,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,philosophy ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,plato ,by ,,thomas ,,taylor ,philosophy1 says ,hierocles1 is the purification and perfection of human life4 ,it is the purification1 indeed1 from material irrationality1 and the mortal body2 but the perfection1 in consequence of being the resumption of our proper felicity1 and a reascent to the divine likeness4 ,to effect these two is the province of ,virtue and ,truth2 the former exterminating the immoderation of the passions2 and the latter introducing the divine form to those who are naturally adapted to its reception4 ,of philosophy thus defined1 which may be compared to a luminous pyramid1 terminating in ,deity1 and having for its basis the rational soul of man and its spontaneous unperverted conceptions1--of this philosophy1 ,august1 magnificent1 and divine1 ,plato may be justly called the primary leader and hierophant1 through whom1 like the mystic light in the inmost recesses of some sacred temple1 it first shone forth with occult and venerable splendour4#a ,it may indeed be truly said of the whole of this philosophy1 that it is the greatest good which man can participate3 for if it purifies us from the defilements of the passions and assimilates us to ,divinity1 it confers on us the proper felicity of our nature4 ,hence it is easy to collect its pre-eminence to all other philosophies2 to show that where they oppose it1 they are erroneous2 that so far as they contain any thing scientific they are allied to it2 and that at best they are but rivulets derived from this vast ocean of truth4 ------------------ #a ,in the mysteries a light of this kind shone forth from the adytum of the temple in which they were exhibited4 ------------------ ,to evince that the philosophy of ,plato possesses this preeminence2 that its dignity and sublimity are unrivaled2 that it is the parent of all that ennobles man2 and1 that it is founded on principles1 which neither time can obliterate1 nor sophistry subvert1 is the principal design of this ,introduction4 ,to effect this design1 ,i shall in the first place present the reader with the outlines of the principal dogmas of ,plato's philosophy4 ,the undertaking is indeed no less novel than arduous1 since the author of it has to tread in paths which have been untrodden for upwards of a thousand years1 and to bring to light truths which for that extended period have been concealed in ,greek4 ,let not the reader1 therefore1 be surprised at the solitariness of the paths through which ,i shall attempt to conduct him1 or at the novelty of the objects which will present themselves in the journey3 for perhaps he may fortunately recollect that he has traveled the same road before1 that the scenes were once familiar to him1 and that the country through which he is passing is his native land4 ,at1 least1 if his sight should be dim1 and his memory oblivious1 7for the objects which he will meet with can only be seen by the most piercing eyes17 and his absence from them has been lamentably long1 let him implore the power of wisdom1 ,from mortal mists to purify his eyes1 ,that ,god and man he may distinctly see4 ,let us also1 imploring the assistance of the same illuminating power1 begin the solitary journey4 ,of all the dogmas of ,plato1 that concerning the first principle of things as far transcends in sublimity the doctrine of other philosophers of a different sect1 on this subject1 as this supreme cause of all transcends other causes4 ,for1 according to ,plato1 the highest ,god1 whom in the ,republic he calls the good1 and in the ,parmenides the one1 is not only above soul and intellect1 but is even superior to being itself4 ,hence1 since every thing which can in any respect be known1 or of which any thing can be asserted1 must be connected with the universality of things1 but the first cause is above all things1 it is very properly said by ,plato to be perfectly ineffable4 ,the first hypothesis therefore of his1 ,parmenides1 in which all things are denied of this immense principle1 concludes as follows3 ,the one therefore is in no respect4 ,so it seems4 ,hence it is not in such a manner as to be one1 for thus it would be being1 and participate of essence2 but as it appears1 the one neither is one1 nor is1 if it be proper to believe in reasoning of this kind4 ,it appears so4 ,but can any thing either belong to1 or be affirmed of that1 which is not8 ,how can it8 ,neither therefore does any name belong to it1 nor discourse1 nor any science1 nor sense1 nor opinion4 ,it does not appear that there can4 ,hence it can neither be named1 nor spoken of1 nor conceived by opinion1 nor be known1 nor perceived by any being4 ,so it seems4 ,and here it must be observed that this conclusion respecting the highest principle of things1 that he is perfectly ineffable and inconceivable1 is the result of a most scientific series of negations1 in which not only all sensible and intellectual beings are denied of him1 but even natures the most transcendently allied to him1 his first and most divine progeny4 ,for that which so eminently distinguishes the philosophy of ,plato from others is this1 that every part of it is stamped with the character of science4 ,the vulgar indeed proclaim the ,deity to be ineffable2 but as they have no scientific knowledge that he is so1 this is nothing more than a confused and indistinct perception of the most sublime of all truths1 like that of a thing seen between sleeping and waking1 like ,phaeacia to ,ulysses when sailing to his native land1 ,that lay before him indistinct and vast1 ,like a broad shield amid the watr'y waste4 ,in short1 an unscientific perception of the ineffable nature of the ,divinity resembles that of a man1 who on surveying the heavens1 should assert of the altitude of its highest part1 that it surpasses that of the loftiest tree1 and is therefore immeasurable4 ,but to see this scientifically1 is like a survey of this highest part of the heavens by the astronomer2 for he by knowing the height of the media between us and it1 knows also scientifically that it transcends in altitude not only the loftiest tree2 but the summits of air and aether1 the moon1 and even the sun itself4 ,let us therefore investigate what is the ascent to the ineffably1 and after what manner it is accomplished1 according to ,plato1 from the last of things1 following the profound and most inquisitive ,damascius as our leader in this arduous investigation4 ,let our discourse also be common to other principles1 and to things proceeding from them to that which is last1 and let us1 beginning from that which is perfectly effable and known to sense1 ascend too the ineffable1 and establish in silence1 as in a port1 the parturitions of truth concerning it4 ,let us then assume the following axiom1 in which as in a secure vehicle we may safely pass from hence thither4 ,i say1 therefore1 that the unindigent is naturally prior to the indigent4 ,for that which is in want of another is naturally adapted from necessity to be subservient to that of which it is indigent4 ,but if they are mutually in want of each other1 each being indigent of the other in a different respect1 neither of them will be the principle4 ,for the unindigent is most adapted to that which is truly the principle4 ,and if it is in want of any thing1 according to this it will not be the principle4 ,it is however necessary that the principles should be this very thing1 the principle alone4 ,the unindigent therefore pertains to this1 nor must it by any means be acknowledged that there is any thing prior to it4 ,this however1 would be acknowledged if it had any connection with the indigent4 ,let us then consider body1 7that is1 a triply extended substance17 endued with quality2 for this is the first thing effable by us1 and is1 sensible4 ,is this then the principle of things8 ,but it is two things1 body1 and quality which is in body as a subject4 ,which of these therefore is by nature prior8 ,for both are indigent of their proper parts2 and that also which is in a subject is indigent of the subject4 ,shall we say then that body itself is the principle of the first essence8 ,but this is impossible4 ,for1 in the first place1 the principle will not receive any thing from that which is posterior to itself4 ,but body1 we say is the recipient of quality4 ,hence quality1 and a subsistence in conjunction with it1 are not derived from body1 since quality is present with body as something different4 ,and1 in the second place1 body is every way1 divisible2 its several parts are indigent of each other1 and the whole is indigent of all the parts4 ,as it is indigent1 therefore1 and receives its completion from things which are indigent1 it will not be entirely unindigent4 ,further still1 if it is not one but united1 it will require1 as ,plato says1 the connecting one4 ,it is likewise something common and formless1 being as it were a certain matter4 ,it requires1 therefore1 ornament and the possession of form1 that it may not be merely body1 but a body with a certain particular quality2 as for instance1 a fiery1 or earthly1 body1 and1 in short1 body adorned and invested with a particular quality4 ,hence the things which accede to it1 finish and adorn it4 ,is then that which accedes the principle8 ,but this is impossible4 ,for it does not abide in itself1 nor does it subsist alone1 but is in a subject of which also it is indigent4 ,if1 however1 some one should assert that body is not a subject1 but one of the elements in each1 as for instance1 animal in horses and man1 thus also each will be indigent of the other1 viz4 this subject1 and that which is in the subject2 or rather the common element1 animal1 and the peculiarities1 as the rational and irrational1 will be indigent4 ,for elements are always1 indigent of each other1 and that which is composed from elements is indigent of the elements4 ,in short1 this sensible nature1 and which is so manifest to us1 is neither body1 for this does not of itself move the senses1 nor quality2 for this does not possess an interval commensurate with sense4 ,hence1 that which is the object of sight1 is neither body nor color2 but colored body1 or color corporalized1 is that which is motive of the sight4 ,and universally1 that which its sensible1 which is body with a particular quality1 is motive of sense4 ,from hence it is evident that the thing which excites the sense is something incorporeal4 ,for if it was body1 it would not yet be the object of sense4 ,body therefore requires that which is incorporeal1 and that which is incorporeal1 body4 ,for an incorporeal nature1 is not of itself sensible4 ,it is1 however1 different from body1 because these two possess prerogatives different from each other1 and neither of these subsists prior to the other2 but being elements of one sensible thing1 they are present with each other2 the one imparting interval to that which is void of interval1 but the other introducing to that which is formless1 sensible variety invested with form4 ,in the third place1 neither are both these together the principles2 since they are not unindigent4 ,for they stand in need of their proper elements1 and of that which conducts them to the generation of one form4 ,for body cannot effect this1 since it is of itself impotent2 nor quality1 since it is not able to subsist separate from the body in which it is1 or together with which it has its being4 ,the composite therefore either produces itself1 which is impossible1 for it does not converge to itself1 but the whole of it is multifariously dispersed1 or it is not produced by itself1 and there is some other principle prior to it4 ,let it then be supposed to be that which is called nature1 being a principle of motion and rest1 in that which is moved and at rest1 essentially and not according to accident4 ,for this is something more simple1 and is fabricative of composite forms4 ,if1 however1 it is in the things fabricated1 and does not subsist separate from nor prior to them1 but stands in need of them for its being1 it will not be unindigent2 though its possesses something transcendent with respect to them1 viz4 the power of fashioning and fabricating them4 ,for it has its being together with them1 and has in them an inseparable subsistence2 so that1 when they are it is1 and is not when they are not1 and this in consequence of perfectly verging to them1 and not being able to sustain that which is appropriate4 ,for the power of increasing1 nourishing1 and generating similars1 and the one prior to these three1 viz4 nature1 is not wholly incorporeal1 but is nearly a certain quality of body1 from which it alone differs1 in that it imparts to the composite to be inwardly moved and at rest4 ,for the quality of that which is sensible imparts that which is apparent in matter1 and that which falls on sense4 ,but body imparts interval every way extended2 and nature1 an inwardly proceeding natural energy1 whether according to place only1 or according to nourishing1 increasing1 and generating things similar4 ,nature1 however1 is inseparable from a subject1 and is indigent1 so that it will not be in short the principle1 since it is indigent of that which is subordinate4 ,for it will not be wonderful1 if being a certain principle1 it is indigent of the principle above it2 but it would be wonderful if it were indigent of things posterior to itself1 and of which it is supposed to be the principle4 ,by the like arguments we may show that the principle cannot be irrational soul1 whether sensitive1 or orectic4 ,for if it appears that it has something separate1 together with impulsive and ,gnostic enemies1 yet at the same time it is bound in body1 and has something inseparable from it2 since it is notable to convert itself to itself1 but its enemy is mingled with its subject4 ,for it is evident that its essence is something of this kind2 since if it were liberated and in itself free1 it would also evince a certain independent enemy1 and would not always be converted to body2 but sometimes it would be converted to itself2 or though it were always converted to body1 yet it would judge and explore itself4 ,the energies1 therefore1 of the multitude of mankind1 7though they are conversant with externals17 yet1 at the same time they exhibit that which is separate about them4 ,for they consult how they should engage in them1 and observe that deliberation is necessary1 in order to effect or be passive to apparent good1 or to decline something of the contrary4 ,but the impulses of other animals are uniform and spontaneous1 are moved together with the sensible organs1 and require the senses alone that they may obtain from sensibles the pleasurable1 and avoid the painful4 ,if1 therefore1 the body communicates in pleasure and pain1 and is affected in a certain respect by them1 it is evident that the psychical energies1 7i4e4 energies belonging to the soul7 are exerted1 mingled with bodies1 and are not purely psychical1 but are also corporeal2 for perception is of the animated body1 or of the soul corporalized1 though in such perception the psychical idiom predominates over the corporeal2 just as in bodies1 the corporeal idiom has dominion according to interval and subsistence4 ,as the irrational soul1 therefore1 has its being in something different from itself1 so far it is indigent of the subordinate3 but a thing of this kind will not be the principle4 ,prior them to this essence1 we see a certain form separate from a subject1 and converted to itself1 such as is the rational nature4 ,our soul1 therefore1 presides over its proper energies and corrects itself4 ,this1 however1 would not be the case1 unless it was converted to itself2 and it would not be converted1 to itself unless it had a separate essence4 ,it is not therefore indigent of the subordinate4 ,shall we then say that it is the most perfect principle8 ,but1 it does not at once exert all its energies1 but is always indigent of the greater part4 ,the principle1 however1 wishes to have nothing indigent3 but the rational nature is an essence in want of its own energies4 ,some one1 however1 may say that it is an eternal essence1 and has never-failing essential energies1 always concurring with its essence1 according to the self-moved and ever vital1 and that it is therefore unindigent2 but the principle is perfectly unindigent4 ,soul therefore1 and which exerts mutable energies1 will not be the most proper principle4 ,hence it is necessary that there should be something prior to this1 which is in every respect immutable1 according to nature1 life1 and knowledge1 and according to all powers and enemies1 such as we assert an eternal and immutable essence to be1 and such as is much honoured intellect1 to which ,aristotle having ascended1 thought he had discovered the first principle4 ,for what can be wanting to that which perfectly comprehends in itself its own plenitudes 7oleromata71 and of which neither addition nor ablation changes any thing belonging to it8 ,or is not this also1 one and many1 whole and parts1 containing in itself1 things first1 middle1 and last8 ,the subordinate plenitudes also stand in need of the more excellent1 and the more excellent of the subordinate1 and the whole of the parts4 ,for the things related are indigent of each other1 and what are first of what are last1 through the same cause2 for it is not of itself that which is first4 ,besides1 the one here is indigent of the many1 because it has its subsistence in the many4 ,or it may be said1 that this one is collective of the many1 and this not by itself1 but in conjunction with them4 ,hence there is much of the indigent in this principle4 ,for since intellect generates in itself its proper plenitudes from which the whole at once receives its completion1 it will be itself indigent of itself1 not only that which is generated of that which generates1 but also that which generates1 of that which is generated1 in order to the whole completion of that which wholly generates itself4 ,further still1 intellect understands and is understood1 is intellective of and intelligible to itself1 and both these4 ,hence the intellectual is indigent of the intelligible1 as of its proper object of desire2 and the intelligible is in want of the intellectual1 because it wishes to be the intelligible of it4 ,both also are indigent of either1 since the possession is always accompanied with indigence1 in the same manner as the world is always present with matter4 ,hence a certain indigence is naturally coessentiallized with intellect1 so that it cannot be the most proper principle4 ,shall we1 therefore1 in the next place1 direct our attention to the most simple of beings1 which ,plato calls the one being1 ,greek3 en on8 ,for as there is no separation there throughout the ,whole1 nor any multitude1 or order1 or duplicity1 or conversion to itself1 what indigence will there appear to me1 in the perfectly united8 ,and especially what indigence will there be of that which is subordinate8 ,hence the great ,parmenides ascended to this most safe principle1 as that which is most unindigent4 ,is it not1 however1 here necessary to attend to the conception of ,plato1 that the united is not the one itself1 but that which is passive#b to it8 ,and this being the case1 it is evident that it ranks after the one2 for it is supposed to be the united and not the one itself4 ,if also being is composed from the elements bound and infinity1 as appears from the ,philebus of ,plato1 where he calls it that which is mixt1 it will be indigent of its elements4 ,besides1 if the conception of being is different from that of being united1 and that which is a whole is both united and being1 these will be indigent of each other1 and the whole which is called one being is indigent of the two4 ,and though the one in this is better than being1 yet this is indigent of being1 in order to the subsistence of one being4 ,but if being here supervenes the one1 as it were1 form in that which is mixt and united1 just as the idiom of man in that which is collectively rational-mortal-animal1 thus also the one will be indigent of being4 ,if1 however1 to speak more properly1 the one is two-fold2 this being the cause of the mixture1 and subsisting prior to being1 but that conferring rectitude1 on being1--if this be the case1 neither will the indigent perfectly desert this nature4 ,after all these1 it may be said that the one will be perfectly unindigent4 ,for neither is it indigent of that which is posterior to itself for its subsistence1 since the truly one is by itself separated from all things2 nor is it indigent of that which is inferior or more excellent in itself2 for there is nothing in it besides itself2 nor is it in want of itself4 ,but it is one1 because neither has it any duplicity with respect to itself4 ,for not even the relation of itself to itself must be asserted of the truly one2 since it is perfectly simple4 ,this1 therefore1 is the most unindigent of all things4 ,hence this is the principle and the cause of all2 and this is at once the first of all things4 ,if these qualities1 however1 are present with it1 it will not be the one4 ,or may we not say that all things subsist in the one according to the one8 ,and that both these subsist in it1 and such other things as we predicate of it1 as1 for instance1 the most simple1 the most excellent1 the most powerful1 the preserver of all things1 and the good itself8 ,if these things1 however1 are thus true of the one1 it will thus also be indigent of things posterior to itself1 according to those very things which we add to it4 ,for the principle is1 and is said to be the principle of things proceeding from it1 and the cause is the cause of things caused1 and the first is the first of things arranged1 posterior to it4#c ------------------ #b ,see the ,sophista of ,plato1 where this is asserted4 #c ,for a thing cannot be said to be a principle or cause without the subsistence of the things of which it is the principle or cause4 ,hence1 so far as it is a principle or cause1 it will be indigent of the subsistence of these4 ------------------ ,further still1 the simple subsists according to a transcendency of other things1 the most powerful according to power with relation to the subjects of it2 and the good1 the desirable1 and the preserving1 are so called with reference to things benefitted1 preserved1 and desiring4 ,and if it should be said to be all things according to the preassumption of all things in itself1 it will indeed be said to be so according to the one alone1 and will at the same time be the one cause of all things prior to all1 and will be thus1 and no