fero1 to convey74 ,vessels or nerves
 carrying the contents or impulses from 
the periphery to the center4  ,albumen1 
or ,albumin 7,lat4 albus1 white74 ,an   
animal substance resembling the white of
 an egg4  ,albuminuria4 ,a combination  

of the words albumin and urine4         
,presence of albumen in the urine4      
,aliment 7,lat4 alo1 to nourish74 ,that 
which affords nourishment2 food4        
,alimentary 7,lat4 alimentum1 food74    
,pertaining to aliment1 or food4        
,alimentary ,canal 7,lat4 alimentum74   
,the tube in which the food is digested 
or prepared for reception into the      
blood4  ,alkali 7,arabic al kali1 the   
soda plant74 ,a name given to certain   
substances1 such as soda1 potash1 and   
the like1 which have the power of       
combining with acids4  ,alveolar 7,lat4 
alveolus1 a little hollow74 ,pertaining 
to the alveoli1 the cavities for the    
reception of the teeth4  ,amba 7,gr4 1  
to change74 ,a single-celled1           
protoplasmic organism1 which is         
constantly changing its form by         
protrusions and withdrawals of its      
substance4  ,amboid4 ,like an amba4     
,ampulla 7,lat4 ampulla1 a wine-flask74 
,the dilated part of the semicircular   
canals of the internal ear4  ,anabolism 

7,gr4  to throw or build up74 ,the      
process by means of which simpler       
elements are built up into more complex4
  ,ansthetics 7,gr4 1 without1 and 1    
feeling74 ,those medicinal agents which 
prevent the feeling of pain1 such as    
chloroform1 ether1 laughing-gas1 etc4   
,anastomosis 7,gr4 1 by1 and 1 a mouth74
 ,the intercommunication of vessels4    
,anatomy 7,gr4 1 to cut up74 ,the       
science which describes the structure of
 living things4 ,the word literally     
means dissection4  ,antiseptic 7,lat4   
anti1 against1 and sepsis1 poison74     
,opposing or counter-acting             
putrefaction4  ,antrum 7,lat4 antrum1 a 
cave74 ,the cavity in the upper jaw4    
,aorta 7,gr4 1 from 1 to raise up74 ,the
 great artery that rises up from the    
left ventricle of the heart4            
,aponeurosis 7,gr4 1 from1 and 1 a      
nerve74 ,a fibrous membranous expansion 
of a tendon2 the nerves and tendons were
 formerly thought to be identical       
structures1 both appearing as white     

cords4  ,apoplexy 7,gr4 1 a sudden      
stroke74 ,the escape of blood from a    
ruptured blood-vessel into the substance
 of the brain4  ,apparatus4 ,a number of
 organs of various sizes and structures 
working together for some special       
object4  ,appendages 7,lat4 ad and      
pendeo1 to hang from74 ,something       
connected with a part4  ,aqueous ,humor 
7,lat4 aqua1 water74 ,the watery fluid  
occupying the space between the cornea  
and crystalline lens of the eye4        
,arachnoid ,membrane 7,gr4 1 a spider1  
and 1 like74 ,the thin covering of the  
brain and spinal cord1 between the dura 
mater and the pia mater4  ,arbor ,vit4  
,literally1 the tree of life2 a name    
given to the peculiar appearance        
presented by a section of the           
cerebellum4  ,areolar 7,lat4 areola1 a  
small space1 dim4 of area74 ,a term     
applied to a connective tissue          
containing small spaces4  ,artery 7,gr4 
1 air1 and 1 to contain74 ,a vessel by  
which blood is carried away from the    

heart4 ,it was supposed by the ancients 
to contain only air1 hence the name4    
,articulation 7,lat4 articulo1 to form a
 joint74 ,the more or less movable union
 of bones1 etc42 a joint4  ,arytenoid   
,cartilages 7,gr4 1 a ladle74 ,two small
 cartilages of the larynx1 resembling   
the mouth of a pitcher4  ,asphyxia 7,gr4
 1 without1 and 1 the pulse74           
,literally1 without pulse4 ,condition   
caused by non-oxygenation of the blood4 
,assimilation 7,lat4 ad1 to1 and        
similis1 like74 ,the conversion of food 
into living tissue4  ,asthma 7,gr4 1 a  
gasping74 ,spasmodic affection of the   
bronchial tubes in which free           
respiration is interfered with1 owing to
 their diminished caliber4  ,astigmatism
 7,gr4 1 without1 and 1 a point74       
,irregular refraction of the eye1       
producing a blurred image4  ,atrophy    
7,gr4 1 without1 and 1 nourishment74    
,wasting of a part from lack of         
nutrition4  ,auditory ,nerve 7,lat4     
audio1 to hear74 ,the special nerve of  

hearing4  ,auricle 7,lat4 auricula1 a   
little ear74 ,a cavity of the heart4    
,azygos 7,gr4 1 without1 and 1 a yoke74 
,without fellow2 not paired4   ,bacteria
 71 a staff74 ,a microscopic1 vegetable 
organism2 certain species are active    
agents in fermentation1 while others    
appear to be the cause of infectious    
diseases4  ,bactericide 7,bacterium and 
,lat4 caedere1 to kill74 ,same as       
germicide4  ,bile4 ,the gall1 or        
peculiar secretion of the liver2 a      
viscid1 yellowish fluid1 and very bitter
 to the taste4  ,biology 7,gr4 1 life1  
and 1 discourse74 ,the science which    
treats of living bodies4  ,bladder      
7,saxon bleddra1 a bladder1 a goblet74  
,a bag1 or sac1 serving as a receptacle 
of some secreted fluid1 as the gall     
bladder1 etc4 ,the receptacle of the    
urine in man and other animals4         
,bright's ,disease4 ,a group of diseases
 of the kidney1 first described by ,dr4 
,bright1 an ,english physician4         
,bronchi 7,gr4 1 windpipe74 ,the first  

two divisions1 or branches1 of the      
trachea2 one enters each lung4          
,bronchial ,tubes4 ,the smaller branches
 of the trachea within the substance of 
the lungs terminating in the air cells4 
,bronchitis4 ,inflammation of the larger
 bronchial tubes2 a cold affecting the  
air passages4  ,bunion4 ,an enlargement 
and inflammation of the first joint of  
the great toe4  ,bursa4 ,a pouch2 a     
membranous sac interposed between parts 
which are subject to movement1 one on   
the other1 to allow them to glide       
smoothly4   ,callus 7,lat4 calleo1 to be
 thick-skinned74 ,any excessive hardness
 of the skin caused by friction or      
pressure4  ,canal 7,lat4 canalis1 a     
canal74 ,a tube or passage4  ,capillary 
7,lat4 capillus1 hair74 ,the smallest   
blood-vessels1 so called because they   
are so minute4  ,capsule 7,lat4 capsula1
 a little chest74 ,a membranous bag     
enclosing a part4  ,carbon ,dioxid1     
often called carbonic acid4 ,the gas    
which is present in the air breathed out

 from the lungs2 a waste product of the 
animal kingdom and a food of the        
vegetable kingdom4  ,cardiac 7,gr4 1 the
 heart74 ,the cardiac orifice of the    
stomach is the upper one1 and is near   
the heart2 hence its name4  ,carnivorous
 7,lat4 caro1 flesh1 and voro1 to       
devour74 ,subsisting upon flesh4        
,carron ,oil4 ,a mixture of equal parts 
of linseed oil and lime-water1 so called
 because first used at the ,carron ,iron
 ,works in ,scotland4  ,cartilage4 ,a   
tough but flexible material forming a   
part of the joints1 air passages1       
nostrils1 ear2 gristle1 etc4  ,caruncle 
7,lat4 caro1 flesh74 ,the small1 red1   
conical-shaped body at the inner angle  
of the eye1 consisting of a cluster of  
follicles4  ,casein 7,lat4 caseus1      
cheese74 ,the albuminoid substance of   
milk2 it forms the basis of cheese4     
,catarrh4 ,an inflammation of a mucous  
membrane1 usually attended with an      
increased secretion of mucus4 ,the word 
is often limited to nasal catarrh4      

,cauda ,equina 7,lat41 horse's tail74   
,the collection of large nerves         
descending from the lower end of the    
spinal cord4  ,cell 7,lat4 cella1 a     
storeroom74 ,the name of the tiny       
miscroscopic elements1 which1 with      
slender threads or fibers1 make up most 
of the body2 they were once believed to 
be little hollow chambers2 hence the    
name4  ,cement4 ,the substance which    
forms the outer part of the fang of a   
tooth4  ,cerebellum 7dim4 for cerebrum1 
the brain74 ,the little brain1 situated 
beneath the posterior third of the      
cerebrum4  ,cerebrum4 ,the brain proper1
 occupying the upper portion of the     
skull4  ,ceruminous 7,lat4 cerumen1 ear 
wax74 ,a term applied to the glands     
secreting cerumen1 or ear wax4          
,chloral4 ,a powerful drug and narcotic 
poison used to produce sleep4           
,chloroform4 ,a narcotic poison         
generally used by inhalation2 of        
extensive use in surgical operations4   
,it produces ansthesia4  ,chondrin 7,gr4

 1 cartilage74 ,a kind of gelatine      
obtained by boiling cartilage4  ,chord  
,tendine4 ,tendinous cords4  ,choroid   
7,gr4 1 skin1 and 1 form74 ,the middle  
coat of the eyeball4  ,chyle 7,gr4 1    
juice74 ,the milk-like fluid formed by  
the digestion of fatty articles of food 
in the intestines4  ,chyme 7,gr4 1      
juice74 ,the pulpy liquid formed by     
digestion in the stomach4  ,cilia 7pl4  
of cilium1 an eyelash74 ,minute         
hair-like processes found upon the cells
 of the air passages and other parts4   
,ciliary ,muscle4 ,a small muscle of the
 eye which assists in accommodation4    
,circumvallate 7,lat4 circum1 around1   
and vallum1 a rampart74 ,surrounded by a
 rampart1 as are certain papill of the  
tongue4  ,coagulation 7,lat4 coagulo1 to
 curdle74 ,applied to the process by    
which the blood clots or solidifies4    
,cochlea 7,lat4 cochlea1 a snail shell74
 ,the spiral cavity of the internal ear4
  ,column ,carne4 ,fleshy projections in
 the ventricles of the heart4           