other according to the one4 ,so far1 therefore1 as it is the one alone1 it will be unindigent2 but so far as unindigent1 it will be the first principle1 and stable root of all principles4 ,so far1 however1 as it is the principle and the first cause of all things1 and is pre-established as the object of desire to all things1 so far it appears to be in a certain respect indigent of the things to which it is related4 ,it has therefore1 if it be lawful so to speak1 an ultimate vestige of indigence1 just as on the contrary matter has an ultimate echo of the unindigent1 or a most obscure and debile impression of the one4 ,and language indeed appears to be here subverted4 ,for so far as it is the one1 it is also unindigent1 since the principle has appeared to subsist according to the most unindigent and the one4 ,at the same time1 however1 so far as it is the one1 it is also the principle2 and so far as it is the one it is unindigent1 but so far as the principle1 indigent4 ,hence so far as it is unindigent1 it is also indigent1 though not according to the same2 but with respect to being that which it is1 it is undigent2 but as producing and comprehending other things in itself1 it is indigent4 ,this1 however1 is the peculiarity of the one2 so that it is both unindigent and indigent according to the one4 ,not indeed than it is each of these1 in such a manner as we divide it in speaking of it1 but it is one alone2 and according to this is both other things1 and that which is indigent4 ,for how is it possible1 it should not be indigent also so far as it is the one8 ,just as it is all other things which proceed from it4 ,for the indigent also is1 something belonging to all things4 ,something else1 therefore1 must be investigated which in no respect has any kind of indigence4 ,but of a thing of this kind it cannot with truth be asserted that it is the principle1 nor can it even be said of it that it is most unindigent1 though this appears to be the most venerable of all assertions4#d --------------- #d ,see the extracts from ,damascius in the additional notes to the third volume1 which contain an inestimable treasury of the most profound conceptions concerning the ineffable4 ------------------ ,for this signifies transcendency1 and an exemption from the indigent4 ,we do not1 however1 think it proper to call this even the perfectly exempt2 but that which is in every respect incapable of being apprehended1 and about which we must be perfectly silent1 will be the most1 just axiom of our conception in the present investigation2 nor yet this as uttering any thing1 but as rejoicing in not uttering1 and by this venerating that immense unknown4 ,this then is the mode of ascent to that which is called the first1 or rather to that which is beyond every thing which can be conceived1 or become the subject of hypothesis4 ,there is also another mode1 which does not place the unindigent before the indigent1 but considers that which is indigent of a more excellent nature1 as subsisting secondary to that which is more excellent4 ,every where then1 that which is in capacity is secondary to that which is in energy4 ,for that it may proceed into energy1 and that it may not remain in capacity in vain1 it requires that which is in energy4 ,for the more excellent never blossoms from the subordinate nature4 ,let this then be defined by us according to common unperverted conceptions4 ,matter therefore has prior to itself material form2 because all matter is form in capacity1 whether it be the first matter which is perfectly formless1 or the second which subsists according to body void of quality1 or in other words mere triple extension1 to which it is likely those directed their attention who first investigated sensibles1 and which at first appeared to be the only thing that had a subsistence4 ,for the existence of that which is common in the different elements1 persuaded them that there is a certain body void of quality4 ,but since1 among bodies of this kind1 some possess the governing principle inwardly1 and others externally1 such as things artificial1 it is necessary besides quality to direct our attention to nature1 as being something better than qualities1 and which is prearranged in the order of cause1 as art is1 of things artificial4 ,of things1 however1 which are inwardly governed1 some appear to possess being alone1 but others to be nourished and increased1 and to generate things similar to themselves4 ,there is therefore another certain cause prior to the above-mentioned nature1 viz4 a vegetable power itself4 ,but it is evident that all such things as are ingenerated in body as in a subject1 are of themselves incorporeal1 though they become corporeal by the participation of that in which they subsist1 so that they are said to be and are material in consequence of what they suffer from matter4 ,qualities therefore1 and still more natures1 and in a still greater degree the vegetable life1 preserve the incorporeal in themselves4 ,since however1 sense exhibits another more conspicuous life1 pertaining to beings which are moved according to impulse and place1 this must be established prior to that1 as being a more proper principle1 and as the supplier of a certain better form1 that of a self-moved animal1 and which naturally precedes plants rooted in the earth4 ,the animal however1 is not accurately self-moved4 ,for the whole is not such throughout they whole2 but a part moves and a part is moved4 ,this therefore is the apparent self-moved4 ,hence1 prior to this it is necessary there should be that which is truly self-moved1 and which according to the whole of itself moves ands is moved1 that the apparently self-moved may be the image of this4 ,and indeed the soul which moves the body must be considered as a more proper self-moved essence4 ,this1 however1 is twofold1 the one rational1 the other irrational4 ,for that there is a rational soul is evident3 or has not every one a cosensation of himself1 more clear or more obscure1 when converted to himself in the attentions to and investigations of himself1 and in the vital and ,gnostic animadversions of himself8 ,for the essence which is capable of this1 and which can collect universals by reasoning1 will very justly be rational4 ,the irrational soul also1 though it does not appear to investigate these things1 and to reason with itself1 yet at the same time it moves bodies from place to place1 being itself previously moved from itself2 for at different times it exerts a different impulse4 ,does it therefore move itself from one impulse to another8 or it is moved by something else1 as1 for instance1 by the whole rational soul in the universe8 ,but it would be absurd to say that the energies of every irrational soul are not the energies of that soul1 but of one more divine2 since they are infinite1 and mingled with much of the base and imperfect4 ,for this would be just the same as to say that the irrational enemies are the energies of the rational soul4 ,i omit to mention the absurdity of supposing that the whole essence is not generative of its proper energies4 ,for if the irrational soul is a certain essence1 it will have peculiar energies of its own1 not imparted from something else1 but proceeding from itself4 ,this irrational soul1 therefore1 will also move itself at different times to different impulses4 ,but if it moves itself1 it will be converted to itself4 ,if1 however1 this be the case1 it will have a separate subsistence1 and will not be in a subject4 ,it is therefore rational1 if it looks to itself3 for in being converted to1 it surveys itself4 ,for when extended to things external1 it looks to externals1 or rather it looks to colored body1 but does not see itself1 because sight itself is neither body nor that which is colored4 ,hence it does not revert to itself4 ,neither therefore is this the case with any other irrational nature4 ,for neither does the phantasy project a type of itself1 but of that which is sensible1 as for instance of colored body4 ,nor does irrational appetite desire itself1 but aspires after a certain object of desire1 such as honor1 or pleasure1 or riches4 ,it does not therefore move itself4 ,but if some one1 on seeing that brutes exert rational energies1 should apprehend that these also participate of the first self-moved1 and on this account possess a soul converted to itself1 it may perhaps be granted to him that these also are rational natures1 except that they are not so essentially1 but according to participation1 and this most obscure1 just as the rational soul may be said to be intellectual according to participation1 as always projecting common conceptions without distortion4 ,it must however be observed1 that the extreme are that which is capable of being perfectly separated1 such as the rational form1 and that which is perfectly inseparable1 such as corporeal quality1 and that in the middle of these nature subsists1 which verges to the inseparable1 having a small representation of the separable and the irrational soul1 which verges to the separable2 or it appears in a certain respect to subsist by itself1 separate from a subject2 so that it becomes doubtful whether it is self-motive1 or alter-motive4 ,for it contains an abundant vestige of self-motion1 but not that which is true and converted to itself1 and on this account perfectly separated from a subject4 ,and the vegetable soul has in a certain respect a middle subsistence4 ,on this account to some of the ancients it appeared to be a certain soul1 but to others1 nature4 ,again1 therefore1 that we may return to the proposed object of investigation1 how can a self-motive nature of this kind1 which is mingled with the alter-motive1 be the first principle of things8 ,for it neither subsists from itself1 nor does it in reality perfect itself2 but it requires a certain other nature1 both for its subsistence and perfection3 and prior to it is that which is truly self-moved4 ,is therefore that which is properly self-moved the principle1 and is it indigent of no form more excellent than itself8 ,or is not that which moves always naturally prior to that which is moved2 and in short does not every form which is pure from its contrary subsist by itself prior to that which is mingled with it8 ,and is not the pure the cause of the commingled8 ,for that which is coessentialized with another has also an energy mingled with that other4 ,so that a self-moved nature will indeed1 make itself2 but thus subsisting it will be at the same time moving and moved1 but will not be made a moving nature only4 ,for neither is it this alone4 ,every form however is always alone according to its first subsistence2 so that there will be that which moves only without being moved4 ,and indeed it would be absurd that there should be that which is moved only such as body1 but that prior both to that which is self-moved and that which is moved only1 there should not be that which moves only4 ,for it is evident that there must be1 since this will be a more excellent nature1 and that which is self-moved1 so far as it moves itself1 is more excellent than so far as it is moved4 ,it is necessary therefore that the essence which moves unmoved1 should be first1 as that which is moved1 not being motive1 is the third1 in the middle of which is the self-moved1 which we say requires that which moves in order to its becoming motive4 ,in short1 if it is moved1 it will not abide1 so far as it is moved2 and if it moves1 it is necessary it should remain moving so far as it moves4 ,whence then does it derive the power of abiding8 ,for from itself it derives the power either of being moved only1 or of at the same time abiding and being moved wholly according to the same4 ,whence then does it simply obtain the power of abiding8 ,certainly from that which simply abides4 ,but1 this is an immovable cause4 ,we must therefore admit that the immovable is prior to the self moved4 ,let us consider then if the immovable is the most proper principle8 ,but how is this possible8 ,for the immovable contains as numerous a multitude immovably2 as the self-moved self-moveably4 ,besides an immovable separation must necessarily subsist prior to a self-moveable separation4 ,the unmoved therefore is at the same time one and many1 and is at the same time united and separated1 and a nature of this kind is denominated intellect4 ,but it is evident that the united in this is naturally prior to and more honorable than the separated4 ,for separation is always indigent of union2 but not1 on the contrary1 union of separation4 ,intellect1 however1 has not the united pure from its opposite4 ,for intellectual form is coessentialized with the separated1 through the whole of itself4 ,hence that which is in a certain respect united requires that which is simply united2 and that which subsists with another is indigent of that which subsists by itself2 and that which subsists according to participation1 of that which subsists according to essence4 ,for intellect being self-subsistent produces itself as united1 and at the same time separated4 ,hence it subsists according to both these4 ,it is produced therefore from that which is simply united and alone united4 ,prior therefore to that which is formal is the uncircumscribed1 and undistributed into forms4 ,and this is that which we call the united1 and which the wise men of antiquity denominated being1 possessing in one contraction multitude1 subsisting prior to the many4 ,having therefore arrived thus far1 let us here rest for a while1 and consider with ourselves1 whether being is the investigated principle of all things4 ,for what will there be which does not participate of being8 ,may we not say1 that this1 if it is the united1 will be secondary to the one1 and that by participating of the one it becomes the united8 ,but in short2 if we conceive the one to be something different from being1 if being is prior to the one1 it will not participate of the one4 ,it will therefore be many only1 and these will be infinitely infinite4 ,but if the one is with being1 and being with the one1 and they are either coordinate or divided from each other1 there will be two principles1 and the above-mentioned absurdity will happen4 ,or they will mutually participate of each other1 and there will be two elements4 ,or they are parts of something else1 consisting from both4 ,and1 if this be the case1 what will that be which leads them to union with each other8 ,for if the one unites being to itself 7for this may be said71 the one also will energize prior to being1 that it may call forth and convert being to itself4 ,the one1 therefore1 will subsist from itself self-perfect prior to being4 ,further still1 the more simple is always prior to the more composite4 ,if therefore they are similarly simple1 there will either be two principles1 or one from the two1 and this will be a composite4 ,hence the simple and perfectly incomposite is prior to this1 which must be either one1 or not one2 and if not one1 it must either be many1 or nothing4 ,but with respect to nothing1 if it signifies that which is perfectly void1 it will signify something vain4 ,but if it signifies the arcane1 this will not even be that which is simple4 ,in short1 we cannot conceive any principle more simple than the one4 ,the one therefore is in every respect prior to being4 ,hence this is the principle of all things1 and ,plato recurring to this1 did not require any other principle in his reasonings4 ,for the arcane in which this our ascent terminates is not the principle of reasoning1 nor of knowledge1 nor of animals1 nor of beings1 nor of unities1 but simply of all things1 being arranged above every conception and suspicion that we can frame4 ,hence ,plato indicates nothing concerning it1 but makes his negations of all other things except the one1 from the one4 ,for that the one is he denies in the last place1 but he does not make a negation of the one4 ,he also1 besides this1 even denies this negation1 but not the one4 ,he denies1 too1 name and conception1 and all knowledge1 and what can be said more1 whole itself and every being4 ,but let there be the united and the unical1 and1 if you will1 the two principles bound and the infinite4 ,plato1 however1 never in any respect makes a negation of the one which is beyond all these4 ,hence in the ,sophista he considers it as the one prior to being1 and in the ,republic as the good beyond every essence2 but at the same time the one alone is left4 ,whether however is it known and effable1 or unknown and ineffable8 ,or is it in a certain respect these1 and in a certain respect not8 ,for by a negation of this it may be said the ineffable is affirmed4 ,and again1 by the simplicity of knowledge it will be known or suspected1 but by composition perfectly unknown4 ,hence neither will it be apprehended by negation4 ,and in short1 so far as it is admitted to be one1 so far it will be coarranged with other things1 which are the subject of position4 ,for it is the summit of things1 which subsist according to position4 ,at the same time there is much in it of the ineffable and unknown1 the uncoordinated1 and that which is deprived of position1 but these are accompanied with a representation of the ,contraries3 and the former are more excellent1 than the latter4 ,but every where things pure subsist prior to their contraries1 and such as are unmingled to the commingled4 ,for either things more excellent subsist in the one essentially1 and in a certain respect the contraries of these also will be there at the same time2 or they subsist according to participation1 and are derived from that which is first a thing of this kind4 ,prior to the one1 therefore1 is that which is simply and perfectly ineffable1 without position1 uncoordinated1 and incapable of being apprehended1 to which also the ascent of the present discourse hastens through the clearest indications1 omitting none of those natures between the first and the last of things4 ,such then is the ascent to the highest ,god1 according to the theology of ,plato1 venerably preserving his ineffable exemption from all things1 and his transcendency1 which cannot be circumscribed by any gnostic energy1 and at the same time1 unfolding the paths which lead upwards to him1 and enkindling that luminous summit of the soul1 by which she is conjoined with the incomprehensible one4 ,from this truly ineffable principle1 exempt from all essence1 power1 and energy1 a multitude of divine natures1 according to ,plato1 immediately proceeds4 ,that this must necessarily be the case1 will be admitted by the reader who understands what has been already discussed1 and is fully demonstrated by ,plato in the ,parmenides1 as will be evident to the intelligent from the notes on that ,dialogue4 ,in addition therefore to what ,i have staid on this subject1 ,i shall further observe at present that this doctrine1 which is founded in the sublimest and most scientific conceptions of the human mind1 may be clearly shown to be a legitimate dogma of ,plato from what is asserted by him in the sixth book of his ,republic4 ,for he there affirms1 in the most clear and unequivocal terms1 that the good1 or the ineffable principle of things is superessential1 and shows by the analogy of the sun to the good1 that what light and sight are in the visible1 that truth and intelligence are in the intelligible world4 ,as light therefore1 immediately proceeds from the sun1 and wholly subsists according to a solar idiom or property1 so truth or the immediate progeny of the good1 must subsist according to a superessential idiom4 ,and as the good1 according to ,plato1 is the same with the one1 as is evident from the ,parmenides1 the immediate progeny of the one will be the same as that of the good4 ,but1 the immediate offspring of the one cannot be any thing else than unities4 ,and1 hence we necessarily infer that according to ,plato1 the immediate offspring of the ineffable principle of things are superessential unities4 ,they differ however from their immense principle in this1 that he is superessential and ineffable1 without any addition2 but this divine multitude is participated by the several orders of being1 which are suspended from and produced by it4 ,hence1 in consequence of being connected with multitude through this participation1 they are necessarily subordinate to the one4 ,no less admirably1 therefore1 than ,platonically does ,simplicius1 in his ,commentary of ,epictetus1 observe on this subject as follows3 ,the fountain and principle of all things is the good3 for that which all things desire1 and to which all things are extended1 is the principle and the end of all things4 ,the good also produces from itself all things1 first1 middle1 and last4 ,but it produces such as are first and proximate to itself1 similar to itself2 one goodness1 many goodnesses1 one simplicity and unity which transcends all others1 many1 unities1 and one principle many principles4 ,for the one1 the principle1 the good1 and deity1 are the same3 for deity is the first and the cause of all things4 ,but it is necessary that the first should also be most simple2 since whatever is a composite and has multitude is posterior to the one4 ,and multitude and things1 which are not good desire the good as being above them3 and in short1 that which is not itself the principle is from the principle4 ,but it is also necessary that the principle of all things should possess the highest1 and all1 power4 ,for the amplitude of power consists in producing all things from itself1 and in giving subsistence to similars1 prior to things which are dissimilar4 ,hence the one principle produces many principles1 many simplicities1 and many goodnesses1 proximately from itself4 ,for since all things differ from each other1 and are multiplied with their proper differences1 each of these multitudes is suspended from its one proper principle4 ,thus1 for instance1 all beautiful things1 whatever and wherever they may be1 whether in souls or in bodies1 are suspended from one fountain of beauty4 ,thus too1 whatever possesses symmetry1 and whatever is true1 and all principles1 are in a certain respect1 connate with the first principle1 so far as they are principles and fountains and goodnesses1 with an appropriate subjection and analogy4 ,for what the one principle is to all beings1 that each of the other principles is to the multitude comprehended under the idiom of its principle4 ,for it is impossible1 since each multitude is characterized by a certain difference1 that it should not be extended to its proper principle1 which illuminates one and the same form to all the individuals of that multitude4 ,for the one is the leader