,commissure 7,lat4 con1 together1 and   
mitto1 missum1 to put74 ,a joining or   
uniting together4  ,compress4 ,a pad or 
bandage applied directly to an injury to
 compress it4  ,concha 7,gr4 1 a mussel 
shell74 ,the shell-shaped portion of the
 external ear4  ,congestion 7,lat4 con1 
together1 and gero1 to bring74 ,abnormal
 gathering of blood in any part of the  
body4  ,conjunctiva 7,lat4 con1         
together1 and jungo1 to join74 ,a thin  
layer of mucous membrane which lines the
 eyelids and covers the front of the    
eyeball1 thus joining the latter to the 
lids4  ,connective ,tissue4 ,the network
 which connects the minute parts of most
 of the structures of the body4         
,constipation 7,lat4 con1 together1 and 
stipo1 to crowd close74 ,costiveness4   
,consumption 7,lat4 consumo1 to         
consume74 ,a disease of the lungs1      
attended with fever and cough1 and      
causing a decay of the bodily powers4   
,the medical name is phthisis4          
,contagion 7,lat4 con1 with1 and tango  

or tago1 to touch74 ,the communication  
of disease by contact1 or by the        
inhalation of the effluvia of a sick    
person4  ,contractility 7,lat4 con1     
together1 and traho1 to draw74 ,the     
property of a muscle which enables it to
 contract1 or draw its extremities      
closer together4  ,convolutions 7,lat4  
con1 together1 and volvo1 to roll74 ,the
 tortuous foldings of the external      
surface of the brain4  ,convulsion      
7,lat4 convello1 to pull together74 ,a  
more or less violent agitation of the   
limbs or body4  ,cordination4 ,the      
manner in which several different organs
 of the body are brought into such      
relations with one another that their   
functions are performed in harmony4     
,coracoid 7,gr4 1 a crow1 1 form74      
,shaped like a crow's beak4  ,cornea    
7,lat4 cornu1 a horn74 ,the transparent 
horn-like substance which covers a part 
of the front of the eyeball4  ,coronary 
7,lat4 corona1 a crown74 ,a term applied
 to vessels and nerves which encircle   

parts1 as the coronary arteries of the  
heart4  ,coronoid 7,gr4 21 a crow74     
,like a crow's beak2 thus the coronoid  
process of the ulna4  ,cricoid 7,gr4 1 a
 ring1 and 1 form74 ,a cartilage of the 
larynx resembling a seal ring in shape4 
,crystalline ,lens 7,lat4 crystallum1 a 
crystal74 ,one of the humors of the eye2
 a double-convex body situated in the   
front part of the eyeball4  ,cumulative4
 ,a term applied to the violent action  
from drugs which supervenes after the   
taking of several doses with little or  
no effect4  ,cuticle 7,lat4 dim4 of     
cutis1 the skin74 ,scarf skin2 the      
epidermis4  ,cutis 7,gr4 1 a skin or    
hide74 ,the true skin1 also called the  
dermis4   ,decussation 7,lat4 decusso1  
decussatum1 to cross74 ,the crossing or 
running of one portion athwart another4 
,degeneration 7,lat4 degenerare1 to grow
 worse1 to deteriorate74 ,a change in   
the structure of any organ which makes  
it less fit to perform its duty4        
,deglutition 7,lat4 deglutire1 to       

swallow74 ,the process of swallowing4   
,deltoid4 ,having a triangular shape2   
resembling the ,greek letter  7delta74  
,dentine 7,lat4 dens1 dentis1 a tooth74 
,the hard substance which forms the     
greater part of a tooth2 ivory4         
,deodorizer4 ,an agent which corrects   
any foul or unwholesome odor4  ,dextrin4
 ,a soluble substance obtained from     
starch4  ,diabetes ,mellitus 7,gr4 1    
through1 1 to go1 and 1 honey74         
,excessive flow of sugar-containing     
urine4  ,diaphragm 7,gr4 1 to divide by 
a partition74 ,a large1 thin muscle     
which separates the cavity of the chest 
from the abdomen4  ,diastole 7,gr4 1 to 
dilate74 ,the dilatation of the heart4  
,dietetics4 ,that part of medicine which
 relates to diet1 or food4  ,diffusion  
of ,gases4 ,the power of gases to become
 intimately mingled4  ,diple 7,gr4 1 to 
double1 to fold74 ,the osseous tissue   
between the tables of the skull4        
,dipsomania 7,gr4 1 thirst1 and 1       
madness74 ,an insatiable desire for     

intoxicants4  ,disinfectants4 ,agents   
used to destroy the germs or particles  
of living matter that are believed to be
 the causes of infection4  ,dislocation 
7,lat4 dislocare1 to put out of place74 
,an injury to a joint in which the bones
 are displaced or forced out of their   
sockets4  ,dissection 7,lat4 dis1 apart1
 and seco1 to cut74 ,the cutting up of  
an animal in order to learn its         
structure4  ,distal 7,lat4 dis1 apart1  
and sto1 to stand74 ,away from the      
center4  ,duct 7,lat4 duco1 to lead74 ,a
 narrow tube4  ,duodenum 7,lat4 duodeni1
 twelve74 ,the first division of the    
small intestines1 about twelve fingers' 
breadth long4  ,dyspepsia 7,gr4 -1 ill1 
and 1 to digest74 ,a condition of the   
alimentary canal in which it digests    
imperfectly4 ,indigestion4  ,dyspna     
7,gr4 1 difficult1 and 1 to breathe74   
,difficult breathing4   ,efferent 7,lat4
 effero1 to carry out74 ,bearing or     
carrying outwards1 as from the center to
 the periphery4  ,effluvia 7,lat4       

effluo1 to flow out74 ,exhalations or   
vapors coming from the body1 and from   
decaying animal or vegetable substances4
  ,element4 ,one of the simplest parts  
of which anything consists4             
,elimination 7,lat4 e1 out of1 and      
limen1 liminis1 a threshold74 ,the act  
of expelling waste matters4 ,signifies1 
literally1 to throw out of doors4       
,emetic 7,gr4 1 to vomit74 ,a medicine  
which causes vomiting4  ,emulsion 7,lat4
 emulgere1 to milk74 ,oil in a finely   
divided state1 suspended in water4      
,enamel 7,fr4 mail74 ,dense material    
covering the crown of a tooth4          
,endolymph 7,gr4 1 within1 and ,lat4    
lympha1 water74 ,the fluid in the       
membranous labyrinth of the ear4        
,endosmosis 7,gr4 1 within1 and 1 to    
push74 ,the current from without inwards
 when diffusion of fluids takes place   
through a membrane4  ,epidemic 7,gr4 1  
upon1 and 1 the people74 ,an extensively
 prevalent disease4  ,epiglottis 7,gr4 1
 upon1 and 1 the entrance to the        

windpipe74 ,a leaf-shaped piece of      
cartilage which covers the top of the   
larynx during the act of swallowing4    
,epilepsy 7,gr4 1 a seizure74 ,a nervous
 disease accompanied by fits in which   
consciousness is lost2 the falling      
sickness4  ,ether 7,gr4 1 the pure1     
upper air74 ,a narcotic poison4 ,used as
 an ansthetic in surgical operations4   
,eustachian 7from an ,italian anatomist 
named ,eustachi74 ,the tube which leads 
from the throat to the middle ear1 or   
tympanum4  ,excretion 7,lat4 excerno1 to
 separate74 ,the separation from the    
blood of the waste matters of the body2 
also the materials excreted4  ,exosmosis
 7,gr4 1 without1 and 1 to push74 ,the  
current from within outwards when       
diffusion of fluids takes place through 
a membrane4  ,expiration 7,lat4 expiro1 
to breathe out74 ,the act of forcing air
 out of the lungs4  ,extension 7,lat4   
ex1 out1 and tendo1 to stretch74 ,the   
act of restoring a limb1 etc41 to its   
natural position after it has been      

flexed or bent2 the opposite of flexion4
   ,fauces4 ,the part of the mouth which
 opens into the pharynx4  ,fenestra     
7,lat474 ,literally1 a window4 ,fenestra
 ovalis and fenestra rotunda1 the oval  
and the round window2 two apertures in  
the bone between the tympanic cavity and
 the labyrinth of the ear4  ,ferment4   
,that which causes fermentation1 as     
yeast4  ,fermentation 7,lat4 fermentum1 
boiling74 ,the process of undergoing an 
effervescent change1 as by the action of
 yeast2 in a wider sense1 the change of 
organized substances into new compounds 
by the action of a ferment4 ,it differs 
in kind according to the nature of the  
ferment4  ,fiber 7,lat4 fibra1 a        
filament74 ,one of the tiny threads of  
which many parts of the body are        
composed4  ,fibrilla4 ,a little fiber2  
one of the longitudinal threads into    
which a striped muscular fiber can be   
divided4  ,fibrin 7,lat4 fibra1 a       
fiber74 ,an albuminoid substance        
contained in the flesh of animals1 and  

also produced by the coagulation of     
blood4  ,flexion 7,lat4 flecto1 to      
bend74 ,the act of bending a limb1 etc4 
,follicle 7,lat4 dim4 of follis1 a money
 bag74 ,a little pouch or depression4   
,fomentation 7,lat4 foveo1 to keep      
warm74 ,the application of any warm1    
medicinal substance to the body1 by     
which the vessels are relaxed4          
,foramen4 ,a hole1 or aperture4         
,frontal ,sinus4 ,a blind or closed     
cavity in the bones of the skull just   
over the eyebrows4  ,fumigation 7,lat4  
fumigo1 to perfume a place74 ,the use of
 certain fumes to counteract contagious 
effluvia4  ,function 7,lat4 functio1 a  
doing74 ,the special duty of any organ4 
,ganglion 7,gr4 1 a knot74 ,a knot-like 
swelling in a nerve2 a smaller nerve    
center4  ,gastric 7,gr4 1 stomach74     
,pertaining to the stomach4  ,gelatine  
7,lat4 gelo1 to congeal74 ,an animal    
substance which dissolves in hot water  
and forms a jelly on cooling4  ,germ    
7,lat4 germen1 a sprout1 bud74 ,disease 

germ2 a name applied to certain tiny    
bacterial organisms which have been     
demonstrated to be the cause of disease4
  ,germicide 7,germ1 and ,lat4 caedere1 
to kill74 ,any agent which has a        
destructive action upon living germs1   
especially bacteria4  ,gland 7,lat4     
glans1 an acorn74 ,an organ consisting  
of follicles and ducts1 with numerous   
blood-vessels interwoven4  ,glottis     
7,gr4 1 the tongue74 ,the narrow opening
 between the vocal cords4  ,glucose4 ,a 
kind of sugar found in fruits1 also     
known as grape sugar4  ,gluten4 ,the    
glutinous albuminoid ingredient of      
cereals4  ,glycogen4 ,literally1        
producing glucose4 ,animal starch found 
in liver1 which may be changed into     
glucose4  ,gram4 ,unit of metric system1
 #ae4dc grains troy4  ,groin4 ,the lower
 part of the abdomen1 just above each   
thigh4  ,gustatory 7,lat4 gusto1        
gustatum1 to taste74 ,belonging to the  
sense of taste4  ,gymnastics 7,gr4 1 to 
exercise74 ,the practice of athletic    

exercises4   ,hmoglobin 7,gr4 1 blood1  
and ,lat4 globus1 a globe or globule74  
,a complex substance which forms the    
principal coloring constituent of the   
red corpuscles of the blood4            
,hemispheres 7,gr4 1 half1 and 1 a      
sphere74 ,half a sphere1 the lateral    
halves of the cerebrum1 or brain proper4
  ,hemorrhage 7,gr4 1 blood1 and 1 to   
burst74 ,bleeding1 or the loss of blood4
  ,hepatic 7,gr4 1 the liver74          
,pertaining to the liver4  ,herbivorous 
7,lat4 herba1 an herb1 and voro1 to     
devour74 ,applied to animals that       
subsist upon vegetable food4  ,heredity4
 ,the predisposition or tendency derived
 from one's ancestors to definite       
physiological actions4  ,hiccough4 ,a   
convulsive motion of some of the muscles
 used in breathing1 accompanied by a    
shutting of the glottis4  ,hilum1       
sometimes written ,hilus4 ,a small      
fissure1 notch1 or depression4 ,a term  
applied to the concave part of the      
kidney4  ,homogeneous 7,gr4 1 the same1 

and 1 kind74 ,of the same kind or       
quality throughout2 uniform in          
nature1--the reverse of heterogeneous4  
,humor4 ,the transparent contents of the
 eyeball4  ,hyaline 7,gr4 1 glass74     
,glass-like1 resembling glass in        
transparency4  ,hydrogen4 ,an elementary
 gaseous substance1 which1 in           
combination with oxygen1 produces water4
  ,hydrophobia 7,gr4 1 water1 and 1 to  
fear74 ,a disease caused by the bite of 
a rabid dog or other animal4  ,hygiene  
7,gr4   health74 ,the art of preserving 
health and preventing disease4  ,hyoid  
7,gr4 letter 1 and 1 form1 resemblance74
 ,the bone at the root of the tongue1   
shaped like the ,greek letter 4         
,hypermetropia 7,gr4   over1 beyond1 1  
measure1 and 1 the eye74                
,far-sightedness4  ,hypertrophy 7,gr4 1 
over1 and 1 nourishment74 ,excessive    
growth2 thickening or enlargement of any
 part or organ4   ,incisor 7,lat4       
incido1 to cut74 ,applied to the four   
front teeth of both jaws1 which have    

sharp1 cutting edges4  ,incus4 ,an      
anvil2 the name of one of the bones of  
the middle ear4  ,indian ,hemp4 ,the    
common name of ,cannabis ,indica1 an    
intoxicating drug known as hasheesh and 
by other names in ,eastern countries4   
,inferior ,vena ,cava4 ,the chief vein  
of the lower part of the body4          
,inflammation 7,lat4 prefix in and      
flammo1 to flame74 ,a redness or        
swelling of any part of the body with   
heat and pain4  ,insalivation 7,lat4 in 
and saliva1 the fluid of the mouth74    
,the mingling of the saliva with the    
food during the act of chewing4         
,inspiration 7,lat4 inspiro1 spiratum1  
to breathe in74 ,the act of drawing in  
the breath4  ,intestine 7,lat4 intus1   
within74 ,the part of the alimentary    
canal which is continuous with the lower
 end of the stomach2 also called the    
bowels4  ,iris 7,lat4 iris1 the         
rainbow74 ,the thin1 muscular ring which
 lies between the cornea and crystalline
 lens1 giving the eye its special color4

   ,jaundice 7,fr4 jaunisse1 yellow74 ,a
 disorder in which the skin and eyes    
assume a yellowish tint4   ,katabolism  
7,gr4 1 to throw down74 ,the process by 
means of which the more complex elements
 are rendered more simple and less      
complex4 ,the opposite of anabolism4    
,labyrinth4 ,the internal ear1 so named 
from its many windings4  ,lacrymal      
,apparatus 7,lat4 lacryma1 a tear74 ,the
 organs for forming and carrying away   
the tears4  ,lacteals 7,lat4 lac1       
lactis1 milk74 ,the absorbent vessels of
 the small intestines4  ,laryngoscope   
7,gr4 1 larynx1 and 1 to behold74 ,an   
instrument consisting of a mirror held  
in the throat1 and a reflector to throw 
light on it1 by which the interior of   
the larynx is brought into view4        
,larynx4 ,the cartilaginous tube        
situated at the top of the windpipe4    
,lens4 ,literally1 a lentil2 a piece of 
transparent glass or other substance so 
shaped as either to converge or disperse
 the rays of light4  ,ligament 7,lat4   

ligo1 to bind74 ,a strong1 fibrous      
material binding bones or other solid   
parts together4  ,ligature 7,lat4 ligo1 
to bind74 ,a thread of some material    
used in tying a cut or injured artery4  
,lobe4 ,a round1 projecting part of an  
organ1 as of the liver1 lungs1 or brain4
  ,lymph 7,lat4 lympha1 pure water74    
,the watery fluid conveyed by the       
lymphatic vessels4  ,lymphatic ,vessels4
 ,a system of absorbent vessels4        
,malleus4 ,literally1 the mallet2 one of
 the small bones of the middle ear4     
,marrow4 ,the soft1 fatty substance     
contained in the cavities of bones4     
,mastication 7,lat4 mastico1 to chew74  
,the act of cutting and grinding the    
food to pieces by means of the teeth4   
,meatus 7,lat4 meo1 meatum1 to pass74 ,a
 passage or canal4  ,medulla ,oblongata4
 ,the oblong marrow2 that portion of the
 brain which lies upon the basilar      
process of the occipital bone4          
,meibomian4 ,a term applied to the small
 glands between the conjunctiva and     

tarsal cartilages1 discovered by        
,meibomius4  ,membrana ,tympani4        
,literally1 the membrane of the drum2 a 
delicate partition separating the outer 
from the middle ear2 it is sometimes    
popularly called the drum of the ear4   
,membrane4 ,a thin layer of tissue      
serving to cover some part of the body4 
,mesentery 7,gr4 1 middle1 and 1 the    
intestine74 ,a duplicature of the       
peritoneum covering the small intestine1
 which occupies the middle or center of 
the abdominal cavity4  ,metabolism 7,gr4
 1 change74 ,the changes taking place in
 cells1 whereby they become more complex
 and contain more force1 or less complex
 and contain less force4 ,the former is 
constructive metabolism1 or anabolism2  
the latter1 destructive metabolism1 or  
katabolism4  ,microbe 7,gr4 1 little1   
and 1 life74 ,a microscopic organism1   
particularly applied to bacteria4       
,microscope 7,gr4 1 small1 and 21 to    
look at74 ,an optical instrument which  
assists in the examination of minute    

objects4  ,molar 7,lat4 mola1 a mill74  
,the name applied to the three back     
teeth at each side of the jaw2 the      
grinders1 or mill-like teeth4  ,molecule
 7dim4 of ,lat4 moles1 a mass74 ,the    
smallest quantity into which the mass of
 any substance can physically be        
divided4 ,a molecule may be chemically  
separated into two or more atoms4       
,morphology 7,gr4 1 form1 and 1         
discourse74 ,the study of the laws of   
form or structure in living beings4     
,motor 7,lat4 moveo1 motum1 to move74   
,the name of the nerves which conduct to
 the muscles the stimulus which causes  
them to contract4  ,mucous ,membrane4   
,the thin layer of tissue which covers  
those internal cavities or passages     
which communicate with the external air4
  ,mucus4 ,the glairy fluid secreted by 
mucous membranes4  ,myopia 7,gr4 1 to   
shut1 and 1 the eye74 ,a defect of      
vision dependent upon an eyeball that is
 too long1 rendering distant objects    
indistinct2 near sight4  ,myosin 7,gr4 1

 muscle74 ,chief proteid substance of   
muscle4   ,narcotic 7,gr4 1 to benumb74 
,a medicine which1 in poisonous doses1  
produces stupor1 convulsions1 and       
sometimes death4  ,nerve ,cell4 ,a      
minute round and ashen-gray cell found  
in the brain and other nervous centers4 
,nerve ,fiber4 ,an exceedingly slender  
thread of nervous tissue4  ,nicotine4   
,the poisonous and stupefying oil       
extracted from tobacco4  ,nostril       
7,anglo-,saxon nosu1 nose1 and thyrl1 a 
hole74 ,one of the two outer openings of
 the nose4  ,nucleolus 7dim4 of         
nucleus74 ,a little nucleus4  ,nucleus  
7,lat4 nux1 a nut74 ,a central part of  
any body1 or that about which matter is 
collected4 ,in anatomy1 a cell within a 
cell4  ,nutrition 7,lat4 nutrio1 to     
nourish74 ,the processes by which the   
nourishment of the body is accomplished4
   ,odontoid 7,gr4 1 a tooth1 1 shape74 
,the name of the bony peg of the second 
vertebra1 around which the first turns4 
sophagus4 ,literally1 that which carries

 food4 ,the tube leading from the throat
 to the stomach2 the gullet4  ,olecranon
 7,gr4 1 the elbow1 and 1 the top of the
 head74 ,a curved eminence at the upper 
and back part of the ulna4  ,olfactory  
7,lat4 olfacio1 to smell74 ,pertaining  
to the sense of smell4  ,optic 7,gr4 1  
to see74 ,pertaining to the sense of    
sight4  ,orbit 7,lat4 orbis1 a circle74 
,the bony socket or cavity in which the 
eyeball is situated4  ,organ 7,lat4     
organum1 an instrument or implement74 ,a
 portion of the body having some special
 function or duty4  ,osmosis 7,gr4 1    
impulsion74 ,diffusion of liquids       
through membranes4  ,ossa ,innominata1  
pl4 of ,os ,innominatum 7,lat474        
,unnamed bones4 ,the irregular bones of 
the pelvis1 unnamed on account of their 
non-resemblance to any known object4    
,otoconia 7,gr4 1 an ear1 and 1 dust74  
,minute crystals of lime in the         
vestibule of the ear2 also known as     
otoliths4   ,palate 7,lat4 palatum1 the 
palate74 ,the roof of the mouth1        

consisting of the hard and soft palate4 
,palpitation 7,lat4 palpitatio1 a       
frequent or throbbing motion74 ,a       
violent and irregular beating of the    
heart4  ,papilla4 ,the small elevations 
found on the skin and mucous membranes4 
,paralysis 7,gr4 1 to loosen2 also1 to  
disable74 ,loss of function1 especially 
of motion or feeling4 ,palsy4           
,parasite4 ,a plant or animal that grows
 or lives on another4  ,pelvis4         
,literally1 a basin4 ,the bony cavity at
 the lower part of the trunk4  ,pepsin  
7,gr4 1 to digest74 ,the active         
principle of the gastric juice4         
,pericardium 7,gr4 1 about1 and 1       
heart74 ,the sac enclosing the heart4   
,periosteum 7,gr4 1 around1 1 a bone74  
,a delicate fibrous membrane which      
invests the bones4  ,peristaltic        
,movements 7,gr4 1 round1 and 1 to      
send74 ,the slow1 wave-like movements of
 the stomach and intestines4            
,peritoneum 7,gr4 1 to stretch around74 
,the investing membrane of the stomach1 

intestines1 and other abdominal organs4 
,perspiration 7,lat4 perspiro1 to       
breathe through74 ,the sweat4  ,petrous 
7,gr4 1 a rock74 ,the name of the hard  
portion of the temporal bone1 in which  
are situated the drum of the ear and    
labyrinth4  ,phalanges 7,gr4 1 a body of
 soldiers closely arranged in ranks and 
files74 ,the bones of the fingers and   
toes4  ,pharynx 7,gr4 1 the throat74    
,the cavity between the back of the     
mouth and the gullet4  ,physiology 7,gr4
 1 nature1 and 1 a discourse74 ,the     
science of the functions of living1     
organized beings4  ,pia ,mater 7,lat474 
,literally1 the tender mother2 the      
innermost of the three coverings of the 
brain4 ,it is thin and delicate2 hence  
the name4  ,pinna 7,lat4 a feather or   
wing74 ,external cartilaginous flap of  
the ear4  ,plasma 7,gr4 1 to mould74    
,anything formed or moulded4 ,the liquid
 part of the blood4  ,pleura 7,gr4 1 the
 side1 also a rib74 ,a membrane covering
 the lung1 and lining the chest4        