of every multitude2 and every peculiarity or idiom in the many is derived to the many from the one4 ,all partial principles therefore are established in that principle which ranks as a whole1 and are comprehended in it1 not with interval and multitude1 but as parts in the whole1 as multitude in the one1 and number in the monad4 ,for this first principle is all things prior to all3 and many principles are multiplied about the one principle1 and in the one goodness1 many goodnesses are established4 ,this too1 is not a certain principle like each of the rest3 for of these1 one is the principle of beauty1 another of symmetry1 another of truth1 and another of something else1 but it is simply principle4 ,nor is it simply the principles of beings1 but it is the principle of principles4 ,for it is necessary that the idiom of principle1 after the same manner as other things1 should not begin from multitude1 but should be collected into one monad as a summit1 and which is the principle of principles4 ,such things therefore as are first produced by the first good1 in consequence of being connascent with it1 do not recede from essential goodness1 since they are immovable and unchanged1 and are eternally established in the same blessedness4 ,they are likewise not indigent of the good1 because they are goodnesses themselves4 ,all other natures however1 being produced by the one good1 and many goodnesses1 since they fall off from essential goodness1 and are not immovably established in the hyparxis of divine goodness1 on this account they possess the good according to participation4 ,from this sublime theory the meaning of that ancient ,egyptian dogma1 that ,god is all things1 is at once apparent4 ,for the first principle1#f as ,simplicius in the above passage justly observes1 is all things prior to all2 i4e4 he comprehends all things causally1 this being the most transcendent mode of comprehension4 ,as all things therefore1 considered as subsisting causally in deity1 are transcendently more excellent than they are when considered as effects preceding from him1 hence that mighty and all-comprehending whole1 the first principle1 is said to be all things prior to all2 priority here denoting exempt transcendency4 ,as the monad and the centre of a circle are images from their simplicity of this greatest of principles1 so likewise do they perspicuously shadow forth to us its causal comprehension of all things4 ,for all number may be considered as subsisting occultly in the monad1 and the circle in the centre2 this occult being the same in each with causal subsistence4 ----------------- #f ,by the first principle here1 the one is to be understood for that arcane nature which is beyond the one1 since all language is subverted about it1 can only1 as we have already observed1 be conceived and venerated in the most profound silence4 ----------------- ,that this conception of causal subsistence is not an hypothesis devised by the latter ,platonists1 but a genuine dogma of ,plato1 is evident from what he says in the ,philebus3 for in that ,dialogue he expressly asserts that in ,jupiter a royal intellect1 and a royal soul subsist according to cause4 ,pherecydes ,syrus1 too1 in his ,hymn to ,jupiter1 as cited by ,kercher 7in ,oedip4 ,egyptiac471 has the following lines3 ,greek3 ,o theos esti kuklos1 tetragonos ede trigonos1 ,keinos de gramme1 kentron1 kai panta pro panton4 i4e4 ,jove is a circle1 triangle and square1 centre and line1 and all things before all4 ,from which testimonies the antiquity of this sublime doctrine is sufficiently apparent4 ,and here it is necessary to observe that nearly all philosophers3 prior to ,jamblichus 7as we are informed by ,damascius7 asserted indeed1 that there is one superessential ,god1 but that the other gods had an essential subsistence1 and were deified by illuminations from the one4 ,they likewise said that there is a multitude of super-essential unities1 who are not self-perfect subsistences1 but illuminated unions with deity1 imparted to essences by the highest ,gods4 ,that this hypothesis1 however1 is not conformable to the doctrine of ,plato is evident from his ,parmenides1 in which he shows that the one does not subsist in itself4 7,see vol4 iii1 p4 #acc74 ,for as we have observed from ,proclus1 in the notes on that ,dialogue1 every thing which is the cause of itself and is self-subsistent1 is said to be in itself4 ,hence as producing power always comprehends1 according to cause that which it produces1 it is necessary that whatever produces itself should comprehend itself so far as it is a cause1 and should be comprehended by itself so far as it is caused2 and that it should be at once both cause and the thing caused1 that which comprehends1 and that which is comprehended4 ,if therefore a subsistence in another signifies1 according to ,plato1 the being produced by another more excellent cause 7as we have shown in the note to p4 #acc1 vol4 iii71 a subsistence in itself must signify that which is self- begotten1 and produced by itself4 ,if the one therefore is not self-sub- sistent as even transcending this mode of subsistence1 and if it be necessary that there should be something self-subsistent1 it follows that this must be the characteristic property of that which immediately proceeds from the ineffable4 ,but that there must be something self- subsistent is evident1 since unless this is admitted there will not be a true sufficiency in any thing4 ,besides1 as ,damascius well observes1 if that which is subordinate by nature is self-perfect1 such as the human soul1 much more will this be the case with a divine soul4 ,but if with soul1 this also will be true of intellect4 ,and if it be true of intellect1 it will also be true of life3 if of life1 of being likewise2 and if of being1 of the unities above being4 ,for the self-perfect1 the self-sufficient1 and that which is established in itself1 will much more subsist in superior than in subordinate natures4 ,if therefore1 these are in the latter1 they will also be in the former4 ,i mean the subsistence of a thing by itself1 and essentialized in itself2 and such are essence and life1 intellect1 soul1 and body4 ,for body1 though it does not subsist from1 yet subsists by itself2 and through this belongs to the genus of substance1 and is contra-distinguished from accident1 which cannot exist independent of a subject4 ,self-subsistent superessential natures therefore are the immediate progeny of the one1 if it be lawful thus to denominate things1 which ought rather to be called ineffable unfoldings into light from the ineffable2 for progeny implies a producing cause1 and the one must be conceived as something even more excellent than this4 ,from this divine self-perfect and self-producing multitude1 a series of self-perfect natures1 viz4 of beings1 lives1 intellects1 and souls proceeds1 according to ,plato1 in the last link of which luminous series he also classes the human soul2 proximately suspended from the daemoniacal order3 for this order1 as he clearly asserts in the ,banquet1 stands in the middle rank between the divine and human1 fills up the vacant space1 and links together all intelligent nature4 ,and here to the reader1 who has not penetrated the depths of ,plato's philosophy1 it will doubtless appear paradoxical in the extreme1 that any being should be said to produce itself1 and yet at the same time proceed from a superior cause4 ,the solution of this difficulty is as follows3--,essential production1 or that energy through which any nature produces something else by its very being1 is the most perfect mode of production1 because vestiges of it are seen in the last of things2 thus fire imparts heat1 by its very essence1 and snow coldness4 ,and in short1 this is a producing of that kind1 in which the effect is that secondarily which the cause is primarily4 ,as this mode of production therefore1 from its being the most perfect of all others1 originates from the highest natures1 it will consequently first belong to those self-subsistent powers1 who immediately proceed from the ineffable1 and will from them be derived to all the following orders of beings4 ,but this energy1 as being characterized by the essential1 will necessarily be different in different producing causes4 ,hence1 from that which subsists1 at the summit of self subsistent natures1 a series of self subsisting beings will indeed proceed1 but then this series will be secondarily that which its cause is primarily1 and the energy by which it produces itself will be secondary to that by which it is produced by its cause4 ,thus1 for instance1 the rational soul both produces itself 7in consequence of being a self-motive nature71 and is produced by intellect2 but it is produced by intellect immutably1 and by itself transitively2 for all its energies subsist in time1 and are accompanied with motion4 ,so far therefore as soul contains intellect by participation1 so far it is produced by intellect1 but so far as it is self-motive it is produced by itself4 ,in short1 with respect to every thing self-subsistent1 the summit of its nature is produced by a superior cause1 but the evolution of that summit is its own spontaneous energy2 and1 through this it becomes self-subsistent1 and self-perfect4 ,that the rational soul1 indeed1 so far as it is rational1 produces itself1 may be clearly demonstrated as follows3--,that which is able to impart any thing superior and more excellent in any genus of things1 can easily impart that which is subordinate and less excellent in the same genus2 but well being confessedly ranks higher and is more excellent than mere being4 ,the rational soul imparts well being to itself1 when it cultivates and perfects itself1 and recalls and withdraws itself from the contagion of the body4 ,it will therefore also impart being to itself4 ,and this with great propriety2 for all divine natures1 and such things as possess the ability of imparting any thing primarily to others1 necessarily begin this energy from themselves4 ,of this mighty truth the sun himself is an illustrious example2 for he illuminates all things with his light1 and is himself light1 and the fountain and origin of all splendour4 ,hence1 since the souls imparts life and motion to other things1 on which account ,aristotle calls an animal antokincton1 self- moved1 it will much more1 and by a much greater priority1 impart life and motion to itself4 ,from this magnificent1 sublime1 and most scientific doctrine of ,plato1 respecting the arcane principle of things and his immediate progeny1 it follows that this ineffable cause is not the immediate maker of the universe1 and this1 as ,i have observed in the ,introduction to the ,timaeus1 not through any defect1 but on the contrary through transcendency of power4 ,all things indeed are ineffably unfolded from him at once1 into light2 but divine media are necessary to the fabrication of the world4 ,for if the universe was immediately produced from the ineffable1 it would1 agreeably to what we have above observed1 be ineffable also in a secondary degree4 ,but as this is by no means the case1 it principally derives its immediate subsistence from a deity of a fabricative characteristic1 whom ,plato calls ,jupiter1 conformably to the theology of ,orpheus4 ,the intelligent reader will readily admit that this dogmas is so far from being derogatory to the dignity of the ,supreme1 that on the contrary it exalts that dignity1 and1 preserves in a becoming manner the exempt transcendency of the ineffable4 ,if therefore we presume to celebrate him1 for as we have already observed1 it is more becoming to establish in silence those parturitions of the soul which dare anxiously to explore him1 we should celebrate him as the principle of principles1 and the fountain of deity1 or in the reverential language of the ,egyptians1 as a darkness thrice unknown4#g ,highly laudable indeed1 and worthy the imitation of all posterity1 is the veneration which the great ancients paid to this immense principle4 ,this ,i have already noticed in the ,introduction to the ,parmenides1 and ,i shall only observe at present in addition1 that in consequence of this profound and most pious reverence of the first ,god1 they did not even venture to give a name to the summit of that highest order of divinities which is denominated intelligible4 ,hence1 says ,proclus1 in his ,mss4 ,scholia on the ,cratylus1 ,not every genus of the gods has an appellation2 for with respect to the first ,deity1 who is beyond all things1 ,parmenides teaches us that he is ineffable2 and the first genera of the intelligible gods1 who are united to the one1 and are called occult1 have much of the unknown and ineffable4 ,for that which is perfectly effable cannot be conjoined with the perfectly ineffable2 but it is necessary that the progression of intelligibles should terminate in this order1 in which the first effable subsists1 and that which is called by proper names4 ,for there the first intelligible forms1 and the intellectual nature of intelligibles1 are unfolded into light4 ,but1 the natures prior to this being silent and occult1 are only known by intelligence4 ,hence the whole of the telestic science energizing theurgically ascends as far as to this order4 ,orpheus also says that this is first called by a name by the other gods2 for the light proceeding from it is known to and denominated by the intellectual gods4 ----------------- #g ,psalm xviii3#aa2 xcvii3#b4 ----------------- ,with no less magnificence therefore than piety1 does ,proclus thus speak concerning the ineffable principle of things4 ,let us now if ever remove from ourselves multiform knowledge1 exterminate all the variety of life1 and in perfect quiet approach near to the cause of all things4 ,for this purpose1 let not only opinion and phantasy be at rest1 nor the passions alone which impede our anagogic impulse to the first be at peace2 but let the air1 and the universe itself1 be still4 ,and let all things extend us with a tranquil power to communion with the ineffable4 ,let us also standing there1 having transcended the intelligible 7if we contain any thing of this kind71 and with nearly closed eyes adoring as it were the rising sun1 since it is not lawful for any being whatever intently to behold him1--let us survey the sun whence the light of the intelligible gods proceeds1 emerging1 as the poets say1 from the bosom of the ocean2 and again from this divine tranquillity descending into intellect1 and from intellect employing the reasonings of the soul1 let us relate to ourselves what the natures are from which in this progression we shall consider the first ,god as exempt4 ,and let us as it were celebrate him1 not as establishing the earth and the heavens1 nor as giving subsistence to souls1 and the generations of all animals2 for he produced these indeed1 but among the last of things4 ,but prior to these1 let us celebrate him as unfolding into light the whole intelligible and intellectual genus of gods1 together with all the supermundane and mundane divinities as1 the ,god of all gods1 the ,unity of all unities1 and beyond the first adyta--as more ineffable than all silence1 and more unknown than all essence1--as holy among the holies1 and concealed in the intelligible gods4 ,such is the piety1 such the sublimity1 and magnificence of conception1 with which the ,platonic philosophers speak of that which is in reality in every respect ineffable1 when they presume to speak about it1 extending the ineffable parturitions of the soul to the ineffable cosensation of the incomprehensible one4 ,from this sublime veneration of this most awful nature1 which1 as is noticed in the extracts from ,damascius1 induced the most ancient theologists1 philosophers1 and poets1 to be entirely silent concerning it1 arose the great reverence which the ancients paid to the divinities even of a mundane characteristic1 or from whom bodies are suspended1 considering them also as partaking of the nature of the ineffable1 and as so many links of the truly golden chain of deity4 ,hence we find in the ,odyssey1 when ,ulysses and ,telemachus are removing the arms from the walls of the palace of ,ithaca1 and ,minerva going before them with her golden lamp fills all the place with a divine light1 ,greek3 4 4 4 4 4 paroithe de pallas ,athene ,chryseon lychnon echrusa phars perikalles epoiei4 ,before thee ,pallas ,athene bore a golden cresset and cast a most lovely light4 ,telemachus having observed that certainly some one of the celestial gods was present1 ,greek3 ,emala tis deos endon1 of ouranon euryn echousi4 ,verily some ,god is within1 of those that hold the wide heaven4 ,ulysses says in reply1 ,be silent1 restrain your intellect 7i4e4 even cease to energize intellectually71 and speak not4 ,greek3 ,siga1 kai kata son noon ischana1 med' ereeine4 ,hold thy peace and keep all this in thine heart and ask not hereof4 --,book #ai1 ,odyssey4 ,lastly1 from all that has been said1 it must1 ,i think1 be immediately obvious to every one whose mental eye is not entirely blinded1 that there can be no such thing as a trinity in the theology of ,plato1 in any respect analogous to the ,christian ,trinity4 ,for the highest ,god1 according to ,plato1 as we have largely shown from irresistible evidence1 is so far from being a part of a consubsistent triad1 that he is not to be connumerated with any thing2 but is so perfectly exempt from all multitude1 that he is even beyond being2 and he so ineffably transcends all relation and habitude1 that language is in reality subverted about him1 and knowledge refunded into ignorance4 ,what that trinity however is in the theology of ,plato1 which doubtless gave birth to the ,christian1 will be evident to the intelligent from the notes on the ,parmenides1 and the extracts1 from ,damascius4 ,and thus much for the doctrine of ,plato concerning the principle of things1 and his immediate offspring1 the great importance of which will1 ,i doubt not1 be a sufficient apology for the length of this discussion4 ,in the next place1 following ,proclus and ,olympiodorus as our guides1 let us consider the mode according to which ,plato teaches us mystic conceptions of divine natures3 for he appears not to have pursued every where the same mode of doctrine about these2 but sometimes according to a divinely inspired energy1 and at other times dialectically1 he evolves the truth concerning them4 ,and sometimes he symbolically announces their ineffable idioms1 but at other times he recurs to them from images1 and discovers in them the primary causes of wholes4 ,for in the ,phaedrus being evidently inspired1 and having exchanged human intelligence for a better possession1 divine mania1 he unfolds many arcane dogmas concerning the intellectual1 liberated1 and mundane gods4 ,but in the ,sophista dialectically contending about being1 and the subsistence of the one above beings1 and doubting against philosophers more ancient than himself1 he shows how all beings are suspended from their cause and the first being1 but that being itself participates of that unity which is exempt from all things1 that it is a passive1#h one1 but not the one itself1 being subject to and united to the one1 but not being that which is primarily one4 ,in a similar manner too1 in the ,parmenides1 he unfolds dialectically the progressions of being from the one1 through the first hypothesis of that dialogue1 and this1 as he there asserts1 according to the most perfect division of this method4 ,and again in the ,gorgias1 he relates the fable concerning the three fabricators1 and their demiurgic allotment4 ,but in the ,banquet he speaks concerning the union of love2 and in the ,protagoras1 about the distribution of mortal animals from the gods2 in a symbolical manner concealing the truth concerning divine natures1 and as far as to mere indication unfolding his mind to the most genuine of his readers4 ----------------- #h ,it is necessary to observe1 that1 according to ,plato1 whatever participates of any thing is said to be passive to that which it participates1 and the participations themselves are called by him passions4 ----------------- ,again1 if it be necessary to mention the doctrine delivered through the mathematical disciplines1 and the discussion of divine concerns from ethical or physical discourses1 of which many may be contemplated in the ,timaeus1 many in the dialogue called ,politicus1 and many may be seen scattered in other dialogues2 here likewise1 to those who are desirous of knowing divine concerns through images1 the method will be apparent4 ,thus1 for instance1 the ,politicus shadows forth the fabrication in the heavens4 ,but the figures of the five elements1 delivered in geometrical proportions in the ,timaeus1 represent in images the idioms of the gods who preside over the parts of the universe4 ,and the divisions of the essence of the soul in that dialogue shadow forth the total orders of the gods4 ,to this we may also add that ,plato composes politics1 assimilating them to divine natures1 and adorning them from the whole world and the powers which it contains4 ,all these1 therefore1 through the similitude of mortal to divine concerns1 exhibit to us in images the progressions1 orders1 and fabrications of the latter4 ,and such are the modes of theologic doctrine employed by ,plato4 ,but those1 says ,proclus1 who treat of divine concerns in an indicative manner1 either speak symbolically and fabulously1 or through images4 ,and of those who openly announce their conceptions1 some frame their discourses according to science1 but others according to inspiration from the gods4 ,and he who desires to signify divine concerns through symbols is ,orphic1 and1 in short1 accords with those who write fables respecting the gods4 ,but he who does this through images is ,pythagoric4 ,for the mathematical disciplines were invented by the ,pythagorean in order to a reminiscence of divine concerns1 to which through these as images1 they endeavour to ascend4 ,for they refer both numbers and figures to the gods1 according to the testimony of their historians4 ,but the enthusiastic character1 or he who is divinely inspired1 unfolding the truth itself concerning the gods essentially1 perspicuously ranks among the highest initiators4 ,for these do not think proper to unfold the divine orders1 or their idioms1 to their familiars through veils1 but announce their powers and their numbers in consequence of being moved by the gods themselves4 ,but the tradition of divine concerns according to science is the illustrious1 prerogative of the ,platonic philosophy4 ,for ,plato alone1 as it appears to me of all those who are known to