,pleurisy4 ,an inflammation affecting   
the pleura4  ,pneumogastric 7,gr4 1 the 
lungs1 and 1 the stomach74 ,the chief   
nerve of respiration2 also called the   
vagus1 or wandering nerve4  ,pneumonia4 
,an inflammation affecting the air cells
 of the lungs4  ,poison 7,fr4 poison74  
,any substance1 which1 when applied     
externally1 or taken into the stomach or
 the blood1 works such a change in the  
animal economy as to produce disease or 
death4  ,pons ,varolii4 ,bridge of      
,varolius4 ,the white fibers which form 
a bridge connecting the different parts 
of the brain1 first described by        
,varolius4  ,popliteal 7,lat4 poples1   
poplitis1 the ham1 the back part of the 
knee74 ,the space behind the knee joint 
is called the popliteal space4  ,portal 
,vein 7,lat4 porta1 a gate74 ,the venous
 trunk formed by the veins coming from  
the intestines4 ,it carries the blood to
 the liver4  ,presbyopia 7,gr4 1 old1   
and 1 the eye74 ,a defect of the        
accommodation of the eye1 caused by the 

hardening of the crystalline lens2 the  
far sight of adults and aged persons4   
,process 7,lat4 procedo1 processus1 to  
proceed1 to go forth74 ,any projection  
from a surface2 also1 a method of       
performance2 a procedure4  ,pronation   
7,lat4 pronus1 inclined forwards74 ,the 
turning of the hand with the palm       
downwards4  ,pronator4 ,the group of    
muscles which turn the hand palm        
downwards4  ,proteids 7,gr4 1 first1 and
 1 form74 ,a general term for the       
albuminoid constitutents of the body4   
,protoplasm 7,gr4 1 first1 and 1 to     
form74 ,a first-formed organized        
substance2 primitive organic cell       
matter4  ,pterygoid 7,gr4 1 a wing1 and 
1 form1 resemblance74 ,wing-like4       
,ptomaine 7,gr4 1 a dead body74 ,one of 
a class of animal bases or alkaloids    
formed in the putrefaction of various   
kinds of albuminous matter4  ,ptyalin   
7,gr4 1 saliva74 ,a ferment principle in
 saliva1 having power to convert starch 
into sugar4  ,pulse 7,lat4 pello1       

pulsum1 to beat74 ,the throbbing of an  
artery against the finger1 occasioned by
 the contraction of the heart4 ,commonly
 felt at the wrist4  ,pupil 7,lat4      
pupilla74 ,the central1 round opening in
 the iris1 through which light passes   
into the interior of the eye4  ,pylorus 
7,gr4 1 a gatekeeper74 ,the lower       
opening of the stomach1 at the beginning
 of the small intestine4   ,reflex      
7,lat4 reflexus1 turned back74 ,the name
 given to involuntary movements produced
 by an excitation traveling along a     
sensory nerve to a center1 where it is  
turned back or reflected along motor    
nerves4  ,renal 7,lat4 ren1 renis1 the  
kidney74 ,pertaining to the kidneys4    
,respiration 7,lat4 respiro1 to breathe 
frequently74 ,the function of breathing1
 comprising two acts1--inspiration1 or  
breathing in1 and expiration1 or        
breathing out4  ,retina 7,lat4 rete1 a  
net74 ,the innermost of the three       
tunics1 or coats1 of the eyeball1 being 
an expansion of the optic nerve4  ,rima 

,glottidis 7,lat4 rima1 a chink or      
cleft74 ,the opening of the glottis4    
,saccharine 7,lat4 saccharum1 sugar74   
,the group of food substances which     
embraces the different varieties of     
sugar1 starch1 and gum4  ,saliva4 ,the  
moisture1 or fluids1 of the mouth1      
secreted by the salivary glands2 the    
spittle4  ,sarcolemma 7,gr4 1 flesh1 and
 1 a husk74 ,the membrane which         
surrounds the contractile substance of a
 striped muscular fiber4  ,sclerotic    
7,gr4 1 hard74 ,the tough1 fibrous1     
outer coat of the eyeball4  ,scurvy4    
,scorbutus1--a disease of the general   
system1 having prominent skin symptoms4 
,sebaceous 7,lat4 sebum1 fat74          
,resembling fat2 the name of the oily   
secretion by which the skin is kept     
flexible and soft4  ,secretion 7,lat4   
secerno1 secretum1 to separate74 ,the   
process of separating from the blood    
some essential1 important fluid2 which  
fluid is also called a secretion4       
,semicircular ,canals4 ,three canals in 

the internal ear4  ,sensation4 ,the     
perception of an external impression by 
the nervous system4  ,serum4 ,the clear1
 watery fluid which separates from the  
clot of the blood4  ,spasm 7,gr4 1      
convulsion74 ,a sudden1 violent1 and    
involuntary contraction of one or more  
muscles4  ,special ,sense4 ,a sense by  
which we receive particular sensations1 
such as those of sight1 hearing1 taste1 
and smell4  ,sputum1 pi4 ,sputa 7,lat4  
spuo1 sputum1 to spit74 ,the matter     
which is coughed up from the air        
passages4  ,stapes4 ,literally1 a       
stirrup2 one of the small bones of the  
middle ear4  ,stimulant 7,lat4 stimulo1 
to prick or goad on74 ,an agent which   
causes an increase of vital activity in 
the body or in any of its parts4        
,striated 7,lat4 strio1 to furnish with 
channels74 ,marked with fine lines4     
,styptics 7,gr4  astringent74           
,substances used to produce a           
contraction or shrinking of living      
tissues4  ,subclavian ,vein 7,lat4 sub1 

under1 and clavis1 a key74 ,the great   
vein bringing back the blood from the   
arm and side of the head2 so called     
because it is situated underneath the   
clavicle1 or collar bone4  ,superior    
,vena ,cava 7,lat41 upper hollow vein74 
,the great vein of the upper part of the
 body4  ,suture 7,lat4 sutura1 a seam74 
,the union of certain bones of the skull
 by the interlocking of jagged edges4   
,sympathetic ,system of ,nerves4 ,a     
double chain of nervous ganglia1        
situated chiefly in front of1 and on    
each side of1 the spinal column4        
,symptom 7,gr4 1 with1 and 1 to fall74  
,a sign or token of disease4  ,synovial 
7,gr4 1 with1 and 1 an egg74 ,the liquid
 which lubricates the joints2 joint-oil4
 ,it resembles the white of a raw egg4  
,system4 ,a number of different organs1 
of similar structures1 distributed      
throughout the body and performing      
similar functions4  ,systemic4          
,belonging to the system1 or body1 as a 
whole4  ,systole 7,gr4 1 to contract74  

,the contraction of the heart1 by which 
the blood is expelled from that organ4  
,tactile 7,lat4 tactus1 touch74         
,relating to the sense of touch4        
,tartar4 ,a hard crust which forms on   
the teeth1 and is composed of salivary  
mucus1 animal matter1 and a compound of 
lime4  ,temporal 7,lat4 tempus1 time1   
and tempora1 the temples74 ,pertaining  
to the temples2 so called because the   
hair begins to turn white with age in   
that portion of the scalp4  ,tendon     
7,lat4 tendo1 to stretch74 ,the white1  
fibrous cord1 or band1 by which a muscle
 is attached to a bone2 a sinew4        
,tetanus 7,gr4 1 to stretch74 ,a disease
 marked by persistent contractions of   
all or some of the voluntary muscles2   
those of the jaw are sometimes solely   
affected2 the disorder is then termed   
lockjaw4  ,thorax 7,gr4 1 a             
breast-plate74 ,the upper cavity of the 
trunk of the body1 containing the lungs1
 heart1 etc42 the chest4  ,thyroid 7,gr4
 1 a shield1 and 1 form74 ,the largest  

of the cartilages of the larynx3 its    
projection in front is called ,adam's   
,apple4  ,tissue4 ,any substance or     
texture in the body formed of various   
elements1 such as cells1 fibers1        
blood-vessels1 etc41 interwoven with    
each other4  ,tobacco 7,indian tabaco1  
the tube1 or pipe1 in which the ,indians
 smoked the plant74 ,a plant used for   
smoking and chewing1 and in snuff4      
,trachea 7,gr4 1 rough74 ,the windpipe4 
,tragus 7,gr4 1 a goat74 ,the eminence  
in front of the opening of the ear2     
sometimes hairy1 like a goat's beard4   
,transfusion 7,lat4 transfundo1 to pour 
from one vessel to another74 ,the       
operation of injecting blood taken from 
one person into the veins of another4   
,trichina ,spiralis4 7,a twisted hair74 
,a minute species of parasite1 or worm1 
which infests the flesh of the hog3 may 
be introduced into the human system by  
eating pork not thoroughly cooked4      
,trochanter 7,gr4 1 to turn1 to         
revolve74 ,name given to two projections

 on the upper extremities of the femur1 
which give attachment to the rotator    
muscles of the thigh4  ,trypsin4 ,the   
ferment principle in pancreatic juice1  
which converts proteid material into    
peptones4  ,tubercle 7,lat4 tuber1 a    
bunch74 ,a pimple1 swelling1 or tumor4  
,a morbid product occurring in certain  
lung diseases4  ,tuberosity 7,lat4      
tuber1 tuberis1 a swelling74 ,a         
protuberance4  ,turbinated 7,lat4       
turbinatus1 from turbo1 turbinis1 a     
top74 ,formed like a top2 a name given  
to the bones in the outer wall of the   
nasal foss4  ,tympanum 7,gr4 1 a drum74 
,the cavity of the middle ear1          
resembling a drum in being closed by two
 membranes4   ,umbilicus 7,lat41 the    
navel47 ,a round cicatrix or scar in the
 median line of the abdomen4  ,urea     
7,lat4 urina1 urine74 ,chief solid      
constitutent of urine4 ,nitrogenous     
product of tissue decomposition4        
,ureter 7,gr4 1 to pass urine74 ,the    
tube through which the urine is conveyed

 from the kidneys to the bladder4       
,uvula 7,lat4 uva1 a grape74 ,the small1
 pendulous body attached to the back    
part of the palate4   ,vaccine ,virus   
7,lat4 vacca1 a cow1 and virus1 poison74
 ,the material derived from heifers for 
the purpose of vaccination1--the great  
preventive of smallpox4  ,valvulae      
,conniventes4 ,a name given to          
transverse folds of the mucous membrane 
in the small intestine4  ,varicose      
7,lat4 varix1 a dilated vein74 ,a       
distended or enlarged vein4  ,vascular  
7,lat4 vasculum1 a little vessel74      
,pertaining to or possessing blood or   
lymph vessels4  ,vaso-motor 7,lat4 vas1 
a vessel1 and moveo1 motum1 to move74   
,causing motion to the vessels4         
,vaso-motor nerves cause contraction and
 relaxation of the blood-vessels4  ,ven 
,cav1 pl4 of ,vena ,cava4 ,hollow veins4
 ,a name given to the two great veins of
 the body which meet at the right       
auricle of the heart  ,venous 7,lat4    
vena1 a vein74 ,pertaining to1 or       

contained within1 a vein4  ,ventilation4
 ,the introduction of fresh air into a  
room or building in such a manner as to 
keep the air within it in a pure        
condition4  ,ventral 7,lat4 venter1     
ventris1 the belly74 ,belonging to the  
abdominal or belly cavity4  ,ventricles 
of the ,heart4 ,the two largest cavities
 of the heart4  ,vermiform 7,lat4       
vermis1 a worm1 and forma1 form74       
,worm-shaped4  ,vertebral ,column 7,lat4
 vertebra1 a joint74 ,the backbone2 also
 called the spinal column and spine4    
,vestibule4 ,a portion of the internal  
ear1 communicating with the semicircular
 canals and the cochlea1 so called from 
its fancied resemblance to the          
vestibule1 or porch1 of a house4  ,villi
 7,lat4 villus1 shaggy hair74 ,minute1  
thread-like projections upon the        
internal surface of the small intestine1
 giving it a velvety appearance4  ,virus
 7,lat41 poison74 ,foul matter of an    
ulcer2 poison4  ,vital ,knot4 ,a part of
 the medulla oblongata1 the destruction 

of which causes instant death4          
,vitreous 7,lat4 vitrum1 glass74 ,having
 the appearance of glass2 applied to the
 humor occupying the largest part of the
 cavity of the eyeball4  ,vivisection   
7,lat4 vivus1 alive1 and seco1 to cut74 
,the practice of operating upon living  
animals1 for the purpose of studying    
some physiological process4  ,vocal     
,cords4 ,two elastic bands or ridges    
situated in the larynx2 the essential   
parts of the organ of voice4   ,zygoma  
7,gr4 1 a yoke74 ,the arch formed by the
 malar bone and the zygomatic process of
 the temporal bone4     ,index4         
,absorption   from mouth and stomach    
by the intestines ,accident and         
emergencies ,achilles1 ,tendon of ,air1 
made impure by breathing   ,foul1 effect
 of1 on health ,alcohol1 ,effect of1 on 
bones   ,effect of1 on muscles   ,effect
 of1 on muscular tissue   ,effect of1 on
 physical culture   ,nature of          
,effects of1 on human system     and    
digestion   ,effect of1 on the stomach  

and the gastric juice   ,final results  
on digestion   ,effects of1 on the liver
   ,fatty degeneration due to   ,effect 
of1 on the circulation   ,effect of1 on 
the heart   ,effect of1 on the          
blood-vessels   ,effect of1 on the lungs
   ,other results of1 on lungs   ,effect
 of1 on disease   ,effect of1 on kidneys
 ,alcohol   as cause of ,bright's       
disease   and the brain   ,how1 injures 
the brain   ,why brain suffers from     
the enemy of brain work   ,other        
physical results of   ,diseases produced
 by   ,mental and moral ruin by   ,evil 
results of1 inherited   ,effect of1 on  
taste   ,effect of1 on the eye   ,effect
 of1 on throat and voice ,alcoholic     
beverages ,alcoholic fermentation and   
,bacteria ,anabolism defined ,anatomy   
defined ,antidotes for poisons          
,antiseptics ,apparatus1 ,question of   
,arm1 ,upper ,arteries ,astigmatism     
,asphyxia ,atlas and axis ,atmosphere1  
how made impure  ,bacteria1 ,nature of  
,bacteria1 ,struggle for existence of   