us1 has attempted methodically to divide and reduce into order the regular progression of the divine genera1 their mutual difference1 the common idioms of the total orders1 and the distributed idioms in each4 ,again1 since ,plato employs fables1 let us in the first place consider whence the ancients were induced to devise fables1 and in the second place1 what the difference is between the fables of philosophers and those of poets4 ,in answer to the first question then1 it is necessary to know that the ancients employed fables looking to two things1 viz4 nature1 and our soul4 ,they employed them by looking to nature1 and the fabrication of things1 as follows4 ,things unapparent are believed from things apparent1 and incorporeal natures from bodies4 ,for seeing the orderly arrangement of bodies1 we understand that a certain incorporeal power presides over them2 as with respect to the celestial bodies1 they have a certain presiding motive power4 ,as we therefore see that our body is moved1 but is no longer so after death1 we conceive that it was a certain incorporeal power which moved it4 ,hence1 perceiving that we believe things incorporeal and unapparent from things apparent and corporeal1 fables came to be adopted1 that we might come from things apparent to certain unapparent natures2 as1 for instance1 that on hearing the adulteries1 bonds1 and lacerations of the gods1 castrations of heaven1 and the like1 we may not rest satisfied with the apparent meaning of such like particulars1 but may proceed to the unapparent1 and investigate the true signification4 ,after this manner1 therefore1 looking to the nature of things1 were fables employed4 ,but from looking to our souls1 they originated as follows3 ,while we are children we live according to the phantasy1 but the phantastic part is conversant with figures1 and types1 and things of this kind4 ,that the phantastic part in us therefore may be preserved1 we employ fables in consequence of this part rejoicing in fables4 ,it may also be said that a fable is nothing else than a false discourse shadowing forth the truth3 for a fable is the image of truth4 ,but the soul is the image of the natures prior to herself2 and hence the soul very properly rejoices in fables1 as an image in an image4 ,as we are therefore from our childhood nourished in fables1 it is necessary that they should be introduced4 ,and thus much for the first problem1 concerning the origin of fables4 ,in the next place let us consider what the difference is between the fables of philosophers and poets4 ,each therefore has something in which it abounds more than1 and something in which it is deficient from the other4 ,thus1 for instance1 the poetic fable abounds in this1 that we must not rest satisfied with the apparent meaning1 but pass on to the occult truth4 ,for who1 endued with intellect1 would believe that ,jupiter was desirous of having connection with ,juno1 and on the ground1 without waiting to go into the bed-chamber4 ,so that the poetic fable abounds1 in consequence of asserting such things as do not suffer us to stop at the apparent1 but lead us to explore the occult truth4 ,but it is defective in this1 that it deceives those of a juvenile age4 ,plato therefore neglects fable of this kind1 and banishes ,homer from his ,republic2 because youth on hearing such fables1 will not be able to distinguish what is allegorical from what is not4 ,philosophical fables1 on the contrary1 do not injure those that go no further than the apparent meaning4 ,thus1 for instance1 they assert that there are punishments and rivers under the earth3 and if we adhere to the literal meaning of these we shall not be injured4 ,but they are deficient in this1 that as their apparent signification does not injure1 we often content ourselves with this1 and do not explore the latent truth4 ,we may also say that philosophic fables look to the enemies of the soul4 ,for if we were entirely intellect alone1 and had no connection with phantasy1 we should not require fables1 in consequence of always associating with intellectual natures4 ,if again1 we were entirely irrational1 and lived according to the phantasy1 and had no other energy than this1 it would be requisite that the whole of our life should be fabulous4 ,since1 however1 we possess intellect1 opinion1 and phantasy1 demonstrations are given with a view to intellect2 and hence ,plato says that if you are willing to energize according to intellect1 you will have demonstrations bound with adamantine chains2 if according to opinion1 you will have the testimony of renowned persons2 and if according to the phantasy1 you have fables by which it is excited2 so that from all these you will derive advantage4 ,plato therefore rejects the more tragical mode of mythologizing of the ancient poets1 who thought proper to establish an arcane theology respecting the gods1 and on this account devised wanderings1 castrations1 battles and lacerations of the gods1 and many other such symbols of the truth about divine natures which this theology conceals2--this mode he rejects1 and asserts that it is in every respect most foreign from erudition4 ,but he considers those mythological discourses about the gods as more persuasive and more adapted to truth1 which assert that a divine nature is the cause of all good1 but of no evil1 and that it is void of all mutation1 comprehending in itself the fountain of truth1 but never becoming the cause of any deception to others4 ,for such types of theology ,socrates delivers in the ,republic4 ,all the fables therefore of ,plato guarding the truth in concealment1 have not even their externally apparent apparatus discordant with our undisciplined and unperverted anticipations of divinity4 ,but they bring with them an image of the mundane composition in which both the apparent beauty is worthy of divinity1 and a beauty more divine than this is established in the unapparent lives and powers of its causes4 ,in the next place1 that the reader may see whence and from what dialogues principally the theological dogmas of ,plato may be collected1 ,i shall present him with the following translation of what ,proclus has admirably written on this subject4 ,the truth 7says he7 concerning the gods pervades1 as ,i may say1 through all the ,platonic dialogues1 and in all of them conceptions of the first philosophy1 venerable1 clear1 and supernatural1 are disseminated1 in some more obscurely1 but in others more conspicuously2--conceptions which excite those that are in any respect able to partake of them1 to the immaterial and separate essence of the gods4 ,and as in each part of the universe and in nature itself1 the demiurgus of all which the world contains established resemblances of the unknown essence of the gods1 that all things might be converted to divinity through their alliance with it1 in like manner ,i am of opinion1 that the divine intellect of ,plato weaves conceptions about the gods with all its progeny1 and leaves nothing deprived of the mention of divinity1 that from the whole of its offspring a reminiscence of total natures may be obtained1 and imparted to the genuine lovers of divine concerns4 ,but if it be requisite to lay before the reader those dialogues out of many which principally unfold to us the mystic discipline about the gods1 ,i shall not err in ranking among this number the ,phaedo and ,phaedrus1 the ,banquet and the ,philebus1 and together with these the ,sophista and ,politicus1 the ,cratylus and the ,timaeus4 ,for all these are full through the whole of themselves1 as ,i may say1 of the divine science of ,plato4 ,but ,i should place in the second rank after these1 the fable in the ,gorgias1 and that in the ,protagoras1 likewise the assertions about the providence of the gods in the ,laws1 and such things as are delivered about the ,fates1 or the mother of the ,fates1 or the circulations of the universe1 in the tenth book of the ,republic4 ,again you may1 if you please1 place in the third rank those ,epistles through which we may be able to arrive at the science about divine natures4 ,for in these1 mention is made of the three kings2 and many other divine dogmas worthy the ,platonic theory are delivered4 ,it is necessary therefore1 regarding these1 to explore in them each order of the gods4 ,thus from the ,philebus1 we may receive the science respecting the one good1 and the two first principles of things 7bound and infinity7 together with the triad subsisting from these4 ,for you will find all these distinctly delivered to us by ,plato in that dialogue4 ,but from the ,timaeus you may obtain the theory about intelligibles1 a divine narration about the demiurgic monad1 and the most full truth about the mundane gods4 ,from the ,phaedrus you may learn all the intelligible and intellectual genera1 and the liberated orders of the gods1 which are proximately established above the celestial circulations4 ,from the ,politicus you may obtain the theory of the fabrication in the heavens1 of the periods of the universe1 and of the intellectual causes of those periods4 ,but from the ,sophista you may learn the whole sublunary generation1 and the idiom of the gods who are allotted the sublunary region1 and preside over its generations and corruptions4 ,and with respect to each of the gods1 we may obtain many sacred conceptions from the ,banquet1 many from the ,cratylus1 and many from the ,phaedo4 ,for in each of these dialogues more or less mention is made of divine names1 from which it is easy for those who are exorcised in divine concerns to discover by a reasoning process the idioms of each4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to evince that each of the dogmas accords with ,platonic principles and the mystic traditions of theologists4 ,for all the ,grecian theology is the progeny of the mystic doctrine of ,orpheus2 ,pythagoras first of all learning from ,aglaophemus the origins of the gods1 but ,plato in the second place receiving an all-perfect science of the divinities from the ,pythagoric and ,orphic writings4 ,for in the ,philebus1 referring the theory about the two forms of principles 7bound and infinity7 to the ,pythagoreans1 he calls them men dwelling with the gods1 and truly blessed4 ,philolaus1 therefore1 the ,pythagorean1 has left for us in writing admirable conceptions about these principles1 celebrating their common progression into beings1 and their separate fabrication4 ,again1 in the ,timaeus1 endeavouring to teach us about the sublunary gods and their order1 ,plato flies to theologists1 calls them the sons of the gods1 and makes them the fathers of the truth about these divinities4 ,and lastly1 he delivers the orders of the sublunary gods proceeding from wholes1 according to the progression delivered by theologists of the intellectual kings4 ,further still1 in the ,cratylus he follows the traditions of theologists respecting the order of the divine processions4 ,but in the ,gorgias he adopts the ,homeric dogma1 respecting the triadic hypostases of the demiurgi4 ,and1 in short1 he every where discourses concerning the gods agreeably to the principles of theologists2 rejecting indeed the tragical part of mythological fiction1 but establishing first hypotheses in common with the authors of fables4 ,perhaps1 however1 some one may here object to us1 that we do not in a proper manner exhibit the every where dispersed theology of ,plato1 and that we endeavour to heap together different particulars from different dialogues1 as if we were studious of collecting many things into one mixture1 instead of deriving them all from one and the same fountain4 ,for if this were our intention1 we might indeed refer different dogmas to different treatises of ,plato1 but we shall by no means have a precedaneous doctrine concerning the gods1 nor will there be any dialogue which presents us with an all-perfect and entire procession of the divine genera1 and their coordination with each other4 ,but we shall be similar to those who endeavor to obtain a whole from parts1 through the want of a whole prior#i to parts1 and to weave together the perfect1 from things imperfect1 when1 on the contrary1 the imperfect ought to have the first cause of its generation in the perfect4 ,for the ,timaeus1 for instance1 will teach us the theory of the intelligible genera1 and the ,phaedrus appears to present us with a regular account of the first intellectual orders4 ,but where will be the coordination of intellectuals to intelligibles8 ,and what will be the generation of second from first natures8 ,in short1 after what manner the progression of the divine orders takes place from the one principle of all things1 and how in the generations of the gods1 the orders between the one1 and all-perfect number1 are filled up1 we shall be unable to evince4 ----------------- #i ,a whole prior to parts is that which causally contains parts in itself4 ,such parts too1 when they proceed from their occult causal subsistence1 and have a distinct being of their own1 are nevertheless comprehended1 though in a different manner1 in their producing whole4 ----------------- ,further still1 it may be said1 where will be the venerableness of your boasted science about divine natures8 ,for it is absurd to call these dogmas1 which are collected from many places1 ,platonic1 and which1 as you acknowledge1 are reduced from foreign names to the philosophy of ,plato2 nor are you able to evince the whole entire truth about divine natures4 ,perhaps1 indeed1 they will say that certain persons1 junior to ,plato1 have delivered in their writings1 and left to their disciples1 one perfect form of philosophy4 ,you1 therefore1 are able to produce one entire theory about nature from the ,timaeus2 but from the ,republic1 or ,laws1 the most beautiful dogmas about morals1 and which tend to one form of philosophy4 ,alone1 therefore1 neglecting the treatise of ,plato1 which contains all the good of the first philosophy1 and which may be called the summit of the whole theory1 you will be deprived of the most perfect knowledge of beings1 unless you are so much infatuated as to boast on account of fabulous fictions1 though an analysis of things of this kind abounds with much of the probable1 but not of the demonstrative4 ,besides1 things of this kind are only delivered adventitiously in the ,platonic dialogues2 as the fable in the ,protagoras1 which is inserted for the sake of the political science1 and the demonstrations respecting it4 ,in like manner the fable in the ,republic is inserted for the sake of justice2 and in the ,gorgias for the sake of temperance4 ,for ,plato combines fabulous narrations with investigations of ethical dogmas1 not for the sake of the fables1 but for the sake of the leading design1 that we may not only exercise the intellectual part of the soul1 through contending reasons1 but that the divine part of the soul may more perfectly receive the knowledge of beings1 through its sympathy with more mystic concerns4 ,for from other discourses we resemble those who are compelled to the reception of truth2 but from fables we are affected in an ineffable manner1 and call forth our unperverted conceptions1 venerating the mystic information which they contain4 ,hence1 as it appears to me1 ,timaeus with great propriety thinks it fit that we should produce the divine genera1 following the inventors of fables as sons of the gods1 and subscribe to their always generating secondary natures from such as are first1 though they should speak without demonstration4 ,for this kind of discourse is not demonstrative1 but entheastic1 or the progeny of divine inspiration2 and was invented by the ancients1 not through necessity1 but for the sake of persuasion1 not regarding naked discipline1 but sympathy with things themselves4 ,but if you are willing to speculate not only the causes of fables1 but of other theological dogmas1 you will find that some of them are scattered in the ,platonic dialogues for the sake of ethical1 and others for the sake of physical considerations4 ,for in the ,philebus1 ,plato discourses concerning bound and infinity1 for the sake of pleasure1 and a life according to intellect4 ,for ,i think the latter are species of the former4 ,in the ,timaeus the discourse about the intelligible gods is assumed for the sake of the proposed physiology4 ,on which account1 it is every where necessary that images should be known from paradigms1 but that the paradigms of material things should be immaterial1 of sensibles1 intelligible1 and of physical forms1 separate from nature4 ,but in the ,phaedrus1 ,plato celebrates the supercelestial place1 the subcelestial profundity1 and every genus under this for the sake of amatory mania2 the manner in which the reminiscence of souls takes place2 and the passage to these from hence4 ,every where1 however1 the leading end1 as ,i may say1 is either physical or political1 while the conceptions about divine natures are introduced either for the sake of invention or perfection4 ,how1 therefore1 can such a theory as yours be any longer venerable and supernatural1 and worthy to be studied beyond every thing1 when it is neither able to evince the whole in itself1 nor the perfect1 nor that which is precedaneous in the writings of ,plato1 but is destitute of all these1 is violent and not spontaneous1 and does not possess a genuine1 but an adventitious order1 as in a drama8 ,and such are the particulars which may be urged against our design4 ,to this objection ,i shall make a just and perspicuous reply4 ,i say then that ,plato every where discourses about the gods agreeably to ancient opinions and the nature of things4 ,and sometimes indeed1 for the sake of the cause of the things proposed1 he reduces them to the principles of the dogmas1 and thence1 as from an exalted place of survey1 contemplates the nature of the thing proposed4 ,but some times he establishes the theological science as the leading end4 ,for in the ,phaedrus1 his subject respects intelligible beauty1 and the participation of beauty pervading thence through all things2 and in the ,banquet it respects the amatory order4 ,but if it be necessary to consider1 in one ,platonic dialogue1 the all-perfect1 whole and connected1 extending as far as to the complete number of theology1 ,i shall perhaps assert a paradox1 and which will alone be apparent to our familiars4 ,we ought however to dare1 since we have begun the assertion1 and affirm against our opponents1 that the ,parmenides1 and the mystic conceptions of this dialogue1 will accomplish all you desire4 ,for in this dialogue1 all the divine genera proceed in order from the first cause1 and evince their mutual suspension from each other4 ,and those indeed which are highest1 connate with the one1 and of a primary nature1 are allotted a form of subsistence1 characterized by unity1 occult and simple2 but such as are last are multiplied1 are distributed into many parts1 and excel in number1 but are inferior in power to such as are of a higher order2 and such as are middle1 according to a convenient proportion1 are more composite than their causes1 but more simple than their proper progeny4 ,and1 in short1 all the axioms of the theological science appear in perfection in this dialogue2 and all the divine orders are exhibited subsisting in connection4 ,so that this is nothing else than the celebrated generation of the gods1 and the procession of every kind of being from the ineffable and unknown cause of wholes4#aj ,the ,parmenides therefore1 enkindles in the lovers of ,plato the whole and perfect light of the theological science4 ,but after this1 the aforementioned dialogues distribute parts of the mystic discipline about the gods1 and all of them1 as ,i may say1 participate of divine wisdom1 and excite our spontaneous conceptions respecting a divine nature4 ------------------ #aj ,the principle of all things is celebrated by ,platonic philosophy as the cause of wholes1 because through transcendency of power he first produces those powers in the universe which rank as wholes1 and afterward those which rank as parts through these4 ,agreeably to this ,jupiter1 the artificer of the universe1 is almost always called ,greek3 demiourgos ton olon1 the demiurgus of wholes4 ,see the ,timaeus1 and the ,introduction to it4 ------------------ ,and it is necessary to refer all the parts of this mystic discipline to these dialogues1 and these again to the one and all perfect theory of the ,parmenides4 ,for thus1 as it appears to me1 we shall suspend the more imperfect from the perfect1 and parts from wholes1 and shall exhibit reasons assimilated to things of which1 according to the ,platonic ,timaeus1 they are interpreters4 ,such then is our answer to the objection which may be urged against us2 and thus we refer the ,platonic theory to the ,parmenides2 just as the ,timaeus is acknowledged by all who have the least degree of intelligence to contain the whole science about nature4 ,all that is here asserted by ,proclus will be immediately admitted by the reader who understands the outlines which we have here given of the theology of ,plato1 and who is besides this a complete master of the mystic meaning of the ,parmenides2 which ,i trust he will find sufficiently unfolded1 through the assistance of ,proclus1 in the introduction and notes to that dialogue4 ,the next important ,platonic dogma in order1 is that doctrine concerning ideas1 about which the reader will find so much said in the notes on the ,parmenides1 that but little remains to be added here4 ,that little however is as follows3 ,the divine ,pythagoras1 and all those who have legitimately received his doctrines1 among whom ,plato holds the most distinguished rank1 asserted that there are many orders of beings1 viz4 intelligible1 intellectual1 dianoetic1 physical1 or in short1 vital and corporeal essences4 ,for the progression of things1 the subjection which naturally subsists together with such progression1 and the power of diversity in coordinate genera give subsistence to all the multitude of corporeal and incorporeal natures4 ,they said1 therefore1 that there are three orders in the whole extent of beings2 viz4 the intelligible1 the dianoetic1 and the sensible2 and that in each of these ideas subsist1 characterized by the respective essential properties of the natures by which they are contained4 ,and with respect to intelligible ideas1 these they placed among divine natures1 together with the producing1 paradigmatic1 and final causes of things in a consequent order4 ,for if these three causes sometimes concur1 and are united among themselves1 7which ,aristotle says is the case71 without doubt this will not happen in the lowest works of nature1 but in the first and most excellent causes of all things1 which on account of their exuberant fecundity have a power generative of all things1 and from their converting and rendering similar to themselves the natures which they have generated1 are the paradigms1 or exemplars of all things4 ,but as these divine causes act for their own sake1 and on account of their own goodness1 do they not exhibit the final cause8 ,since therefore intelligible forms are of this kind1 and are the leaders of so much good to wholes1 they give completion to the divine orders1 though they largely subsist about the intelligible order contained in the artificer of the universe4 ,but dianoetic forms or ideas imitate the intellectual1 which have a prior subsistence1 render the order of soul similar to the intellectual order1 and comprehend all things in a secondary degree4 ,these forms beheld in divine natures possess a fabricative power1 but with us they are only gnostic1 and no longer demiurgic1 through the defluxion of our wings1 or degradation of our intellectual powers4 ,for1 as ,plato says in the ,phaedrus1 when the winged powers of the soul are perfect and plumed for flight1 she dwells on high1 and in conjunction with divine natures governs the world4 ,in the ,timaeus1 he manifestly asserts that the demiurgus implanted these dianoetic forms in souls1 in geometric1 arithmetic1 and harmonic proportions3 but in his ,republic 7in the section of a line in the #fth book7 he calls them images of intelligibles2 and on this account does not for the most part disdain to denominate them intellectual1 as being the exemplars of sensible natures4 ,in the ,phaedo he says that these are the causes to us of reminiscence2 because disciplines are nothing else than reminiscences of middle dianoetic forms1 from which the productive powers of nature being derived and inspired1 give birth to all the mundane phenomena4 ,plato however did not consider things definable1 or in modern language abstract ideas1 as the only universals1 but prior to these he established those principles productive of science which essentially reside in the soul1 as is evident from his ,phaedrus and ,phaedo4 ,in the #ajth book of the ,republic too1 he venerates those separate forms which subsist in a divine intellect4 ,in the ,phaedrus1 he asserts that souls elevated to the supercelestial place1 behold ,justice herself1 temperance herself1 and science herself2 and lastly in the ,phaedo he evinces the immortality of the soul from the hypothesis of separate forms4 ,syrianus#aa1 in his commentary on the #acth book of ,aristotle's ,metaphysics1 shows in defense of ,socrates1 ,plato1 the ,parmenideans1 and ,pythagoreans1 that ideas were not introduced by these divine men according to the usual meaning of names1 as was the opinion of ,chrysippus1 ,archedemus1 and many of the junior ,stoics2 for ideas are distinguished by many differences from things which are denominated from custom4 ,nor do they subsist1 says he1 together with intellect1 in the same manner as those slender conceptions which are denominated universals abstracted from sensibles1 according to the hypothesis of ,longinus3#ab for if that which subsists is unsubstantial1 it cannot be consubsistent with intellect4 ----------------- #aa ,see my translation of ,aristotle's ,metaphysics1 p4 #cdg4 ,if the reader conjoins what is said concerning ideas in the notes on that work1 with the introduction and notes to the ,parmenides in this1 he will be in possession of nearly all that is to be found in the writings of the ancients on this subject4 #ab ,it appears from this passage of ,syrianus that ,longinus was the original inventor of the theory of abstract ideas2 and that ,mr4 ,locke was merely the restorer of it4 ----------------- ,nor are ideas according to these men notions1 as ,cleanthes afterwards asserted them to be4 ,nor is idea definite reason1 nor material form2 for these subsist in composition and division1 and verge to matter4 ,but ideas are perfect1 simple1 immaterial1 and impartible natures4 ,and what wonder is there1 says ,syrianus1 if we should separate things which are so much distant from each other8 ,since neither do we imitate in this particular ,plutarch1 ,atticus1 and ,democritus1 who1 because universal reasons perpetually subsist in the essence of the soul1 were of opinion that these reasons are ideas3 for though they separate them from the universal in sensible natures1 yet it is not proper to conjoin in one and the same the reason of soul1 and an intellect such as ours1 with paradigmatic and immaterial forms1 and demiurgic intellections4 ,but as the divine ,plato says1 it is the province of our soul to collect things into one by a reasoning process1 and to possess a reminiscence of those transcendent spectacles1 which we once beheld when governing the universe in conjunction with divinity4 ,boethus1#ac the peripatetic too1 with whom it is proper to join ,cornutus2 thought that ideas are the same with universals in sensible natures4 ,however1 whether these universals are prior to particulars1 they are not prior in such a manner as to be denudated from the habitude which they possess with respect to them1 nor do they subsist as the causes of particulars2 both which are the prerogatives of ideas2 or whether they are posterior to particulars1 as many are accustomed to call them1 how can things of posterior origin1 which have no essential subsistence1 but are nothing more than slender conceptions1 sustain the dignity of fabricative ideas8 ------------------- #ac ,this was a ,greek philosopher1 who is often cited by ,simplicius in his ,commentary on the ,predicaments1 and must not therefore be confounded with ,boetius1 the roman senator and philosopher4 ------------------- ,in what manner then1 says ,syrianus1 do ideas subsist according to the contemplative lovers of truth8 ,we reply1 intelligibly and tetradically 7,greek3 noeros kai tetradikos71 in animal itself 7,greek3 en to antozoo71 or the extremity of the intelligible order2 but intellectually and decadically 7,greek3 noeros kai dekadikos71 in the intellect of the artificer of the universe2 for1 according to the ,pythagoric ,hymn1 ,divine number proceeds from the retreats of the undecaying monad1 till it arrives at the divine tetrad which produced the mother of all things1 the universal recipient1 venerable1 circularly investing all things with bound1 immovable and unwearied1 and which is denominated the sacred decad1 both by the immortal gods and earth-born men4 ,greek3 ,proeisi gar o ,theios arithmos1 os phesin o ,pythagoreios eis auton umnos1 ,monados ek keuthmonos akeralou esti'an iketai ,tetrada epi zatheen1 he de teke metera panton1 ,pandechea1 presbeiran1 oron peri pasi titheiran1 ,atropon1 akamatou1 dekada kleiousi min agnen1 ,athanatoi to theoi kai gegeneeis anthropoi4 ,and such is the mode of their subsistence according to ,orpheus1 ,pythagoras and ,plato4 ,or if it be requisite to speak in more familiar language1 an intellect sufficient to itself1 and which is a most perfect cause1 presides over the wholes of the universe1 and through these governs all its parts2 but at the same time that it fabricates all mundane natures1 and benefits them by its providential energies1 it preserves its own most divine and immaculate purity2 and while it illuminates all things1 is not mingled with the natures which it illuminates4 ,this intellect1 therefore1 comprehending in the depths of its essence an ideal world1 replete with all various forms1 excludes privation of cause and casual subsistence1 from its energy4 ,but as it imparts every good and all possible beauty to its fabrications1 it converts the universe to itself1 and renders it similar to its own omniform nature4 ,its energy1 too1 is such as its intellection2 but it understands all things1 since it is most perfect4 ,hence there is not any thing which ranks among true beings1 that is not comprehended in the essence of intellect2 but it always establishes in itself ideas1 which are not different from itself and its essence1 but give completion to it1 and introduce to the whole of things1 a cause which is at the same time productive1 paradigmatic1 and final4 ,for it energizes as intellect1 and the ideas which it contains are paradigmatic1 as being forms2 and they energize from themselves1 and according to their own exuberant goodness4 ,and such are the ,platonic dogmas concerning ideas1 which sophistry and ignorance may indeed oppose1 but will never be able to confute4 ,from this intelligible world1 replete with omniform ideas1 this sensible world1 according to ,plato1 perpetually flows1 depending on its artificer intellect1 in the same manner as shadow on its forming substance4 ,for as a deity of an intellectual characteristic is its fabricator1 and both the essence and energy of intellect are established in eternity the sensible universe1 which is the effect or production of such an energy1 must be consubsistent with its cause1 or in other words1 must be a perpetual emanation from it4 ,this will be evident from considering that every thing which is generated1 is either generated by art or by nature1 or according to power4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 that every thing operating according to nature or art should be prior to the things produced2 but that things operating according to power should have their productions coexistent with themselves2 just as the sun produces light coexistent with itself2 fire1 heat2 and snow1 coldness4 ,if therefore the artificer of the universe produced it by art1 he would not cause it simply to be1 but to be in some particular manner2 for all art produces form4 ,whence therefore does the world derive its being8 ,if he produced it from nature1 since that which makes by nature imparts something of itself to its productions1 and the maker of the world is incorporeal1 it would be necessary that the world1 the offspring of such an energy1 should be incorporeal4 ,it remains therefore1 that the demiurgus produced the universe by power alone2 but every thing generated by power subsists together with the cause containing this power3 and hence production of this kind cannot be destroyed unless the producing cause is deprived of power4 ,the divine intellect therefore that produced the sensible universe caused it to be coexistent with himself4 ,this world thus depending on its divine artificer1 who is himself an intelligible world replete with the archetypal ideas of all things1 considered according to its corporeal nature1 is perpetually flowing1 and perpetually advancing to being 7en to gignesthai71 and compared with its paradigm1 has no stability or reality of being4 ,however1 considered as animated by a divine soul1 and as receiving the illuminations of all the supermundane gods1 and being itself the receptacle of divinities from whom bodies are suspended1 it is said by ,plato in the ,timaeus to be a blessed god4 ,the great body of this world too1 which subsists in a perpetual dispersion of temporal extension1 may be properly called a whole with a total subsistence1 on account of the perpetuity of its duration1 though this is nothing more than a flowing eternity4 ,and hence ,plato calls it a whole of wholes2 by the other wholes which are comprehended in its meaning1 the celestial spheres1 the sphere of fire1 the whole of air considered as one great orb2 the whole earth1 and the whole sea4 ,these spheres1 which are called by ,platonic writers parts with a total subsistence1 are considered by ,plato as aggoregately perpetual4 ,for if the body of this world is perpetual1 this also must be the case with its larger parts1 on account of their exquisite alliance to it1 and in order that wholes with a partial subsistence1 such as all individuals1 may rank in the last gradation of things4 ,as the world too1 considered as one great comprehending whole1 is called by ,plato a divine animal1 so likewise every whole which it contains is a world1 possessing in the first place1 a self-perfect unity2 proceeding from the ineffable1 by which it becomes a god2 in the second place1 a divine intellect2 in the third place1 a divine soul2 and in the last place1 a deified body4 ,hence each of these wholes is the producing cause of all the multitude which it contains1 and on this account is said to be a whole prior to parts2 because1 considered as possessing an eternal form which holds all its parts together1 and gives to the whole perpetuity of subsistence1 it is not indigent of such parts to the perfection of its being4 ,that these wholes which rank thus high in the universe are animated1 must follow by a geometrical necessity4 ,for1 as ,theophrastus well observes1 wholes would possess less authority than parts1 and things eternal than such as are corruptible1 if deprived of the possession of soul4 ,and now having with venturous1 yet unpresuming wing1 ascended to the ineffable principle of things1 and standing with every eye closed in the vestibules of the adytum1 found that we could announce nothing concerning him1 but only indicate our doubts and disappointment1 and having thence descended to his occult and most venerable progeny1 and passing through the luminous world of ideas1 holding fast by the golden chain of deity1 terminated our downward flight in the material universe1 and its undecaying wholes1 let us stop awhile and contemplate the sublimity and magnificence of the scene which this journey presents to our view4 ,here then we see the vast empire of deity1 an empire terminated upwards by a principle so ineffable that all language is subverted about it1 and downwards1 by the vast body of the world4 ,immediately subsisting after this immense unknown we in the next place behold a mighty all- comprehending one1 which as being next to that which is in every respect incomprehensible1 possesses much of the ineffable and unknown4 ,from this principle of principles1 in which all things casually subsist absorbed in superessential light and involved in unfathomable depths1 we view a beauteous progeny of principles1 all largely partaking of the ineffable1 all stamped with the occult characters of deity1 all possessing an over-flowing fullness of good4 ,from these dazzling summits1 these ineffable blossoms1 these divine propagations1 we next see being1 life1 intellect1 soul1 nature and body depending2 monads suspended from unities1 deified natures proceeding from deities4 ,each of these monads too1 is the leader of a series which extends from itself to the last of things1 and which while it proceeds from1 at the same time abides in1 and returns to its leader4 ,and all these principles and all their progeny are finally centred1 and rooted by their summits in the first great all- comprehending one4 ,thus all beings proceed from1 and are comprehended in the first being2 all intellects emanate from one first intellect2 all souls from one first soul2 all natures blossom from one first nature2 and all bodies proceed from the vital and luminous body of the world4 ,and lastly1 all these great monads are comprehended in the first one1 from which both they and all their depending series are unfolded into light4 ,hence this first one is truly the unity of unities1 the monad of monads1 the principle of principles1 the ,god of gods1 one and all things1 and yet one prior to all4 ,such1 according to ,plato1 are the flights of the true philosopher1 such the ,august and magnificent scene which presents itself to his view4 ,by ascending these luminous heights1 the spontaneous tendencies of the soul to deity alone find the adequate object of their desire2 investigation here alone finally reposes1 doubt expires in certainty1 and knowledge loses itself in the ineffable4 ,and here perhaps some grave objector1 whose little soul is indeed acute1 but sees nothing with a vision healthy and sound1 will say that all this is very magnificent1 but that it is soaring too high for man2 that it is merely the effect of spiritual pride2 that no truths1 either in morality or theology1 are of any importance which are not adapted to the level of the meanest capacity2 and that all that it is necessary for man to know concerning either ,god or himself is so plain1 that he that runs may read4 ,in answer to such like cant1 for it is nothing more1--a cant produced by the most profound ignorance1 and frequently attended with the most deplorable envy1 ,i ask1 is then the ,delphic precept1 ,,know ,,thyself1 a trivial mandate8 ,can this be accomplished by every man8 ,or can any one properly know himself without knowing the rank he holds in the scale of being8 ,and can this be effected without knowing what are the natures which he surpasses1 and what those are by which he is surpassed8 ,and can he know this without knowing as much of those natures as it is possible for him to know8 ,and will the objector be hardy enough to say that every man is equal to this arduous task8 ,that he who rushes from the forge1 or the mines1 with a soul distorted1 crushed and bruised by base mechanical arts1 and madly presumes to teach theology to a deluded audience1 is master of this sublime1 this most important science8 ,for my own part ,i know of no truths which are thus obvious1 thus accessible to every man1 but axioms1 those self-evident principles of science which are conspicuous by their own light1 which are the spontaneous unperverted conceptions of the soul1 and to which he who does not assent deserves1 as ,aristotle justly remarks1 either pity or correction4 ,in short1 if this is to be the criterion of all moral and theological knowledge1 that it must be immediately obvious to every man1 that it is to be apprehended by the most careless inspection1 what occasion is there for seminaries of learning8 ,education is ridiculous1 the toil of investigation is idle4 ,let us at once confine ,wisdom in the dungeons of ,folly1 recall ,ignorance from her barbarous wilds1 and close the gates of ,science with everlasting bars4 ,having thus taken a general survey of the great world1 and descended from the intelligible to the sensible universe1 let us still1 adhering to that golden chain which is bound round the summit of ,olympus1 and from which all things are suspended1 descend to the microcosm man4 ,for man comprehends in himself partially everything which the world contains divinely and totally4 ,hence1 according to ,pluto1 he is endued with an intellect subsisting in energy1 and a rational soul proceeding from the same father and vivific goddess as were the causes of the intellect and soul of the universe4 ,he has likewise an ethereal vehicle analogous to the heavens1 and a terrestrial body1 composed from the four elements1 and with which also it is coordinate4 ,with respect to his rational part1 for in this the essence of man consists1 we have already shown that it is of a self-motive nature1 and that it subsists between intellect1 which is immovable both in essence and energy1 and nature1 which both moves and is moved4 ,in consequence of this middle subsistence1 the mundane soul1 from which all partial souls are derived1 is said by ,plato in the ,timaeus1 to be a medium between that which is indivisible and that which is divisible about bodies1 i4e4 the mundane soul is a medium between the mundane intellect1 and the whole of that corporeal life which the world participates4 ,in like manner1 the human soul is a medium between a daemoniacal intellect proximately1 established above our essence1 which it also elevates and perfects1 and that corporeal life which is distributed about our body1 and which is the cause of its generation1 nutrition and increase4 ,this daemoniacal intellect is called by ,plato1 in the ,phaedrus1 theoretic and1 the governor of the soul4 ,the highest part therefore of the human soul is the summit of the dianoetic power 7,greek3 to akrotaton tes dianoias71 or that power which reasons scientifically2 and this summit is our intellect4 ,as1 however1 our very essence is characterized by reason1 this our summit is rational1 and though it subsists in energy1 yet it has a remitted union with things themselves4 ,though too it energizes from itself1 and contains intelligibles in its essence1 yet from its alliance to the discursive nature of soul1 and its inclination to that which is divisible1 it falls short of the perfection of an intellectual essence and energy profoundly indivisible and united1 and the intelligibles which it contains degenerate from the transcendently fulged and self-luminous nature of first intelligibles4 ,hence1 in obtaining a perfectly indivisible knowledge1 it requires to be perfected by an intellect whose energy is ever vigilant and unremitted2 and it's intelligibles1 that they may become perfect1 are indigent of the light which proceeds from separate intelligibles4 ,aristotle1 therefore1 very properly compares the intelligibles of our intellect to colors1 because these require the splendour of the sun1 and denominates an intellect of this kind1 intellect in capacity1 both on account of its subordination to an essential intellect1 and because it is from a separate intellect that it receives the full perfection of its nature4 ,the middle part of the rational soul is called by ,plato1 dianoia1 and is that power which1 as we have already said1 reasons scientifically1 deriving the principles of its reasoning1 which are axioms from intellect4 ,and the extremity of the rational soul is opinion1 which in his ,sophista he defines to be that power which knows the conclusion of dianoia4 ,this power also knows the universal in sensible particulars1 as that every man is a biped1 but it knows only the oti1 or that a thing is1 but is ignorant of the dioti1 or why it is3 knowledge of the latter kind being the province of the dianoetic power4 ,and such is ,plato's division of the rational part of our nature1 which he very justly considers as the true man2 the essence of every thing consisting in its most excellent part4 ,after this follows the irrational nature1 the summit of which is the phantasy1 or that power which perceives every thing accompanied with figure and interval2 and on this account it may be called a figured intelligence 7,greek3 morphotike noesis74 ,this power1 as ,jamblichus beautifully observes1 groups upon1 as it were1 and fashions all the powers of the soul2 exciting in opinion the illuminations from the senses1 and fixing in that life which is extended with body1 the impressions which descend from intellect4 ,hence1 slays ,proclus1 it folds itself about the indivisibility of true intellect1 conforms itself to all formless species1 and becomes perfectly every thing1 from which the dianoetic power and