,importance of1 in ,nature   ,action of 
,battle against ,baths and bathing      
,bathing1 ,rules and precautions        
,bicycling ,bile ,biology defined       
,bladder ,bleeding1 from stomach   from 
lungs   from nose   ,how to stop ,blood1
 ,circulation of   ,physical properties 
of   corpuscles   ,coagulation of       
,general plan of circulation            
,blood-vessels1 ,nervous control of     
connected with heart   ,effect of       
alcohol on   ,injuries to ,bodies1      
living1 ,characters of ,body1 ,general  
plan of ,bone1 ,chemical composition of 
,physical properties of   ,microscopic  
structure of ,bones1 uses of1 ,the      
,kinds of   in infancy and childhood    
positions at school   in after life     
,broken   broken1 ,treatment for        
,effect of alcohol on   ,effect of      
tobacco on ,breathing1 ,movements of    
,breathing1 ,mechanism of   ,varieties  
of   ,nervous control of   change in the
 air   ,air1 made impure by ,brain1 as a
 whole   ,membranes of   as a reflex    

center   ,effects of alcohol on ,brain  
center1 ,functions of1 in perception of 
impressions ,bright's disease caused by 
alcohol ,bronchial tubes ,burns or      
scalds  ,capillaries ,carbohydrates     
,carpus ,cartilage   ,hyaline   ,white  
fibro-   ,yellow fibro-   ,thyroid      
,arytenoid   ,cricoid ,cells   and the  
human organism   ,kinds of   ,vital     
properties of   ,epithelial   ,nerve    
,cerebrum ,cerebellum ,chemical         
compounds in the body ,chloral ,chyle   
,chyme ,cilia of air passages           
,circulation   ,general plan of         
,portal   ,pulmonic   ,systemic         
,effect of alcohol on ,clavicle         
,cleanliness1 ,necessity for ,clothing1 
,use of   ,material used for            
,suggestions for use of   ,effects of   
tight-fitting   ,miscellaneous hints on 
use of   ,catching1 on fire ,coagulation
 of blood ,cocaine1 ether1 and          
chloroform ,cochlea of ear ,cocoa       
,coffee ,colon ,color-blindness         
,complemental air ,compounds1 ,chemical 

,organic ,condiments ,conjunctiva       
,connective tissue ,consonants          
,contagious diseases ,contraction1      
,object of ,contusions and bruises      
,convulsions ,cooking ,coughing ,cornea 
,corpuscles1 ,blood   ,red   ,colorless 
,corti1 ,organ of ,cranial ,nerves      
,cranium1 ,bones of ,crying ,crystalline
 lens ,cuticle ,cutis vera1 or true skin
  ,degeneration1 ,fatty1 due to alcohol 
,deglutition1 or swallowing ,deodorants 
,diet1 ,important articles of   ,effect 
of occupation on   ,too generous        
,effect of climate on ,digestion1       
,purpose of   ,general plan of   in     
small intestines   in large intestines  
,effect of alcohol on ,disease1 ,effect 
of alcoholics upon ,diseases1 infectious
 and contagious1 ,management of   ,care 
of   ,hints on nursing ,disinfectants   
,air and water as   ,how to use         
,dislocations ,dogs1 mad1 ,bites of     
,drowning1 ,apparent   ,methods of      
treating   ,sylvester method   ,marshall
 ,hall method ,duct1 ,hepatic   ,cystic 

,common bile   ,thoracic   ,nasal       
,duodenum ,dura mater  ,ear1 ,external  
,middle   ,bones of the   ,internal     
,practical hints on care of   ,foreign  
bodies in ,eating1 ,practical points    
about ,eggs as food ,elements1          
,chemical1 in the body ,epidermis1 or   
cuticle ,epiglottis ,epithelium         
,squamous   ,columnar   ,glandular      
,ciliated ,epithelial tissues1          
,functions of ,erect position ,ethmoid  
bone ,eustachian tube ,excretion        
,exercise1 ,physical   ,importance of   
,effect of1 on muscles   ,effect of1 on 
important organs   ,effect of1 on       
personal appearance   ,effect of        
excessive   ,amount of1 required   ,time
 for   ,physical1 in school   ,practical
 points about   ,effect of alcohol and  
tobacco on ,experiments1 ,limitations of
   ,value of ,eye   ,inner structure of 
,compared to camera   ,refractive media 
of   ,movements of   ,foreign bodies in 
,practical hints on care of   ,effect of
 alcohol on   ,effect of tobacco on     

,eyeball1 ,coats of ,eyelids and        
eyebrows ,eyesight in schools  ,face    
,bones of the ,fainting ,fats   and oils
 ,femur ,fibrin ,fibula ,fish as food   
,food and drink ,food1 why we need it   
,absorption of1 by the blood   ,quantity
 of1 as affected by age   ,kinds of1    
required ,foods1 ,classification of     
,nitrogenous   ,proteid   ,saline or    
mineral   ,vegetable   ,proteid         
vegetable   ,non-proteid vegetable      
,non-proteid animal   ,table of ,food   
materials1 ,table of   ,composition of  
,foot ,foul air1 ,effect of1 on health  
,frontal bone ,frost bites ,fruits as   
food  ,gall bladder ,garden vegetables  
,gastric glands ,gastric juice1 ,effect 
of alcohol on ,glands   ,mesenteric     
,lymphatic   ,ductless   ,thyroid       
,thymus   ,suprarenal   ,lacrymal       
,glottis  ,hair   ,structure of ,hair   
and nails1 ,care of ,hall1 ,marshall1   
method for apparent drowning ,hand      
,haversian canals ,head and spine1 how  
joined ,head1 ,bones of ,hearing1 ,sense

 of   ,mechanism of   ,effect of tobacco
 on ,heart   ,valves of   ,general plan 
of blood-vessels connected with         
,rhythmic action of   ,impulse and      
sounds of   ,nervous control of         
,effect of alcohol on   ,effect of      
tobacco on ,heat1 ,animal   ,sources of 
,hiccough ,hip bones ,histology defined 
,humerus ,hygiene defined ,hyoid bone   
,hypermetropia  ,ileum ,injured1 ,prompt
 aid to ,insalivation ,intestine1 ,small
   ,coats of small   ,large             
,intoxicants1 ,physical results of ,iris
 of the eye  ,jejunum ,joints           
,imperfect   ,perfect   ,hinge          
,ball-and-socket   ,pivot  ,katabolism  
defined ,kidneys   ,structure of        
,function of   ,action if1 how modified 
,effect of alcohol on ,kidneys and skin 
,lacrymal apparatus   gland ,lacteals   
,landmarks1 ,bony   ,muscular   heart   
arteries ,larynx ,laughing ,lens1       
,crystalline ,levers in the body ,life1 
,the process of ,ligaments ,limbs1      
,upper   ,lower ,liver   ,minute        

structure of   ,blood supply of         
,functions of   ,effect of alcohol on   
,lungs   ,minute structure of           
,capacity of   ,effect of alcohol on    
,bleeding from ,lymph ,lymphatics  ,mad 
dogs1 ,bites of ,malar bone ,mastication
 ,maxillary1 ,superior   ,inferior      
,meals1 ,hints about ,meats as food     
,medulla oblongata ,membrane1 ,synovial 
,serous   ,arachnoid ,membranes1 ,brain 
,mesentery ,metabolism defined          
,metacarpal bones ,metatarsal bones     
,microscope1 ,use of ,milk ,mineral     
foods ,morphology defined ,motion in    
animals ,mouth ,movement1 ,mechanism of 
,muscles1 ,kinds of   voluntary1        
,structure of   involuntary1 ,structure 
of   ,arrangement of   ,important       
,effect of alcohol on   ,effect of      
tobacco on   ,review analysis of   ,rest
 for ,muscular tissue1 ,effect of       
alcohol on   ,changes in   ,properties  
of   activity   contraction   fatigue   
sense ,myopia  ,nails   ,care of ,nasal 
bones ,nerve cells   fibers   cells and 

fibers1 ,function of ,nerves1 ,cranial  
,spinal   ,motor   ,sensory   spinal1   
,functions of ,nervous system1 ,general 
view of   compared to telegraph system  
,divisions of   ,effect of alcohol on   
,effect of tobacco on ,nitrogenous      
foods4 ,non-proteid vegetable foods     
animal foods ,nose1 ,bleeding from      
,foreign bodies in  ,occipital bone     
sophagus ,opium   ,poisonous effects of 
,in patent medicines   ,victim of the1  
habit ,organic compounds ,outdoor games 
,oxidation  ,pain1 ,sense of ,palate    
bones ,pancreas ,pancreatic juice       
,parietal bones ,patella ,pepsin        
,pericardium ,periosteum ,peritoneum    
,phalanges ,pharynx and sophagus        
,physical exercise ,physical education  
in school ,physical exercises in school 
,physiology defined   ,study of   what  
it should teach   ,main problems of1    
briefly stated4 ,physiological          
knowledge1 ,value of ,pia mater         
,pneumogastric nerve ,poisons ,poisons1 
,table of   ,antidotes for   ,practical 

points about ,poisoning1 ,treatment of  
,portal circulation ,portal vein        
,presbyopia ,pressure1 ,where to apply  
,proteids ,proteid vegetable foods      
,protoplasm ,pulmonary artery   veins   
,pulmonary infection ,pulse ,pupil of   
the eye  ,radius ,receptaculum chyli    
,rectum ,reflex centers   in the brain  
,reflex action1 ,importance of ,renal   
secretion ,residual air ,respiration1   
,nature and object of   ,nervous control
 of   ,effect of1 on the blood   ,effect
 of1 on the air   ,modified movements of
   ,effect of alcohol on   ,effect of   
tobacco on   artificial1 ,methods of    
,rest1 for the muscles   ,need of       
,benefits of   ,the ,sabbath1 a day of  
of mind and body ,retina ,ribs and      
sternum  ,saline or mineral foods       
,saliva ,salt as food ,salts1           
,inorganic1 in the body ,scalds or burns
 ,scapula ,school1 ,physical education  
in   ,positions at ,school and physical 
education ,secretion ,semicircular      
canals ,sensations1 ,general ,sensation1