our indivisible reason consists4 ,hence too1 it is all things passively which intellect is impassively1 and on this account ,aristotle calls it passive intellect4 ,under this subsist anger and desire1 the former resembling a raging lion1 and the latter a many-headed beast2 and the whole is bounded by sense1 which is nothing more than a passive perception of things1 and on this account is justly said by ,plato1 to be rather passion than knowledge2 since the former of these is characterized by alertness1 and the latter by energy4 ,further still1 in order that the union of the soul with this gross terrestrial body may be effected in a becoming manner1 two vehicles1 according to ,plato1 are necessary as media1 one of which is ethereal1 and the other aerial1 and of these1 the ethereal vehicle is simple and immaterial1 but the aerial1 simple and material2 and this dense earthly body is composite and material4 ,the soul thus subsisting as a medium between natures impartible and such as are divided about bodies1 it produces and constitutes the latter of these2 but establishes in itself the prior causes from which it proceeds4 ,hence it previously receives1 after the manner of an exemplar1 the natures to which it is prior as their cause2 but it possesses through participation1 and as the blossoms of first natures1 the causes of its subsistence4 ,hence it contains in its essence immaterial forms of things material1 incorporeal of such as are corporeal1 and extended of such as are distinguished by interval4 ,but it contains intelligibles after the manner of an image1 and receives partibly their impartible forms1 such as are uniform variously1 and such as are immovable1 according to a self-motive condition4 ,soul therefore is all things1 and is elegantly said by ,olympiodorus to be an omniform statue 7,greek3 pammorphon agalma73 for it contains such things as are first through participation1 but such as are posterior to its nature1 after the manner of an exemplar4 ,as1 too1 it is always moved2 and this always is not eternal1 but temporal1 for that which is properly eternal1 and such is intellect1 is perfectly stable1 and has no transitive energies1 hence it is necessary that its motions should be periodic4 ,for motion is a certain mutation from some things into others4 ,and beings are terminated by multitudes and magnitudes4 ,these therefore being terminated1 there can neither be an infinite mutation1 according to a right line1 nor can that which is always moved proceed according to a finished progression4 ,hence that which is always moved will proceed from the same to the same2 and will thus form a periodic motion4 ,hence1 too1 the human1 and this also is true of every mundane soul1 uses periods and restitutions of its proper life4 ,for1 in consequence of being measured by time1 it energizes transitively1 and possesses a proper motion4 ,but every thing which is moved perpetually and participates of time1 revolves periodically and proceeds from the same to the same4 ,and hence the soul1 from possessing motion1 and energizing according to time1 will both possess periods of motion and restitutions to its pristine state4 ,again1 as the human soul1 according to ,plato1 ranks among the number of those souls that sometimes follow the mundane divinities1 in consequence of subsisting immediately after daemons and heroes1 the perpetual attendants of the gods1 hence it possesses a power of descending infinitely into generation1 or the sublunary region1 and of ascending from generation to real being4 ,for since it does not reside with divinity through an infinite time1 neither will it be conversant with bodies through the whole succeeding time4 ,for that which has no temporal beginning1 both according to ,plato and ,aristotle1 cannot have an end2 and that which has no end1 is necessarily without a beginning4 ,it remains1 therefore1 that every soul must perform periods1 both of ascensions from generation1 and of descensions into generation2 and that this will never fail1 through an infinite time4 ,from all this it follows that the soul1 while an inhabitant of earth1 is in a fallen condition1 an apostate from deity1 an exile from the orb of light4 ,hence ,plato1 in the #gth book of his ,republic1 considering our life with reference to erudition and the want of it1 assimilates us to men in a subterranean cavern1 who have been there confined from their childhood1 and so fettered by chains as to be only able to look before them to the entrance of the cave which expands to the light1 but incapable through the chain of turning themselves round4 ,he supposes too1 that they have the light of a fire burning far above and behind them2 and that between the fire and the fettered men1 there is a road above1 along which a low wall is built4 ,on this wall are seen men bearing utensils of every kind1 and statues in wood and stone of men and other animals4 ,and of these men some are speaking and others silent4 ,with respect to the fettered men in this cave1 they see nothing of themselves or another1 or of what is carrying along1 but the shadows formed by the fire falling on the opposite part of tho cave4 ,he supposes too1 that the opposite part of this prison has an echo2 and that in consequence of this the fettered men1 when they hear any one speak1 will imagine that it is nothing else than the passing shadow4 ,here1 in the first place1 as we have observed in the notes on that book1 the road above between the fire and the fettered men1 indicates that there is a certain ascent in the cave itself from a more abject to a more elevated life4 ,by this ascent1 therefore ,plato signifies the contemplation of dianoetic objects in the mathematical disciplines4 ,for as the shadows in the cave correspond to the shadows of visible objects1 and visible objects are the immediate images of dianoetic forms1 or those ideas which the soul essentially participates1 it is evident that the objects from which these shadows are formed must correspond to such as are dianoetic4 ,it is requisite1 therefore1 that the dianoetic power exercising itself in these1 should draw forth the principles of these from their latent retreats1 and should contemplate them not in images1 but as subsisting in herself in impartible involution4 ,in the next place he says1 that the man who is to be led from the cave will more easily see what the heavens contain1 and the heavens themselves1 by looking in the night to the light of the stars1 and the moon1 than by day looking on the sun1 and the light of the sun4 ,by this he signifies the contemplation of intelligibles3 for the stars and their light are imitations of intelligibles1 so far as all of them partake of the form of the sun1 in the same manner as intelligibles are characterized by the nature of the good4 ,after the contemplation of these1 and after the eye is accustomed through these to the light1 as it is requisite in the visible region to see the sun himself in the last place1 in like manner1 according to ,plato1 the idea of the good must be seen the last in the intelligible region4 ,he1 likewise divinely adds1 that it is scarcely to be seen2 for we can only be conjoined with it through the intelligible1 in the vestibule of which it is beheld by the ascending soul4 ,in short1 the cold1 according to ,plato1 can only be restored while on earth to the divine likeness1 which she abandoned by her descent1 and be able after death to reascend to the intelligible world1 by the exercise of the cathartic and theoretic virtues2 the former purifying her from the defilements of a mortal nature1 and the latter elevating her to the vision of true being3 for thus1 as ,plato says in the ,timaeus1 the soul becoming sane and entire1 will arrive at the form of her pristine habit4 ,the cathartic1 however1 must necessarily precede the theoretic virtues2 since it is impossible to survey truth while subject to the perturbation and tumult of the passions4 ,for the rational soul subsisting as a medium between intellect and the irrational nature1 can then only without revulsion associate with the intellect prior to herself1 when she becomes pure from copassivity with inferior natures4 ,by the cathartic virtues1 therefore1 we become sane1 in consequence of being liberated from the passions as diseases2 but we become entire by the reassumption of intellect and science as of our proper parts2 and this is effected by contemplative truth4 ,plato also clearly teaches us that our apostacy from better natures is only to be healed by a flight from hence1 when he defines in his ,theaetetus philosophy to be a flight from terrestrial evils3 for he evinces by this that passions are connascent with mortals alone4 ,he likewise says in the same dialogue1 that neither can evil be abolished1 nor yet do they subsist with the gods1 but that they necessarily revolve about this terrene abode1 and a mortal nature4 ,for those who are obnoxious to generation and corruption can also be affected in a manner contrary to nature1 which is the beginning of evils4 ,but in the same dialogue he subjoins the mode by which our flight from evil is to be accomplished4 ,it is necessary1 says he to fly from hence thither3 but the flight is a similitude to divinity1 as far as is possible to man2 and this similitude consists in becoming just and holy in conjunction with intellectual prudence4 ,for it is necessary that he who wishes to run from evils1 should in the first place turn away from a mortal nature2 since it is not possible for those who are mingled with it to avoid being filled with its attendant evils4 ,as therefore1 through our flight from divinity1 and the defluction of those wings which elevate us on high1 we fell into this mortal abode1 and thus became connected with evils1 so by abandoning passivity with a mortal nature1 and by the germination of the virtues1 as of certain wings1 we return to the abode of pure and true good1 and to the possession of divine felicity4 ,for the essence of many subsisting as a medium between daemoniacal natures1 who always have an intellectual knowledge of divinity1 and those beings who are never adapted by nature to understand him1 it ascends to the former and descends to the latter1 through the possession and desertion of intellect4 ,for it becomes familiar both with the divine and brutal likeness1 through the amphibious condition of its nature4 ,when the soul therefore has recovered her pristine perfection in as great a degree as is possible1 while she is an inhabitant of earth by the exercise of the cathartic and theoretic virtues1 she returns after death1 as he says in the ,timaeus1 to her kindred star1 from which she fell1 and enjoys a blessed life4 ,then1 too1 as he says in the ,phaedrus1 being winged1 she governs the world in conjunction with the gods4 ,and this indeed is the most beautiful end of her labors4 ,this is what he calls in the ,phaedo1 a great contest and a mighty hope4 ,this is the most perfect fruit of philosophy to familiarize and lead her back to things truly beautiful1 to liberate her from this terrene abode as from a certain subterranean cavern of material life1 elevate her to ethereal splendors1 and place her in the islands of the blessed4 ,from this account of the human soul1 that most important ,platonic dogma necessarily follows1 that our soul essentially contains all knowledge1 and that whatever knowledge she acquires in the present life1 is in reality nothing more than a recovery of what a he once possessed4 ,this recovery is very properly called by ,plato reminiscence1 not as being attended with actual recollection in the present life1 but as being an actual repossession of what the soul had lost through her oblivious union with the body4 ,alluding to this essential knowledge of the soul1 which discipline evocates from its dormant retreats1 ,plato says in the ,sophista1 that we know all things as in a dream1 and are again ignorant of them1 according to vigilant perception4 ,hence too1 as ,proclus well observes1 it is evident that the soul does not collect her knowledge from sensibles1 nor from things partial and divisible discover the whole and the one4 ,for it is not proper to think that things which have in no respect a real subsistence1 should be the leading causes of knowledge to the soul2 and that things which oppose each other and are ambiguous1 should precede science which has a sameness of subsistence2 nor that things which are variously mutable1 should be generative of reasons which are established in unity2 nor that things indefinite should be the causes of definite intelligence4 ,it is not fit1 therefore1 that the truth of things eternal should be received from the many1 nor the discrimination of universals from sensibles1 nor a judgment respecting what is good from irrational natures2 but it is requisite that the soul entering within herself1 should investigate herself the true and the good1 and the eternal reasons of things4 ,we have said that discipline awakens the dormant knowledge of the soul2 and ,plato considered this as particularly effected by the mathematical discipline4 ,hence1 he asserts of theoretic arithmetic that it imparts no small aid to our ascent to real being1 and that it liberates us from the wandering and ignorance about a sensible nature4 ,geometry too is considered by him as most instrumental to the knowledge of the good1 when it is not pursued for the sake of practical purposes1 but as the means of ascent to an intelligible essence4 ,astronomy also is useful for the purpose of investigating the fabricator of all things1 and contemplating as in most splendid images the ideal world1 and its ineffable cause4 ,and lastly music1 when properly studied1 is subservient to our ascent1 viz4 when from sensible we betake ourselves to the contemplation of ideal and divine harmony4 ,unless1 however1 we thus employ the mathematical discipline1 the study of them is justly considered by ,plato as imperfect and useless1 and of no worth4 ,for as the true end of man according to his philosophy is an assimilation to divinity1 in the greatest perfection of which human nature is capable1 whatever contributes to this is to be ardently pursued2 but whatever has a different tendency1 however necessary it may be to the wants and conveniences of the mere animal life1 is comparatively little and vile4 ,hence it necessary to pass rapidly from things visible and audible1 to those which are alone seen by the eye of intellect4 ,for the mathematical sciences1 when properly studied1 move the inherent knowledge of the soul2 awaken its intelligence2 purify its dianoetic power2 call forth its essential forms from their dormant retreats2 remove that oblivion and ignorance which are congenial with our birth2 and dissolve the bonds arising from our union with an irrational nature4 ,it is therefore beautifully said by ,plato in the #gth book of his ,republic1 that the soul through these disciplines has an organ purified and enlightened1 which is blinded and buried by studies of a different kind1 an organ better worth saving than ten thousand eyes1 since truth becomes visible through this alone4 ,dialectic1 however1 or the vertex of the mathematical sciences1 as it is called by ,plato in his ,republic1 is that master discipline which particularly leads us up to an intelligible essence4 ,of this first of sciences1 which is essentially different from vulgar logic1 and is the same with what ,aristotle calls the first philosophy and wisdom1 ,i have largely spoken in the introduction and notes to the ,parmenides4 ,suffice it therefore to observe in this place1 that dialectic differs from mathematical science in this1 that the latter flows from1 and the former is void of hypothesis4 ,that dialectic has a power of knowing universals2 that it ascends to good and the supreme cause of all2 and1 that it considers good as the end of its elevation2 but that the mathematical science1 which previously fabricates for itself definite principles1 from which it evinces things consequent to such principles1 does not tend to the principle1 but to the conclusion4 ,hence ,plato does not expel mathematical knowledge from the number of the sciences1 but asserts it to be the next in rank to that one science which is the summit of all2 nor does he accuse it as ignorant of its own principles1 but considers it as receiving these from the master science dialectic1 and that possessing them without any demonstration1 it demonstrates from these its consequent propositions4 ,hence ,socrates1 in the ,republic1 speaking of the power of dialectic1 says that it surrounds all disciplines like a defensive enclosure1 and elevates those that use it to the good itself1 and the first unities2 that it purifies the eye of the soul2 establishes itself in true beings1 and1 the one principle of all things1 and ends at last in that which is no longer hypothetical4 ,the power of dialectic1 therefore1 being thus great1 and the ends of this path so mighty1 it must by no means be confounded with arguments which are alone conversant with opinion3 for the former is the guardian of sciences1 and the passage to it is through these1 but the latter is perfectly destitute of disciplinative science4 ,to which we may add1 that the method of reasoning which is founded in opinion1 regards only that which is apparent2 but the dialectic method endeavors to arrive at the one itself1 always employing for this purpose steps of ascent1 and at last beautifully ends in the nature of the good4 ,very different therefore is it from the merely logical method1 which presides over the demonstrative phantasy1 is of a secondary nature1 and is alone pleased with contentious discussions4 ,for the dialectic of ,plato for the most part employs divisions and analyses as primary sciences1 and as imitating the progression of beings from the one1 and their conversion to it again4 ,it likewise sometimes uses definitions and demonstrations1 and prior to these the definitive method1 and the divisive prior to this4 ,on the contrary1 the merely logical method1 which is solely conversant with opinion1 is deprived of the incontrovertible reasonings of demonstration4 ,the following is a specimen of the analytical method of ,plato's dialectic4 ,of analysis there are three species4 ,for one is an ascent from sensibles to the first intelligibles2 a second is an ascent through things demonstrated and subdemonstrated1 to undemonstrated and immediate propositions2 and a third proceeds from hypothesis to unhypothetical principles4 ,of the first of these species1 ,plato has given a most admirable specimen in the speech of ,diotima in the ,banquet4 ,for there he ascends from the beauty about bodies to the beauty in souls2 from this to the beauty in right disciplines2 from this again to the beauty in laws2 from the beauty in laws to the ample sea of beauty 7,greek3 to polu pelagos tou kalou72 and thus proceeding he at length arrives at the beautiful itself4 ,the second species of analysis is as follows3 ,it is necessary to make the thing investigated the subject of hypothesis2 to survey such things as are prior to it2 and to demonstrate these from things posterior1 ascending to such as are prior1 till we arrive at the first thing and to which we give our assent4 ,but beginning from this1 we descend synthetically to the thing investigated4 ,of this species1 the following is an example from the ,phaedrus of ,plato4 ,it is inquired if the soul is immortal2 and this being hypothetically admitted1 it is inquired in the next place if it is always moved4 ,this being demonstrated1 the next inquiry is if that which is always moved1 is self-moved2 and this again being demonstrated1 it is considered whether that which is self-moved is the principle of motion1 and afterwards if the principle is unbegotten4 ,this then being admitted as a thing acknowledged1 and likewise that what is begotten is incorruptible1 the demonstration of the thing proposed is thus collected4 ,if there is a principle1 it is unbegotten and incorruptible4 ,that which is self-moved is the principle of motion4 ,soul is self-moved4 ,soul therefore 7i4e4 the rational soul7 is incorruptible1 unbegotten1 and immortal4 ,of the third species of analysis1 which proceeds from the hypothetical to that which is unhypothetical1 ,plato has given a most beautiful specimen in the first hypothesis of his ,parmenides4 ,for here1 taking for his hypothesis that the one is1 he proceeds through an orderly series of negations1 which are not privative of their subjects1 but generative of things which are as it were1 their opposites1 till he at length takes away the hypothesis that the one is4 ,for he denies of it all discourse and every appellation4 ,and thus evidently denies of it not only that it is1 but even negation4 ,for all things are posterior to the one2 viz4 things known1 knowledge1 and the instruments of knowledge4 ,and thus1 beginning from the hypothetical1 he ends in that which is unhypothetical1 and truly ineffable4 ,having taken a general survey1 both of the great world and the microcosm man1 ,i shall close this account of the principal dogmas of ,plato1 with the outlines of his doctrine concerning ,providence and ,fate1 as it is a subject of the greatest importance1 and the difficulties in which it is involved are happily removed by that prince of philosophers4 ,in the first place1 therefore1 ,providence1 according to common conceptions1 is the cause of good to the subjects of its care2 and ,fate is the cause of a certain connection to generated natures4 ,this being admitted1 let us consider what the things are which are connected4 ,of beings1 therefore1 some have their essence in eternity1 and others in time4 ,but by beings whose essence is in eternity1 ,i mean those whose energy as well as their essence is eternal2 and by beings essentially temporal1 those whose essence is always in generation1 or becoming to be1 though this should take place in an infinite time4 ,the media between these two extremes are natures which1 in a certain respect1 have an essence permanent and better than generation1 or a flowing subsistence1 but whose energy is measured by time4 ,for it is necessary that every procession from things first to last should be effected through media4 ,the medium1 therefore1 between these two extremes1 must either be that which has an eternal essence1 but any energy indigent of time1 or1 on the contrary1 that which has a temporal essence1 but an eternal energy4 ,it is impossible1 however1 for the latter of these to have any subsistence2 for if this were admitted1 energy would be prior to essence4 ,the medium1 therefore1 must be that whose essence is eternal1 but energy temporal4 ,and the three orders which compose this first middle and last are1 the intellectual1 psychical 7or that pertaining to soul71 and corporeal4 ,for from what has been already said by us concerning the gradation of beings1 it is evident that the intellectual order is established in eternity1 both in essence and energy2 that the corporeal order is always in generation1 or advancing to being1 and this either in an infinite time1 or in a part of time2 and that the psychical is indeed eternal in essence1 but temporal in energy4 ,where then shall we rank things which being distributed either in places or times1 have a certain coordination and sympathy with each other through connection8 ,it is evident that they must be ranked among altermotive and corporeal natures4 ,for of things which subsist beyond the order of bodies1 some are better both than place and time2 and others1 though they energize according to time1 appear to be entirely pure from any connection with place4 ,hence things which are governed and connected by ,fate are entirely altermotive and corporeal4 ,if this then is demonstrated1 it is manifest that admitting ,fate to be a cause of connection1 we must assert that it presides over altermotive and corporeal natures4 ,if1 therefore1 we look to that which is the proximate cause of bodies1 and thorough which also altermotive beings are moved1 breathe1 and are held together1 we shall find that this is nature1 the energies of which are to generate1 nourish1 and increase4 ,if1 therefore1 this power not only subsists in us1 and all other animals and plants1 but prior to partial bodies there is1 by a much greater necessity1 one nature of the world which comprehends and is motive of all bodies2 it follows that nature must be the cause of things connected1 and that in this we must investigate ,fate4 ,hence1 ,fate is nature1 or that incorporeal power which is the one life of the world1 presiding over bodies1 moving all things according to time1 and connecting the motions of things that1 by places and times1 are distant from each other4 ,it is likewise the cause of the mutual sympathy of mortal natures1 and of their conjunction with such as are eternal4 ,for the nature which is in us1 binds and connects all the parts of our body1 of which also it is a certain ,fate4 ,and as in our body some parts have a principal subsistence1 and others are less principal1 and the latter are consequent to the former1 so in the universe1 the generations of the less principal parts are consequent to the motions of the more principal1 viz4 the sublunary generations to the periods of the celestial bodies2 and the circle of the former is the image of the latter4 ,hence it is not difficult to see that ,providence is deity itself1 the fountain of all good4 ,for whence can good be imparted1 to all things1 but from divinity8 ,so that no other cause of good but deity is1 as ,plato says1 to be assigned4 ,and1 in the next place1 as this cause is superior to all intelligible and sensible natures1 it is consequently superior to ,fate4 ,whatever too is subject to ,fate1 is also under the dominion of ,providence2 having its connection indeed from ,fate1 but deriving the good which it possesses from ,providence4 ,but again1 not all things that are under the dominion of ,providence are indigent of ,fate2 for intelligibles are exempt from its sway4 ,fate therefore is profoundly conversant with corporeal natures2 since connection introduces time and corporeal motion4 ,hence ,plato1 looking to this1 says in the ,timaeus1 that the world is mingled from intellect and necessity1 the former ruling over the latter4 ,for by necessity here he means the motive cause of bodies1 which in other places he calls ,fate4 ,and this with great propriety2 since every body is compelled to do whatever it does1 and to suffer whatever it suffers2 to heat or to be heated1 to impart or to receive cold4 ,but the elective power is unknown to a corporeal nature2 so that the necessary and the nonelective may be said to be the peculiarities of bodies4 ,as there are two genera of things1 therefore1 the intelligible and the sensible1 so likewise there are two kingdoms of these2 that of ,providence1 upwards1 which reigns over intelligibles and sensibles1 and that of ,fate downwards1 which reigns over sensibles only4 ,providence likewise differs from ,fate in the same manner as deity from that which is divine indeed1 but participation1 and not primarily4 ,for in other things we see that which has a primary subsistence1 and that which subsists according to participation4 ,thus the light which subsists in the orb of the sun is primary light1 and that which is in the air1 according to participation2 the latter being derived from the former4 ,and life is primarily in the soul1 but secondarily in the body4 ,thus also1 according to ,plato1 ,providence is deity1 but ,fate is something divine1 and not a god3 for it depends upon ,providence1 of which it is as it were the image4 ,as ,providence too is to intelligibles1 so is ,fate to sensibles4 ,and1 alternately1 as ,providence is to ,fate1 so are intelligibles to sensibles4 ,but intelligibles are the first of beings1 and from these others derive their subsistence4 ,and hence the order of ,fate depends on the dominion of ,providence4 ,in the second place1 let us look to the rational nature itself1 when correcting the inaccuracy of sensible information1 as when it accuses the sight of deception1 in seeing the orb of the sun as not larger than a foot in diameter2 when it represses the ebullitions of anger1 and exclaims with ,ulysses1 ,endure my heart2 or when it restrains the wanton tendencies of desire to corporeal delight4 ,for in all such operations it manifestly subdues the irrational motions1 both gnostic and appetitive1 and absolves itself from them1 as from things foreign to its nature4 ,but it is necessary to investigate the essence of every thing1 not from its perversion1 but from its energies according to nature4 ,if therefore reason1 when it energizes in us as reason1 restrains the shadowy impressions of the delights of licentious desire1 punishes the precipitate motion of fury1 and reproves the senses as full of deception1 asserting that ,we nothing accurate1 or see1 or hear3 and if it says this1 looking to its internal reasons1 none of which it knows through the body1 or through corporeal cognitions1 it is evident that1 according to this energy1 it removes itself far from the senses1 contrary to the decision of which it becomes separated from those sorrows and delights4 ,after this1 let us direct our attention to another and a better motion of our rational soul1 when1 during the tranquillity of the inferior parts1 by a self-convertive energy1 it sees its own essence1 the powers which it contains1 the harmonic reasons from which it consists1 and the many lives of which it is the middle boundary1 and thus finds itself to be a rational world1 the image of the prior natures1 from which it proceeds1 but the paradigm of such as are posterior to itself4 ,to this energy of the soul1 theoretic arithmetic and geometry greatly contribute1 for these remove it from the senses1 purify the intellect from the irrational forms of life with which it is surrounded1 and lead it to the incorporeal perception of ideas4 ,for if these sciences receive the soul replete with images1 and knowing nothing subtile and unattended with material garrulity2 and if they elucidate reasons possessing an irrefragable necessity of demonstration1 and forms full of all certainty and immateriality1 and which by no means call to their aid the inaccuracy of sensibles1 do they not evidently purify our intellectual life from things which fill us with a privation of intellect1 and which impede our perception of true being8 ,after both these operations of the rational soul1 let us now survey her highest intelligence1 through which she sees her sister souls in the universe1 who are allotted a residence in the heavens1 and in the whole of a visible nature1 according to the will of the fabricator of the world4 ,but above all souls1 she sees intellectual essences and orders4 ,for a deiform intellect resides above every soul1 and which also imparts to the soul an intellectual habit4 ,prior to these1 however1 she sees those divine monads1 from which all intellectual multitudes receive their unions4 ,for above all things united1 there must necessarily be unific causes2 above things vivified1 vivifying causes2 above intellectual natures1 those that impart intellect2 and above all participants1 imparticipable natures4 ,from all these elevating modes of intelligence1 it must be obvious to such as are not perfectly blind1 how the soul1 leaving sense and body behind1 surveys through the projecting energies of intellect those beings that are entirely exempt from all connection with a corporeal nature4 ,the rational and intellectual soul therefore1 in whatever manner it may be moved according to nature1 is beyond body and sense4 ,and hence it must necessarily have an essence separate from both4 ,but from this again1 it becomes manifest1 that when it energizes according to its nature1 it is superior to ,fate1 and beyond the reach of its attractive power2 but that1 when falling into sense and things irrational and corporalized1 it follows downward natures and lives1 with them as with inebriated neighbors1 then together with them it becomes subject to the dominion of ,fate4 ,for again1 it is necessary that there should be an order of beings of such a kind1 as to subsist according to essence above ,fate1 but to be sometimes ranked under it according to habitude4 ,for if there are beings1 and such are all intellectual natures which are eternally established above the laws of ,fate1 and also which1 according to the whole of their life1 are distributed under the periods of ,fate1 it is necessary that the medium between these should be that nature which is sometimes above1 and sometimes under the dominion of ,fate4 ,for the procession of incorporeal natures is much more without a vacuum than that of bodies4 ,the free will therefore of man1 according to ,plato1 is a rational elective1 power1 desiderative of true and apparent good1 and leading the soul to both1 through which it ascends and descends1 errs and acts with rectitude4 ,and hence the elective will be the same with that which characterizes our essence4 ,according to this power1 we differ from divine and mortal natures3 for each of these is void of that two-fold inclination2 the one on account of its excellence being alone established in true good2 but the other in apparent good1 on account of its defect4 ,intellect too characterizes the one1 but sense the other2 and the former1 as ,plotinus says1 is our king1 but the latter our messenger4 ,we therefore are established in the elective power as a medium2 and having the ability of tending both to true and apparent good1 when we tend to the former we follow the guidance of intellect1 when to the latter1 that of sense4 ,the power therefore which is in us is not capable of all things4 ,for the power which is omnipotent is characterized by unity2 and on this account is all-powerful1 because it is one1 and possesses the form of good4 ,but the elective power is two-fold1 and on this account is not able to effect all things2 because1 by it's inclinations to true and apparent good1 it falls short of that nature which is prior to all things4 ,it would however be all-powerful1 if it had not an elective impulse1 and was will alone4 ,for a life subsisting according to will alone subsists according to good1 because the will naturally tends to good1 and such a life makes that which is characteristic in us most powerful and deiform4 ,and hence through this the soul1 according to ,plato1 becomes divine1 and in another life1 in conjunction with deity1 governs the world4 ,and thus much of the outlines of the leading dogmas of the philosophy of ,plato4 ,in the beginning of this ,introduction1 ,i observed that1 in drawing these outlines ,i should conduct the reader through novel and solitary paths1 solitary indeed they must be1 since they have been unfrequented from the reign of the emperor ,justinian to the present time2 and novel they will doubtless appear to readers of every description1 and particularly to those who have been nursed as it were in the bosom of matter1 the pupils of experiment1 the darlings of sense1 and the legitimate descendants of the earth-born race that warred on the ,olympian gods4 ,to such as these1 who have gazed on the dark and deformed face of their nurse1 till they are incapable of beholding the light of truth1 and who are become so drowsy from drinking immoderately of the cup of oblivion1 that their whole life is nothing more than a transmigration from sleep to sleep1 and from dream to dream1 like men passing from one bed to another1--to such as these1 the road through which we have been traveling will appear to be a delusive passage1 and the objects which we have surveyed to be nothing more than fantastic visions1 seen only by the eye of imagination1 and when seen1 idle and vain as the dreams of a shadow4 ,the following arguments1 however1 may perhaps awaken some few of these who are less lethargic than the rest1 from the sleep of sense1 and enable them to elevate their mental eye from the dark mire in which they are plunged1 and gain a glimpse of this most weighty truth1 that there is another world1 of which this is nothing more than a most obscure resemblance1 and another life1 of which this is but the flying mockery4 ,my present discourse therefore is addressed to those who consider experiment as the only solid criterion of truth4 ,in the first place then1 these men appear to be ignorant of the invariable laws of demonstration properly so called1 and that the necessary requisites of all demonstrative propositions are these3 that they exist as causes1 are primary1 more excellent1 peculiar1 true1 and known than the conclusions4 ,for every demonstration not only consists of principles prior to others1 but of such as are eminently first2 since if the assumed propositions may be demonstrated by other assumptions1 such propositions may indeed appear prior to the conclusions1 but are by no means entitled to the appellation of first4 ,others1 on the contrary1 which require no demonstration1 but are of themselves manifest1 are deservedly esteemed the first1 the truest1 and the best4 ,such indemonstrable truths were called by the ancients axioms from their majesty and authority1 as the assumptions which constitute demonstrative syllogisms derive all their force and efficacy from these4 ,in the next place1 they seem not to be sufficiently aware1 that universal is better than partial demonstration4 ,for that demonstration is the more excellent which is derived from the better cause2 but a universal is more extended and excellent than a partial cause2 since the arduous investigation of the why in any subject is only stopped by the arrival at universals4 ,thus if we desire to know why the outward angles of a triangle are equal to four right angles1 and it is answered1 ,because the triangle is isosceles2 we again ask1 but why ,because isosceles8 ,and if it be replied1 ,because it is a triangle2 we may again inquire1 ,but why because a triangle8 ,to which we finally answer1 because a triangle is a right-lined figure4 ,and here our inquiry rests at that universal idea1 which embraces every preceding particular one1 and is contained in no other more general and comprehensive than itself4 ,add too1 that the demonstration of particulars is almost the demonstration of infinites2 of universals the demonstration of finites2 and of infinites there can be no science4 ,that demonstration likewise is the best which furnishes the mind with the most ample knowledge2 and this is1 alone1 the province of universals4 ,we may also add1 that he who knows universals knows particulars likewise in capacity2 but we can not infer that he who has the best knowledge of particulars1 knows any thing of universals4 ,and lastly1 that which is universal is the object of intellect and reason2 but particulars are coordinated to the perceptions of sense4 ,but here perhaps the experimentalist will say1 admitting all this to be true1 yet we no otherwise obtain a perception of these universals than by an induction of particulars1 and abstraction from sensibles4 ,to this1 ,i answer that the universal which is the proper object of science1 is not by any means the offspring of abstraction2 and induction is no otherwise subservient to its existence than an exciting cause4 ,for if scientific conclusions are indubitable1 if the truth of demonstration is necessary and eternal1 this universal is truly all1 and not like that gained by abstraction1 limited to a certain number of particulars4 ,thus1 the proposition that the angles of every triangle are equal to two right1 if it is indubitably true1 that is1 if the term every in it really includes all triangles1 cannot be the result of any abstraction2 for this1 however extended it may be1 is limited1 and falls far short of universal comprehension4 ,whence is it then that the dianoetic power concludes thus confidently that the ,proposition is true of all triangles8 ,for if it be said that the mind1 after having abstracted triangle from a certain number of particulars1 adds from itself what is wanting to complete the all2 in the first place1 no man1 ,i believe1 will say that any such operation as this took place in his mind when he first learnt this proposition2 and in the next place1 if this should be granted1 it would follow that such proposition is a mere fiction1 since it is uncertain whether that which is added to complete the all is truly added2 and thus the conclusion will no longer be indubitably necessary4 ,in short1 if the words all and every1 with which every page of theoretic mathematics is full1 mean what they are conceived by all men to mean1 and if the universals which they signify are the proper objects of science1 such universals must subsist in the soul prior to the energies of sense4 ,hence it will follow that induction is no otherwise subservient to science1 than as it produces credibility in axioms and petitions2 and this by exciting the universal conception of these latent in the soul4 ,the particulars1 therefore1 of which an induction is made in order to produce science1 must be so simple1 that they may be immediately apprehended1 and that the universal may be predicated of them without hesitation4 ,the particulars of the experimentalists are not of this kind1 and therefore never can be sources of science truly so called4 ,of this1 however1 the man of experiment appears to be totally ignorant1 and in consequence of this1 he is likewise ignorant that parts can only be truly known through wholes1 and that this is particularly the case with parts when they belong to a whole1 which1 as we have already observed1 from comprehending in itself the parts which it produces1 is called a whole prior to parts4 ,as he1 therefore1 would by no means merit the appellation of a physician who should attempt to cure any part of the human body1 without a previous knowledge of the whole2 so neither can he know any thing truly of the vegetable life of plants1 who has not a previous knowledge of that vegetable life which subsists in the earth as a whole prior to1 because the principle and cause of all partial vegetable life1 and who still prior to this has not a knowledge of that greater whole of this kind which subsists in nature herself2 nor1 as ,hippocrates justly observes1 can he know any thing truly of the nature of the human body who is ignorant what nature is considered as a great comprehending whole4 ,and if this be true1 and it is so most indubitably1 with all physiological inquiries1 how much more must it be the case with respect to a knowledge of those incorporeal forms to which we ascended in the first part of this ,introduction1 and which in consequence of proceeding from wholes entirely exempt from body are participated by it1 with much greater obscurity and imperfection8 ,here then is the great difference1 and a mighty one it is1 between the knowledge gained by the most elaborate experiments1 and that acquired by scientific reasoning1 founded on the spontaneous1 unperverted1 and self-luminous conceptions of the soul4 ,the former does not even lead its votary up to that one nature of the earth from which the natures of all the animals and plants on its surface1 and of all the minerals and metals in its interior parts1 blossom as from a perennial root4 ,the latter conducts its votary through all the several mundane wholes up to that great whole the world itself1 and thence leads him through the luminous order of incorporeal wholes to that vast whole of wholes1 in which all other wholes are centred and rooted1 and which is no other than the principle of all principles1 and the fountain of deity itself4 ,no less remarkable likewise1 is the difference between the tendencies of the two pursuits1 for the one elevates the soul to the most luminous heights1 and to that great ineffable which is beyond all altitude2 but the other is the cause of a mighty calamity to the soul1 since1 according to the elegant expression of ,plutarch1 it extinguishes her principal and brightest eye1 the knowledge of divinity4 ,in short1 the one leads to all that is grand1 sublime and splendid in the universe2 the other to all that is little1 groveling#ad and dark4 ,the one is the parent of the most pure and ardent piety2 the genuine progeny of the other are impiety and atheism4 ,and1 in fine1 the one confers on its votary the most sincere1 permanent1 and exalted delight2 the other continual disappointment1 and unceasing molestation4 ----------------- #ad ,that this must be the tendency of experiment1 when prosecuted as the criterion of truth1 is evident from what ,bacon1 the prince of modern philosophy1 says in the #ajdth ,aphorism of his ,novum ,organum1 that baseless fabric of a vision4 ,for he there sagely observes that wings are not to be added to the human intellect1 but rather lead and weights2 that all its leaps and flights may be restrained4 ,that this is not yet done1 but that when it is we may entertain better hopes respecting the sciences4 ,itaque hominum intellectui non plumae addendae1 sed plumbum potius1 et pondera2 ut cohibeant omnem saltum et volatum4 ,atque hoc adhuc factum non est2 quum vero factum fuerit1 melius de scientiis sperare licebit4 ,a considerable portion of lead must certainly have been added to the intellect of ,bacon when he wrote this ,aphorism4 ----------------- ,if such then are the consequences1 such