 ,conditions of ,sense1 ,organs of      
,sense organ1 ,the essentials of ,serous
 membranes ,sick-room1 ,arrangement of  
,ventilation of   ,hints for   ,rules   
for ,sighing ,sight1 ,sense of ,skating1
 swimming1 and rowing ,skeleton         
,review analysis of ,skeleton and       
manikin1 ,use of ,skin1 ,the            
regulating temperature   ,action of1 how
 modified   ,absorbent powers of   and  
the kidneys ,skull   ,sutures of ,sleep1
 a periodical rest   ,effect of1 on     
bodily functions   ,amount of1 required 
,practical rules about ,smell   ,sense  
of ,sneezing ,snoring ,sobbing ,special 
senses ,speech ,sphenoid bone ,spinal   
column ,spinal cord   ,structure of     
,functions of   conductor of impulses   
as a reflex center ,spinal nerves       
,functions of ,spleen ,sprains and      
dislocations ,stammering ,starches and  
sugars ,sternum ,stomach   ,coats of    
,digestion in   ,effect of alcohol on   
,bleeding from ,strabismus ,stuttering  
,sunstroke ,supplemental air ,suprarenal

 capsules ,sutures of skull ,sweat      
glands ,sweat1 ,nature of ,sylvester    
method for apparent drowning            
,sympathetic system   ,functions of     
,synovial membrane   sheaths and sacs   
,taste1 ,organ of   ,sense of ,taste1   
,physiological conditions of            
,modifications of the sense   ,effect of
 alcohol on   ,effect of tobacco on ,tea
 ,tear gland and tear passages ,tears   
,technical terms defined ,teeth         
,development of   ,structure of         
,proper care of   ,hints about saving   
,temperature1 ,regulation of bodily     
,skin as a regulator of   ,voluntary    
regulation of   ,sense of ,temporal     
bones ,tendon of ,achilles ,tendons     
,thigh ,thoracic duct ,throat   ,care of
   ,effect of alcohol on   ,effect of   
tobacco on   ,foreign bodies in ,thymus 
gland ,thyroid gland ,tibia ,tidal air  
,tissue1 ,white fibrous   ,connective   
,yellow elastic   ,areolar   ,adipose   
,adenoid   ,muscular ,tissues1          
,epithelial ,tissues1 epithelial1       

,varieties of   ,functions of           
,connective ,tobacco1 ,effect of1 on    
bones   ,effect of1 on muscles   ,effect
 of1 on physical culture   ,effect of1  
on digestion   ,effect of1 on the heart 
,effect of1 on the lungs   ,effect of1  
on the nervous system   ,effect of1 on  
the mind   ,effect of1 on the character 
,effect of1 on taste   ,effect of1 on   
hearing   ,effect of1 on throat and     
voice ,touch1 ,organ of   ,sense of     
,trachea ,trunk1 ,bones of ,tympanum1   
,cavity of  ,ulna ,urine  ,valve1       
,mitral ,valves of the heart ,valves1   
,tricuspid   ,semilunar ,vegetable foods
 ,veins ,ventilation   ,conditions of   
efficient   of sick-room ,vestibule of  
ear ,vermiform appendix ,vision1 ,common
 defects of   ,effect of tobacco on     
,vivisection and dissection ,vocal cords
 ,voice1 ,mechanism of   ,factors in the
 production of   ,care of   ,effect of  
alcohol on   ,effect of tobacco on      
,vowel sounds  ,walking1 jumping1 and   
running ,waste and repair ,waste        

material1 ,nature of ,waste products1   
,elimination of ,water as food          
,whispering ,wounds1 ,incised and       
lacerated  ,yawning     ,footnotes3     
#a ,the ,value of ,physiological        
,knowledge4 ,if any one doubts the      
importance of an acquaintance with the  
fundamental principles of physiology as 
a means to complete living1 let him look
 around and see how many men and women  
he can find in middle life1 or later1   
who are thoroughly well4 ,occasionally  
only do we meet with an example of      
vigorous health continued to old age2   
hourly do we meet with examples of acute
 disorder1 chronic ailment1 general     
debility1 premature decrepitude4        
,scarcely is there one to whom you put  
the question1 who has not1 in the course
 of his life1 brought upon himself      
illness from which a little knowledge   
would have saved him4 ,here is a case of
 heart disease consequent on a rheumatic
 fever that followed a reckless         
exposure4 ,there is a case of eyes      

spoiled for life by overstudy4  ,not to 
dwell on the natural pain1 the gloom1   
and the waste of time and money thus    
entailed1 only consider how greatly ill 
health hinders the discharge of all     
duties1--makes business often           
impossible1 and always more difficult2  
produces irritability fatal to the right
 management of children1 puts the       
functions of citizenship out of the     
question1 and makes amusement a bore4   
,is it not clear that the physical      
sins--partly our ancestors' and partly  
our own--which produce this ill health  
deduct more from complete living than   
anything else1 and to a great extent    
make life a failure and a burden1       
instead of a benefaction and a          
pleasure8--,herbert ,spencer4  #b ,the  
word protoplasm must not be             
misunderstood to mean a substance of a  
definite chemical nature1 or of an      
invariable morphological structure2 it  
is applied to any part of a cell which  
shows the properties of life1 and is    

therefore only a convenient abbreviation
 for the phrase mass of living matter4  
#c ,did we possess some optic aid which 
should overcome the grossness of our    
vision1 so that we might watch the dance
 of atoms in the double process of      
making and unmaking in the living body1 
we should see the commonplace1 lifeless 
things which are brought by the blood1  
and which we call food1 caught up into  
and made part of the molecular whorls of
 the living muscle1 linked together for 
a while in the intricate figures of the 
dance of life1 giving and taking energy 
as they dance1 and then we should see   
how1 loosing hands1 they slipped back   
into the blood as dead1 inert1 used-up  
matter4--,michael ,foster1 ,professor of
 ,physiology in the ,university of      
,cambridge1 ,england4  #d ,our material 
frame is composed of innumerable atoms1 
and each separate and individual atom   
has its birth1 life1 and death1 and then
 its removal from the 'place of the     
living4' ,thus there is going on a      

continuous process of decay and death   
among the individual atoms which make up
 each tissue4 ,each tissue preserves its
 vitality for a limited space only1 is  
then separated from the tissue of which 
it has formed a part1 and is resolved   
into its inorganic elements1 to be in   
due course eliminated from the body by  
the organs of excretion4--,maclaren's   
,physical ,education4  #e ,the          
periosteum is often of great practical  
importance to the surgeon4 ,instances   
are on record where bones have been     
removed1 leaving the periosteum1 within 
which the entire bone has grown again4  
,the importance of this remarkable      
tissue is still farther illustrated by  
experiments upon the transplantation of 
this membrane in the different tissues  
of living animals1 which has been       
followed by the formation of bone in    
these situations4 ,some years ago a     
famous surgeon in ,new ,york removed the
 whole lower jawbone from a young woman1
 leaving the periosteum and even        

retaining in position the teeth by a    
special apparatus4 ,the entire jawbone  
grew again1 and the teeth resumed their 
original places as it grew4  #f ,the    
mechanism of this remarkable effect is  
clearly shown by an experiment which the
 late ,dr4 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes used
 to take delight in performing in his   
anatomical lectures at the ,harvard     
,medical ,college4 ,he had a strong iron
 bar made into a ring of some eight     
inches in diameter1 with a space left   
between the ends just large enough to be
 filled by an ,english walnut4 ,the ring
 was then dropped to the floor so as to 
strike on the convexity just opposite to
 the walnut1 which invariably was broken
 to pieces4  #g ,for the treatment of   
accidents and emergencies which may     
occur with reference to the bones1 see  
,chapter ,,xiii4  #h ,besides the danger
 connected with the use of alcoholic    
drinks which is common to them with     
other narcotic poisons1 alcohol retards 
the growth of young cells and prevents  

their proper development4 ,now1 the     
bodies of all animals are made up       
largely of cells1 444 and the cells     
being the living part of the animal1 it 
is especially important that they should
 not be injured or badly nourished while
 they are growing4 ,so that alcohol in  
all its forms is particularly injurious 
to young persons1 as it retards their   
growth1 and stunts both body and mind4  
,this is the theory of ,dr4 ,lionel ,s4 
,beale1 a celebrated microscopist and   
thinker1 and is quite generally         
accepted4--,dr4 ,roger ,s4 ,tracy1 of   
the ,new ,york ,board of ,health4  #i   
,in its action on the system nicotine is
 one of the most powerful poisons known4
 ,a drop of it in a concentrated form   
was found sufficient to kill a dog1 and 
small birds perished at the approach of 
a tube containing it4--,wood's ,materia 
,medica4  ,tobacco appears to chiefly   
affect the heart and brain1 and ,i have 
therefore placed it among cerebral and  
cardiac poisons4--,taylor's ,treatise on

 ,poisons4  #aj ,certain events occur in
 the brain2 these give rise to other    
events1 to changes which travel along   
certain bundles of fibers called nerves1
 and so reach certain muscles4 ,arrived 
at the muscles1 these changes in the    
nerves1 which physiologists call nervous
 impulses1 induce changes in the        
muscles1 by virtue of which these       
shorten contract1 bring their ends      
together1 and so1 working upon bony     
levers1 bend the arm or hand1 or lift   
the weight4--,professor ,michael        
,foster4  #aa ,the synovial membranes   
are almost identical in structure with  
serous membranes 7page #agf71 but the   
secretion is thicker and more like the  
white of egg4  #ab ,smoking among       
students or men training for contests is
 a mistake4 ,it not only affects the    
wind1 but relaxes the nerves in a way to
 make them less vigorous for the coming 
contest4 ,it shows its results at once1 
and when the athlete is trying to do his
 best to win he will do well to avoid   

it4 ,joseph ,hamblen ,sears1 ,harvard   
,coach1 and ,ex-,captain of the ,harvard
 ,football ,team1 ,article in ,in       
,sickness and in ,health4  #ac ,there is
 no profession1 there is no calling or  
occupation in which men can be engaged1 
there is no position in life1 no state  
in which a man can be placed1 in which a
 fairly developed frame will not be     
valuable to him2 there are many of      
these1 even the most purely and highly  
intellectual1 in which it is essential  
to success--essential simply as a means1
 material1 but none the less imperative1
 to enable the mind to do its work4     
,year by year1 almost day by day1 we see
 men 7and women7 falter and fail in the 
midst of their labors2 444 and all for  
want of a little bodily stamina--a      
little bodily power and bodily capacity 
for the endurance of fatigue1 or        
protracted unrest1 or anxiety1 or       
grief4--,maclaren's ,physical           
,education4  #ad ,one half the struggle 
of physical training has been won when a

 boy can be induced to take a genuine   
interest in his bodily condition1--to   
want to remedy its defects1 and to pride
 himself on the purity of his skin1 the 
firmness of his muscles1 and the        
uprightness of his figure4 ,whether the 
young man chooses afterwards to use the 
gymnasium1 to run1 to row1 to play ball1
 or to saw wood1 for the purpose of     
improving his physical condition1       
matters little1 provided he accomplishes
 that object4--,dr4 ,d4 ,a4 ,sargent1   
,director of the ,hemenway ,gymnasium at
 ,harvard ,university4  #ae ,it is      
health rather than strength that is the 
great requirement of modern men at      
modern occupations2 it is not the power 
to travel great distances1 carry great  
burdens1 lift great weights1 or overcome
 great material obstructions2 it is     
simply that condition of body1 and that 
amount of vital capacity1 which shall   
enable each man in his place to pursue  
his calling1 and work on in his working 
life1 with the greatest amount of       

comfort to himself and usefulness to his
 fellowmen4--,maclaren's ,physical      
,education4  #af ,to this classification
 may be added what are called           
albuminoids1 a group of bodies          
resembling proteids1 but having in some 
respects a different nutritive value4   
,gelatine1 such as is found in soups or 
table gelatine is a familiar example of 
the albuminoids4 ,they are not found to 
any important extent in our raw foods1  
and do not therefore usually appear in  
the analyses of the composition of      
foods4 ,the albuminoids closely resemble
 the proteids1 but cannot be used like  
them to build up protoplasm4  #ag ,the  
amount of water in various tissues of   
the body is given by the following table
 in parts of #ajjj3           ,solids4  
,liquids4   ,enamel1            #b      
,blood1         #gia   ,dentine1        
#ajj       ,bile1          #hfd   ,bone1
            #dhf       ,blood plasma1   
#ija   ,fat1             #bii           
,chyle1         #ibh   ,cartilage1      

#eej       ,lymph1         #ieh         
,liver1           #fic       ,serum1    
#iei   ,skin1            #gbj           
,gastric juice1 #igc   ,brain1          
#gej       ,tears1         #ihb         
,muscle1          #geg       ,saliva1   
#iie   ,spleen1          #geh           
,sweat1         #iie   ,kidney1         
#hbg   ,vitreous humor1  #ihg  #ah ,the 
work of some kinds of moulds may be     
apparent to the eye1 as in the growths  
that form on old leather and stale bread
 and cheese4 ,that of others goes on    
unseen1 as when acids are formed in     
stewed fruits4 ,concerning the work of  
the different kinds of moulds4          
,troussart says3 ,mucor mucedo devours  
our preserves2 ,ascophora mucedo turns  
our bread mouldy2 ,molinia is nourished 
at the expense of our fruits2 ,mucor    
herbarium destroys the herbarium of the 
botanist2 and ,choetonium chartatum     
develops itself on paper1 on the insides
 of books and on their bindings1 when   
they come in contact with a damp        

wall4--,troussart's ,microbes1          
,ferments1 and ,moulds4  #ai ,the       
physiological wear of the organism is   
constantly being repaired by the blood2 
but in order to keep the great nutritive
 fluid from becoming impoverished1 the  
matters which it is constantly losing   
must be supplied from some source out of
 the body1 and this necessitates the    
ingestion of articles which are known as
 food4--,flint's ,text-book of ,human   
,physiology4  #bj ,glands4 ,glands are  
organs of various shapes and sizes1     
whose special work it is to separate    
materials from the blood for further use
 in the body1 the products being known  
as secretion and excretion4 ,the means  
by which secretion and excretion are    
effected are1 however1 identical4 ,the  
essential parts of a gland consist of a 
basement membrane1 on one side of which 
are found actively growing cells1 on the
 other is the blood current1 flowing in 
exceedingly thin-walled vessels known as
 the capillaries4 ,the cells are able to

 select from the blood whatever material
 they require and which they elaborate  
into the particular secretion4 ,in ,fig4
 #dg is illustrated1 diagrammatically1  
the structure of a few typical secreting
 glands4 ,the continuous line represents
 the basement membrane4 ,the dotted line
 represents the position of the cells on
 one side of the basement membrane4 ,the
 irregular lines show the position of   
the blood-vessels4  #ba ,tablets and    
other material for ,fehling and         
additional tests for sugar can be       
purchased at a drug store4 ,the         
practical details of these and other    
tests which assume some knowledge of    
chemistry1 should be learned from some  
manual on the subject4  #bb ,the        
,peritoneum4 ,the intestines do not lie 
in a loose mass in the abdominal cavity4
 ,lining the walls of this cavity1 just 
as in a general way1 a paper lines the  
walls of a room1 is a delicate serous   
membrane1 called the peritoneum4 ,it    
envelops1 in a greater or less degree1  

all the viscera in the cavity and forms 
folds by which they are connected with  
each other1 or are attached to the      
posterior wall4 ,its arrangement is     
therefore very complicated4 ,when the   
peritoneum comes in contact with the    
large intestine1 it passes over it just 
as the paper of a room would pass over a
 gas pipe which ran along the surface of
 the wall1 and in passing over it binds 
it down to the wall of the cavity4 ,the 
small intestines are suspended from the 
back wall of the cavity by a double fold
 of the peritoneum1 called the          
mesentery4 ,the bowels are also         
protected from external cold by several 
folds of this membrane loaded with fat4 
,this is known as the great omentum4    
,the peritoneum1 when in health1        
secretes only enough fluid to keep its  
surface lubricated so that the bowels   
may move freely and smoothly on each    
other and on the other viscera4 ,in     
disease this fluid may increase in      
amount1 and the abdominal cavity may    

become greatly distended4 ,this is known
 as ascites or dropsy4  #bc ,the human  
bile when fresh is generally of a bright
 golden red1 sometimes of a greenish    
yellow color4 ,it becomes quite green   
when kept1 and is alkaline in reaction4 
,when it has been omited it is          
distinctly yellow1 because of its action
 on the gastric juice4 ,the bile        
contains a great deal of coloring       
matter1 and its chief ingiedients are   
two salts of soda1 sodium taurocholate  
and glycocholate4  #bd ,nansen          
emphasizes this point in his recently   
published work1 ,farthest ,north4  #be  
,we should make it a point not to omit a
 meal unless forced to do so4 ,children1
 and even adults1 often have the habit  
of going to school or to work in a      
hurry1 without eating any breakfast4    
,there is almost sure to be a fainting1 
or all-gone feeling at the stomach      
before another mealtime4 ,this habit is 
injurious1 and sure to produce          
pernicious results4  #bf ,the teeth of  

children should be often examined by the
 dentist1 especially from the beginning 
of the second dentition1 at about the   
sixth year1 until growth is completed4  
,in infancy the mother should make it a 
part of her daily care of the child to  
secure perfect cleanliness of the teeth4
 ,the child thus trained will not1 when 
old enough to rinse the mouth properly  
or to use the brush1 feel comfortable   
after a meal until the teeth have been  
cleansed4 ,the habit thus formed is     
almost sure to be continued through     
life4  #bg ,if the amount of alcohol be 
increased1 or the repetition become     
frequent1 some part of it undergoes acid
 fermentation in the stomach1 and acid  
eructations or vomitings occur4 ,with   
these phenomena are associated catarrh  
of the stomach and liver with its       
characteristic symptoms1--loss of       
appetite1 feeble digestion1 sallowness1 
mental depression1 and headache4--,james
 ,c4 ,wilson1 ,professor in the         
,jefferson ,medical ,college1           

,philadelphia4  ,man has recourse to    
alcohol1 not for the minute quantity of 
energy which may be supplied by itself1 
but for its powerful influence on the   
distribution of the energy furnished by 
other things4 ,that influence is a very 
complex one4--,professor ,michael       
,foster4  #bh ,when constantly irritated
 by the direct action of alcoholic      
drinks1 the stomach gradually undergoes 
lasting structural changes4 ,its vessels
 remain dilated and congested1 its      
connective tissue becomes excessive1 its
 power of secreting gastric juice       
diminishes1 and its mucous secretions   
abnormally abundant4--,h4 ,newell       
,martin1 late ,professor of ,physiology 
in ,johns ,hopkins ,university4         
,chemical experiments have demonstrated 
that the action of alcohol on the       
digestive fluids is to destroy its      
active principle1 the pepsin1 thus      
confirming the observations of          
physiologists that its use gives ride to
 the most serious disorders of the      

stomach and the most malignant          
aberrations of the entire               
economy4--,professor ,e4 ,c4 ,youmans1  
author of standard scientific works4    
,the structural changes induced by      
habitual use of alcohol and the action  
of this agent on the pepsin1 seriously  
impair the digestive power4 ,hence it   
is1 that those who are habitual         
consumers of alcoholic fluids suffer    
from disorders o digestion4--,robert    
,bartholow1 recently ,professor of      
,materia ,medica in the ,university of  
,pennsylvania4  ,alcohol in any         
appreciable quantity diminishes the     
solvent power of the gastric fluid so as
 to interfere with the process of       
digestion instead of aiding             
it4--,professor ,w4 ,b4 ,carpenter1 the 
eminent ,english physiologist4  #bi     
,cirrhosis of the liver is notoriously  
frequent among drunkards1 and is in fact
 almost1 though not absolutely1 confined
 to them4--,robert ,t4 ,edes1 formerly  
,professor of ,materia ,medica in       

,harvard ,medical ,college4  ,alcohol   
acts on the liver by producing          
enlargement of that organ1 and a fat    
deposit1 or 'hob-nailed' liver mentioned
 by the ,english writers4--,professor   
,w4 ,b4 ,carpenter4  #cj ,preparation of
 ,artificial ,gastric ,juice4 7a7 ,take 
part of the cardiac end of the pig's    
stomach1 which has been previously      
opened and washed rapidly in cold water1
 and spread it1 mucous surface upwards1 
on the convex surface of an inverted    
capsule4 ,scrape the mucous surface     
firmly with the back of a knife blade1  
and rub up the scrapings in a mortar    
with fine sand4 ,add water1 and rub up  
the whole vigorously for some time1 and 
filter4 ,the filtrate is an artificial  
gastric juice4  7b7 ,from the cardiac   
end of a pig's stomach detach the mucous
 membrane in shreds1 dry them between   
folds of blotting-paper1 place them in a
 bottle1 and cover them with strong     
glycerine for several days4 ,the        
glycerine dissolves the pepsin1 and on  

filtering1 a glycerine extract with high
 digestive properties is obtained4      
,these artificial juices1 when added to 
hydrochloric acid of the proper         
strength1 have high digestive powers4   
,instead of 7a7 or 7b7 use the          
artificial pepsin prepared for the      
market by the wholesale manufacturers of
 such goods4  #ca ,the cause of the     
clotting of blood is not yet fully      
understood4 ,although the process has   
been thoroughly investigated we have not
 yet a satisfactory explanation why the 
circulating blood does not clot in      
healthy blood-vessels4 ,the ablest      
physiologists of our day do not1 as     
formerly1 regard the process as a       
so-called vital1 but a purely chemical  
one4  #cb ,serous ,membranes4--,the     
serous membranes form shut sacs1 of     
which one portion is applied to the     
walls of the cavity which it lines2 the 
other is reflected over the surface of  
the organ or organs contained in the    
cavity4 ,the sac is completely closed1  

so that no communication exists between 
the serous cavity and the parts in its  
neighborhood4 ,the various serous       
membranes are the pleura which envelops 
the lungs2 the pericardium which        
surrounds the heart2 the peritoneum     
which invests the viscera of the        
abdomen1 and the arachnoid in the spinal
 canal and cranial cavity4 ,in health   
the serous membranes secrete only       
sufficient fluid to lubricate and keep  
soft and smooth the opposing surfaces4  
#cc ,a correct idea may be formed of the
 arrangement of the pericardium around  
the heart by recalling how a boy puts on
 and wears his toboggan cap4 ,the       
pericardium encloses the heart exactly  
as this cap covers the boy's head4  #cd 
,alcohol taken in small and single      
doses1 acts almost exclusively on the   
brain and the blood-vessels of the      
brain1 whereas taken in large and       
repeated doses its chief effects are    
always nervous effects4 ,the first      
effects of alcohol on the function of   

inhibition are to paralyze the          
controlling nerves1 so that the         
blood-centers are dilated1 and more     
blood is let into the brain4 ,in        
consequence of this flushing of the     
brain1 its nerve centers are asked to do
 more work4--,dr4 ,t4 ,s4 ,clouston1    
,medical ,superintendent of the ,royal  
,asylum1 ,edinburgh4  ,alcoholic drinks 
prevent the natural changes going on in 
the blood1 and obstruct the nutritive   
and reparative functions4--,professor   
,e4 ,l4 ,youmans1 well-known scientist  
and author of ,class ,book of           
,chemistry4  #ce ,the word cell is not  
used in this connection in its technical
 signification of a histological unit of
 the body 7sec4 #ab71 but merely in its 
primary sense of a small cavity  #cf    
,the student must guard himself against 
the idea that arterial blood contains no
 carbonic acid1 and venous blood no     
oxygen4 ,in passing through the lungs   
venous blood loses only a part of its   
carbonic acid2 and arterial blood1 in   

passing through the tissues1 loses only 
a part of its oxygen4 ,in blood1 however
 venous1 there is in health always some 
oxygen2 and in even the brightest       
arterial blood there is actually more   
carbonic acid than oxygen4--,t4 ,h4     
,huxley4  #cg ,consumption is a disease 
which can be taken from others1 and is  
not simply caused by colds4 ,a cold may 
make it easier to take the disease4 ,it 
is usually caused by germs which enter  
the body with the air breathed4 ,the    
matter which consumptives cough or spit 
up contains these germs in great        
numbers--frequently millions are        
discharged in a single day4 ,this matter
 spit upon the floor1 wall1 or elsewhere
 is apt to dry1 become pulverized1 and  
float in the air as dust4 ,the dust     
contains the germs1 and thus they enter 
the body with the air breathed4 ,the    
breath of a consumptive does not contain
 the germs and will not produce the     
disease4 ,a well person catches the     
disease from a consumptive only by in   

some way taking in the matter coughed up
 by the consumptive4--,extract from a   
circular issued by the ,board of ,health
 of ,new ,york ,city4  #ch ,the lungs   
from the congested state of their       
vessels produced by alcohol are more    
subject to the influence of cold1 the   
result being frequent attacks of        
bronchitis4 ,it has been recognized of  
late years that there is a peculiar form
 of consumption of the lungs which is   
very rapidly fatal and found only in    
alcohol drinkers4--,professor ,h4       
,newell ,martin4  #ci ,the relation to  
,bright's ,disease is not so clearly    
made out as is assumed by some writers1 
though ,i must confess to myself sharing
 the popular belief that alcohol is one 
among its most important                
factors4--,robert ,t4 ,edes1 ,m4,d4  #dj
 ,thus the fibers which pass out from   
the sacral plexus in the loins1 and     
extend by means of the great sciatic    
nerve and its branches to the ends of   
the toes1 may be more than a yard long4 

#da ,remarkable instances are cited to  
illustrate the imperative demand for    
sleep4 ,gunner boys have been known to  
fall asleep during the height of a naval
 battle1 owing to the fatigue occasioned
 by the arduous labor in carrying       
ammunition for the gunner4 ,a case is   
reported of a captain of a ,british     
frigate who fell asleep and remained so 
for two hours beside one of the largest 
guns of his vessel1 the gun being served
 vigorously all the time4 ,whole        
companies of men have been known to     
sleep while on the march during an      
arduous campaign4 ,cavalrymen and       
frontiersmen have slept soundly in the  
saddle during the exhausting campaigns  
against the ,indians4  #db ,according to
 the ,annual ,report of ,new ,york      
,state ,reformatory1 for #ahif1         
drunkenness among the inmates can be    
clearly traced to no less than #ch per  
cent of the fathers and mothers only4   
,drunkenness among the parents of #ch   
per cent of the prisoners in a          

reformatory of this kind is a high and a
 serious percentage4 ,it shows that the 
demoralizing influence of drink is apt  
to destroy the future of the child as   
well as the character of the parent4    
,there is a marked tendency in nature to
 transmit all diseased conditions4 ,thus
 the children of consumptive parents are
 apt to be consumptive4 ,but1 of all    
agents1 alcohol is the most potent in   
establishing a heredity that exhibits   
itself in the destruction of mind and   
body4 ,there is not only a propensity   
transmitted1 but an actual disease of   
the nervous system4--,dr4 ,willard      
,parker4  #dc ,it is very certain that  
many infants annually perish from this  
single cause4--,reese's ,manual of      
,toxicology4  #dd ,if an eye removed    
from its socket be stripped posteriorly 
of the sclerotic coat1 an inverted image
 or the field of view will be seen on   
the retina2 but if the lens or other    
part of the refractive media be removed1
 the image will become blurred or       

disappear altogether4  #de ,this change 
in the convexity of the lens is only a  
slight one1 as the difference in the    
focal point between rays from an object 
twenty feet distant and one four inches 
distant is only one-tenth of an inch4   
,while this muscular action is taking   
place1 the pupil contracts and the      
eyeballs converge by the action of the  
internal rectus muscles4 ,these three   
acts are due to the third nerve 7the    
motor oculi74 ,this is necessary in     
order that each part should he imprinted
 on the same portion of the retina1     
otherwise there would be double vision4 
#df ,the ,germans have a quaint proverb 
that one should never rub his eyes      
except with his elbows  #dg ,the        
deleterious effect of tobacco upon      
eyesight is an acknowledged fact4 ,the  
,belgian government instituted an       
investigation into the cause of the     
prevalence of color-blindness4 ,the     
unanimous verdict of the experts making 
the examination was that the use of     

tobacco was one of the principal causes 
of this defect of vision4  ,the dimness 
of sight caused by alcohol or tobacco   
has long been clinically recognized1    
although not until recently accurately  
understood4 ,the main facts can now be  
stated with much assurance1 since the   
publication of an article by ,uhthoff   
which leaves little more to be said4 ,he
 examined one thousand patients who were
 detained in hospital because of        
alcoholic excess1 and out of these found
 a total of eye diseases of about thirty
 per cent4  ,commonly both eyes are     
affected1 and the progress of the       
disease is slow1 both in culmination and
 in recovery4444 ,treatment demands     
entire abstinence4--,henry ,d4 ,noyes1  
,professor of ,otology in the ,bellevue 
,hospital ,medical ,college1 ,new ,york4
  #dh ,the student who will take a      
little trouble in noticing the ears of  
the persons whom he meets from day to   
day will be greatly interested and      
surprised to see how much the auricle   

varies4 ,it may be a thick and clumsy   
ear or a beautifully delicate one2 long 
and narrow or short and broad1 may have 
a neatly formed and distinct lobule1 or 
one that is heavy1 ungainly1 and united 
to the cheek so as hardly to form a     
separate part of the auricle1 may hug   
the head closely or flare outward so as 
to form almost two wings to the head4   
,in art1 and especially in medallion    
portraits1 in which the ear is a marked 
7because central7 feature1 the auricle  
is of great importance--,william ,w4    
,keen1 ,m4,d41 editor of ,gray's        
,anatomy  #di ,the organ of ,corti is a 
very complicated structure which it is  
needless to describe in this connection4
 ,it consists essentially of modified   
ephithelial cells floated upon the      
auditory epithelium1 or basilar         
membrane1 of the cochlea4 ,there is a   
series of fibers1 each made of two parts
 sloped against each other like the     
rafters of a roof4 ,it is estimated that
 there are no less than #cjjj of these  

arches in the human ear1 placed side by 
side in a continuous series along the   
whole length of the basilar membrane4   
,resting on these arches are numbers of 
conical epithelial cells1 from the free 
surface of which bundles of stiff hairs 
7cilia7 project4 ,the fact that these   
hair-cells are connected with the fibers
 of the cochlear division of the        
auditory nerve suggests that they must  
play an important part in auditory      
sensation4  #ej ,the voices of boys     
break1 or change1 because of the sudden 
growth or enlargement of the larynx1 and
 consequent increase in length of the   
vocal cords1 at from fourteen to sixteen
 years of age4 ,no such enlargement     
takes place in the larynxes of girls3   
therefore their voices undergo no such  
sudden change4  #ea ,this experiment and
 several others in this book1 are taken 
from ,professor ,bowditch's little book 
called ,hints for ,teachers of          
,physiology1 a work which should be     
mastered by every teacher of physiology 

in higher schools4  #eb ,the teacher or 
student who is disposed to study the    
subject more thoroughly and in more     
detail than is possible in a class      
text-book1 will find all that is needed 
in the following excellent books1 which 
are readily obtained by purchase1 or may
 be found in the public libraries of    
larger towns3 ,dulles' ,accidents and   
,emergencies2 ,pilcher's ,first ,aid in 
,illness and ,injury2 ,doty's ,prompt   
,aid to the ,injured2 and ,johnston's   
,surgical ,injuries and ,surgical       
,diseases1 a special article in         
,roosevelt's ,in ,sickness and in       
,health4  #ec ,a tourniquet is a        
bandage1 handkerchief1 or strap of      
webbing1 into the middle of which a     
stone1 a potato1 a small block of wood1 
or any hard1 smooth body is tied4 ,the  
band is tied loosely about the limb1 the
 hard body is held over the artery to be
 constricted1 and a stick is inserted   
beneath the band on the opposite side of
 the limb and used to twist the band in 

such a way that the limb is tightly     
constricted thereby1 and the hard body  
thus made to compress the artery 7,fig4 
#afj74  ,the entire circumference of the
 limb may be constricted by any sort of 
elastic band or rubber tube1 or any     
other strong elastic material passed    
around the limb several times on a      
stretch1 drawn tight and tied in a knot4
 ,in this way1 bleeding may be stopped  
at once from the largest arteries4 ,the 
longer and softer the tube the better4  
,it requires no skill and but little    
knowledge of anatomy to apply it        
efficiently4 ,alexander ,b4 ,johnson1   
,surgeon to ,roosevelt ,hospital1 ,new  
,york ,city4  #ed ,corrosive sublimate  
is probably the most powerful           
disinfectant known4 ,a solution of one  
part in #bjjj will destroy microscopic  
organisms4 ,two teaspoonfuls of this    
substance will make a solution strong   
enough to kill all disease germs4  #ee  
,the burning of sulphur produces        
sulphurous acid1 which is an            

irrespirable gas4 ,the person who lights
 the sulphur must1 therefore1           
immediately leave the room1 and after   
the lapse of the proper time1 must hold 
his breath as he enters the room to open
 the windows and let out the gas4 ,after
 fumigation1 plastered walls should be  
white-washed1 the woodwork well scrubbed
 with carbolic soap1 and painted        
portions repainted4  #ef ,put copperas  
in a pail of water1 in such quantity    
that some may constantly remain         
undissolved at the bottom4 ,this makes a
 saturated solution4 ,to every privy or 
water-closet1 allow one pint of the     
solution for every four persons when    
cholera is about4 ,to keep privies from 
being offensive1 pour one pint into each
 seat1 night and morning4  #eg ,while   
physiology is one of the biological     
sciences1 it should be clearly          
recognized that it is not1 like botany  
or zoology1 a science of observation and
 description2 but rather1 like physics  
or chemistry1 a science of experiment4  

,while the amount of experimental       
instruction 7not involving vivisection  
or experiment otherwise unsuitable7 that
 may with propriety be given in the high
 school is neither small nor            
unimportant1 the limitations to such    
experimental teaching1 both as to kind  
and as to amount1 are plainly indicated4
  ,the obvious limitations to           
experimental work in physiology in the  
high school1 already referred to1 make  
it necessary for the student to acquire 
much of the desired knowledge from the  
text-book only4 ,nevertheless1 much may 
be done by a thoughtful and ingenious   
teacher to make such knowledge real1 by 
the aid of suitable practical exercises 
and demonstrations4--,report of the     
,committee of ,ten on ,secondary ,school
 ,studies4  #eh ,this ingenious and     
excellent experiment is taken from the  
,new ,york ,school ,journal for ,may1   
#ahig1 for which paper it was prepared  
by ,charles ,d4 ,nason1 of              
,philadelphia4