the tendencies of experimental inquiries1 when prosecuted as the criterion of truth1 and daily experience#ae unhappily shows that they are1 there can be no other remedy for this enormous evil than the intellectual philosophy of ,plato4 ,so obviously excellent indeed is the tendency of this philosophy1 that its author1 for a period of more than two thousand years1 has been universally celebrated by the epithet of divine4 ,such too is its preeminence1 that it may be shown1 without much difficulty1 that the greatest men of antiquity1 from the time in which its salutary light first blessed the human race1 have been more or less imbued with its sacred principles1 have been more or less the votaries of its divine truths4 ,thus1 to mention a few from among a countless multitude4 ,in the catalogue of those endued with sovereign power1 it had for its votaries ,dion of ,siracusian1 ,julian the ,roman1 and ,chosroes the ,persian1 emperor2 among the leaders of armies1 it had ,chabrias and ,phocion1 those brave generals of the ,athenians2 among mathematicians1 those leading stars of science1 ,eudoxus1 ,archimedes#af and ,euclid2 among biographers1 the inimitable ,plutarch2 among physicians1 the admirable ,galen2 among rhetoricians1 those unrivaled orators ,demosthenes and ,cicero2 among critics1 that prince of philologists1 ,longinus2 and among poets1 the most learned and majestic ,virgil4 ,instances1 though not equally illustrious1 yet approximating to these in splendour1 may doubtless be adduced after the fall of the ,roman empire2 but then they have been formed on these great ancients as models1 and are1 consequently1 only rivulets from ,platonic streams4 ,and instances of excellence in philosophic attainments1 similar to those among the ,greeks1 might have been enumerated among the moderns1 if the hand of barbaric despotism had not compelled philosophy to retire into the deepest solitude1 by demolishing her schools1 and involving the human intellect in ,cimmerian darkness4 ,in our own country1 however1 though no one appears to have wholly devoted himself to the study of this philosophy1 and he who does not will never penetrate its depths1 yet we have a few bright examples of no common proficiency in its more accessible parts4 ----------------- #ae ,i never yet knew a man who made experiment the test of truth1 and ,i have known many such1 that was not atheistically inclined4 #af ,i have ranked ,archimedes among the ,platonists1 because he cultivated the mathematical sciences ,platonically1 as is evident from the testimony of ,plutarch in his ,life of ,marcellus1 p4 #cjg4 ,for he there informs us that ,archimedes considered the being busied about mechanics1 and in short1 every art which is connected with the common purposes of life1 as ignoble and illiberal2 and that those things alone were objects of his ambition with which the beautiful and the excellent were present1 unmingled with the necessary4 ,the great accuracy and elegance in the demonstrations of ,euclid and ,archimedes1 which have not been equaled by any of our greatest modern mathematicians1 were derived from a deep conviction of this important truth4 ,on the other hand modern mathematicians1 through a profound ignorance of this divine truth1 and looking to nothing but the wants and conveniences of the animal life of man1 as if the gratification of his senses was his only end1 have corrupted pure geometry1 by mingling with it algebraical calculations1 and through eagerness to reduce it as much as possible to practical purposes1 have more anxiously sought after conciseness than accuracy1 facility than elegance of geometrical demonstration4 ----------------- ,the instances ,i allude to are ,shaftesbury1 ,akenside1 ,harris1 ,petwin1 and ,sydenham4 ,so splendid is the specimen of philosophic abilities displayed by these writers1 like the fair dawning of same unclouded morning1 that we have only deeply to regret that the sun of their genius sat before we were gladdened with its effulgence4 ,had it shone with its full strength1 the writer of this ,introduction would not have attempted either to translate the works1 or elucidate the doctrines of ,plato2 but though it rose with vigor1 it dispersed not the clouds in which its light was gradually involved1 and the eye in vain anxiously waited for it's meridian beam4 ,in short1 the principles of the philosophy of ,plato are of all others the most friendly to true piety1 pure morality1 solid learning1 and sound government4 ,for as it is scientific in all its parts1 and in these parts comprehends all that can be known by man in theology and ethics1 and all that is necessary for him to know in physics1 it must consequently contain in itself the source of all that is great and good both to individuals and communities1 must necessarily exalt while it benefits1 and deify while it exalts4 ,we have said that this philosophy at first shone forth through ,plato with an occult and venerable splendor2 and it is owing to the hidden manner in which it is delivered by him1 that its depth was not fathomed till many ages after it's promulgation1 and when fathomed1 was treated by superficial readers with ridicule and contempt4 ,plato indeed1 is not singular in delivering his philosophy occultly3 for this was the custom of all the great ancients2 a custom not originating from a wish to become tyrants in knowledge1 and keep the multitude in ignorance1 but from a profound conviction that the sublimest truths are profaned when clearly unfolded to the vulgar4 ,this indeed must necessarily follow2 since1 as ,socrates in ,plato justly observes1 it is not lawful for the pure to be touched by the impure2 and the multitude are neither purified from the defilements of vice1 nor the darkness of twofold ignorance4 ,hence1 while they are thus doubly impure1 it is as impossible for them to perceive the splendors of truth1 as for an eye buried in mire to survey the light of day4 ,the depth of this philosophy then does not appear to have been perfectly penetrated except by the immediate disciples of ,plato1 for more than five hundred years after its first propagation4 ,for though ,crantor1 ,atticus1 ,albinus1 ,galen and ,plutarch1 were men of great genius1 and made no common proficiency in ,philosophic attainments1 yet they appear not to have developed the profundity of ,plato's conceptions2 they withdrew not the veil which covers his secret meaning1 like the curtains which guarded the adytum of temples from the profane eye2 and they saw not that all behind the veil is luminous1 and that there divine spectacles#ag every where present themselves to the view4 ,this task was reserved for men who were born indeed in a baser age1 but1 who being allotted a nature similar to their leader1 were the true interpreters of his mystic speculations4 ,the most conspicuous of these are the great ,plotinus1 the most learned ,porphyry1 the divine ,jamblichus1 the most acute ,syrianus1 ,proclus the consummation of philosophic excellence1 the magnificent ,hierocles1 the concisely elegant ,sallust1 and the most inquisitive ,damascius4 ,by these men1 who were truly links of the golden chain of deity1 all that is sublime1 all that is mystic in the doctrines of ,plato 7and they are replete with both these in a transcendent degree71 was freed from its obscurity and unfolded into the most pleasing and admirable light4 ,their labors1 however1 have been ungratefully received4 ,the beautiful light which they benevolently disclosed has hitherto unnoticed illumined philosophy in her desolate retreats1 like a lamp shining on some venerable statue amidst dark and solitary ruins4 ,the prediction of the master has been unhappily fulfilled in these his most excellent disciples4 ,for an attempt of this kind1 says he1#ah will only be beneficial to a few1 who from small vestiges1 previously demonstrated1 are themselves able to discover these abstruse particulars4 ,but with respect to the rest of mankind1 some it will fill with a contempt by no means elegant1 and others with a lofty and arrogant hope1 that they shall now learn certain excellent things4 ,thus with respect to these admirable men1 the last and the most legitimate of the followers of ,plato1 some from being entirely ignorant of the abstruse dogmas of ,plato1 and finding these interpreters full of conceptions which are by no means obvious to every one in the writings of that philosopher1 have immediately concluded that such conceptions are mere jargon and revery1 that they are not truly ,platonic1 and that they are nothing more than streams1 which1 though1 originally derived from a pure fountain1 have become polluted by distance from their source4 ,others1 who pay attention to nothing but the most exquisite purity of language1 look down with contempt upon every writer who lived after the fall of the ,macedonian empire2 as if dignity and weight of sentiment were inseparable from splendid and accurate diction2 or as if it were impossible for elegant writers to exist in a degenerate age4 ,so far is this from being the case1 that though the style of ,plotinus#ai and ,jamblichus#bj is by no means to be compared with that of ,plato1 yet this inferiority is lost in the depth and sublimity of their conceptions1 and is as little regarded by the intelligent reader1 as motes in a sunbeam by the eye that gladly turns itself to the solar light4 -------------- #ag ,see my ,dissertation on the ,mysteries4 #ah,see the #gth ,epistle of ,plato4 #ai ,it would seem that those intemperate critics who have thought proper to revile ,plotinus1 the leader of the latter ,platonists1 have paid no attention to the testimony of ,longinus concerning this most wonderful man1 as preserved by ,porphyry in his life of him4 ,for ,longinus there says1 that though he does not entirely accede to many of his hypotheses1 yet he exceedingly admires and loves the form of his writing1 the density of his conceptions1 and the philosophic manner in which his questions are disposed4 ,and in another place he says1 ,plotinus1 as it seems1 has explained the ,pythagoric and ,platonic principles more clearly than those that were prior to him2 for neither are the writings of ,numenius1 ,cronius1 ,moderatus1 and ,thrasyllus1 to be compared with those of ,plotinus on this subject4 ,after such a testimony as this from such a consummate critic as ,longinus1 the writings of ,plotinus have nothing to fear from the imbecile censure of modern critics4 ,i shall only further observe1 that ,longinus1 in the above testimony1 does not give the least hint of his having found any polluted streams1 or corruption of the doctrines of ,plato1 in the works of ,plotinus4 ,there is not indeed the least vestige of his entertaining any such opinion in any part of what he has said about this most extraordinary man4 ,this discovery was reserved for the more acute critic of modern times1 who1 by a happiness of conjecture unknown to the ancients1 and the assistance of a good index1 can in a few days penetrate the meaning of the profoundest writer of antiquity1 and bid defiance even to the decision of ,longinus4 #bj ,of this most divine man1 who is justly said by the emperor ,julian to have been posterior indeed in time1 but not in genius even to ,plato himself1 see the life which ,i have given in the ,history of the ,restoration of the ,platonic ,theology1 in the second vol4 of my ,proclus on ,euclid4 ---------------------- ,as to the style of ,porphyry1 when we consider that he was the disciple of ,longinus1 whom ,eunapius elegantly calls a certain living library1 and walking museum1 it is but reasonable to suppose that he imbibed some portion of his master's excellence in writing4 ,that he did so is abundantly evident from the testimony of ,eunapius1 who particularly commends his style for its clearness1 purity1 and grace4 ,hence1 he says1 ,porphyry being let down to men like a mercurial chain1 through his various erudition1 unfolded every thing into perspicuity1 and purity4 ,and in another place he speaks of him as abounding with all the graces of diction1 and as the only one that exhibited and proclaimed the praise of his master4 ,with respect to the style of ,proclus1 it is pure1 clear and elegant1 like that of ,dionysius ,halicarnassus2 but is much more copious and magnificent2 that of ,hierocles is venerable and majestic1 and nearly equals the style of the greatest ancients2 that of ,sallust possesses an accuracy and a pregnant brevity1 which cannot easily be distinguished from the composition of the ,stagirite2 and lastly1 that of ,damascius is clear and accurate1 and highly worthy a most investigating mind4 ,others again have filled themselves with a vain confidence1 from reading of commentaries of these admirable interpreters1 and have in a short time considered themselves superior to their masters4 ,this was the case with ,ficinus1 ,picus1 ,dr4 ,henry ,moore1 and other pseudo ,platonists1 their contemporaries1 who1 in order to combine ,christianity with the doctrines of ,plato1 rejected some of his most important tenets1 and perverted others1 and thus corrupted one of these systems1 and afforded no real benefit to the other4 ,but who are the men by whom these latter interpreters of ,plato are reviled8 ,when and whence did this defamation originate8 ,was it when the fierce champions for the trinity fled from ,galilee to the groves of ,academus1 and invoked1 but in vain1 the assistance of ,philosophy8 ,when ,the trembling grove confessed its fright1 ,the wood-nymphs started at the sight2 ,ilissus backward urg'd his course1 ,and rush'd indignant to his source4 ,was it because that mitred sophist1 ,warburton1 thought fit to talk of the polluted streams of the ,alexandrian school1 without knowing any thing of the source whence those streams are derived8 ,or was it because some heavy ,german critic1 who knew nothing beyond a verb in mi1 presumed to grunt at these venerable heroes8 ,whatever was its source1 and whenever it originated1 for ,i have not been able to discover either1 this however is certain1 that it owes its being to the most profound ,ignorance1 or the most artful ,sophistry1 and that its origin is no less contemptible than obscure4 ,for let us but for a moment consider the advantages which these latter ,platonists possessed beyond any of their modern revilers4 ,in the first place1 they had the felicity of having the ,greek for their native language1 and must therefore1 as they were confessedly1 learned men1 have understood that language incomparably better than any man since the time in which the ancient ,greek was a living tongue4 ,in the next place1 they had books to consult1 written by the immediate disciples of ,plato1 which have been lost for upwards of a thousand years1 besides many ,pythagoric writings from which ,plato himself derived most of his more sublime dogmas4 ,hence we find the works of ,parmenides1 ,empedocles1 the ,electic ,zeno1 ,speusippus1 ,xenocrates1 and many other illustrious philosophers of the highest antiquity1 who were either genuine ,platonists or the sources of ,platonism1 are continually cited by these most excellent interpreters1 and in the third place they united the greatest purity of life to the most piercing vigor of intellect4 ,now when it is considered that the philosophy to the study of which these great men devoted their lives1 was professedly delivered by its author in obscurity2 that ,aristotle himself studied it for twenty years2 and that it was no uncommon thing1 as ,plato informs us in one of his ,epistles1 to find students unable to comprehend its sublimest tenets even in a longer period than this1--when all these circumstances are considered1 what must we think of the arrogance1 not to say impudence1 of men in the seventeenth1 eighteenth1 and nineteenth centuries1 who have dared to calumniate these great masters of wisdom8 ,of men1 with whom the ,greek is no native language2 who have no such books to consult as those had whom they revile2 who have never thought1 even in a dream1 of making the acquisition of wisdom the great object of their life2 and who in short have committed that most baneful error of mistaking philology for philosophy1 and words for things8 ,when such as these dare to defame men who may be justly ranked among the greatest and wisest of the ancients1 what else can be said than that they are the legitimate descendants of the suitors of ,penelope1 whom1 in the animated language of ,ulysses1 ,laws or divine or human fail'd to move1 ,or shame of men1 or dread of gods above3 ,heedless alike of infamy or praise1 ,or ,fame's eternal voice in future days1#ba ----------------- #ba ,pope's ,odyssey1 book xxii1 v4 #dg1 c4 ----------------- ,but it is now time to present the reader with a general view of the works of ,plato1 and1 also to speak of the preambles1 digressions1 and style of their author1 and of the following translation4 ,in accomplishing the first of these1 ,i shall avail myself of the synopsis of ,mr4 ,sydenham1 taking the liberty at the same time of correcting it where it appears to be erroneous1 and of making additions to it where it appears to be deficient4 ,the dialogues of ,plato are of various kinds2 not only with regard to those different matters1 which are the subjects of them2 but in respect of the manner also in which they are composed or framed1 and of the form under which they make their appearance to the reader4 ,it will therefore1 as ,i imagine1 be not improper1 in pursuance of the admonition given us by ,plato himself in his dialogue named ,phaedrus#bb and in imitation of the example set us by the ancient ,platonists to distinguish the several kinds2 by dividing them1 first1 into the most general2 and then1 subdividing into the subordinate2 till we come to those lower species1 that particularly and precisely denote the nature of the several dialogues1 and from which they ought to take their respective denominations4 ---------------- #bb ,whoever is unable to divide and distinguish things into their several sorts or species2 and1 on the other hand1 referring every particular to its proper species1 to comprehend them all in one general idea2 will never understand any writings of which those things are the subject1 like a true critic1 upon those high principles of art to which the human understanding reaches4 ,we have thought proper1 here1 to paraphrase this passage1 for the sake of giving to every part of so important a sentence its full force1 agreeably to the tenor of ,plato's doctrine2 and in order to initiate our readers into a way of thinking1 that probably many of them are as yet unacquainted with4 ---------------- ,the most general division of the writings of ,plato1 is into those of the ,sceptical kind1 and those of they ,dogmatical4 ,in the former sort1 nothing is expressly either proved or asserted1 some philosophical question only is considered and examined2 and the reader is left to himself to draw such conclusions1 and discover such truths as the philosopher means to insinuate4 ,this is done1 either in the way of inquiry1 or in the way of controversy and dispute4 ,in the way of controversy are carried on all such dialogues1 as tend to eradicate false opinions2 and that1 either indirectly1 by involving them in difficulties1 and embarrassing the maintainers of them2 or directly1 by confuting them4 ,in the way of inquiry proceed those whose tendency is to raise in the mind right opinions2 and that either by exciting to the pursuit of some part of wisdom1 and showing in what manner to investigate it2 or by leading the way1 and helping the mind forward in the search4 ,and this is effected by a process through opposing arguments4#bc ------------------ #bc ,it is necessary to observe that ,plato in the ,parmenides calls all that part of his ,dialectic1 which proceeds through opposite arguments1 an exercise and wandering4 ------------------ ,the dialogues of the other kind1 the ,dogmatical or ,didactic1 teach explicitly some point of doctrine2 and this they do either by laying it down in the authoritative way1 or by proving it in the ways of reason and argument4 ,in the authoritative way the doctrine is delivered1 sometimes by the speaker himself magisterially1 at other times as derived to him by tradition from wise men4 ,the argumentative or demonstrative method of teaching1 used by ,plato1 proceeds in all the dialectic ways1 dividing1 defining1 demonstrating1 and analysing2 and the object of it consists in exploring truth alone4 ,according to this division is framed the following scheme1 or table3 ,,dialogues#bd ,sceptical ,disputative ,embarrassing ,confuting ,inquisitive ,exciting ,assisting ,dogmatical ,demonstrative ,analytical ,inductional ,authoritative ,magisterial ,traditional ----------------- #bd,we have1 given us by ,diogenes ,laertius1 another division of the characters1 as he calls them1 of ,plato's writings1 different from that exhibited in the scheme above4 ,this we have thought proper to subjoin1 on account of its antiquity and general reception4 ,dialogues ,diadectic ,speculative ,physical ,logical ,practical ,ethical ,political ,inquisitive ,gymnastic ,maieutic ,peirastic ,agonistic ,endeietic ,anatreptic ,the learned reader will observe the latter half of the dialogues1 according to this scheme1 to be described by metaphors taken from the gymnastic art3 the dialogues1 here termed gymnastic1 being imagined to bear a similitude to that exercise2 the agonistic1 to the combat4 ,in the lowest subdivision1 indeed1 the word maieutic is a metaphor of another kind1 fully explained in ,plato's ,theaetetus3 the maieutic dialogues1 however1 were supposed to resemble giving the rudiments of the art2 as the peirastic were1 to represent a skirmish1 or trial of proficiency2 the endeietic were1 it seems1 likened to the exhibiting a specimen of skill2 and the anatreptic1 to presenting the spectacle of a thorough defeat1 or sound drubbing4 ,the principal reason why we contented not ourselves with this account of the difference between the dialogues of ,plato1 was the capital error there committed in the first subdivision1 of course extending itself through the latter4 ,this error consists in dividing the ,didactic dialogues with regard to their subject-matter2 while those of the ,inquisitive sort are divided with respect to the manner of their composition4 ,so that the subdivisions fall not1 with any propriety1 under one and the same general head4 ,besides1 a novice in the works of ,plato might hence be led naturally to suppose1 that the dogmatical or didactic dialogues are1 all of them1 written in the same manner2 and that the others1 those of the inquisitive kind1 by us termed sceptical1 have no particular subjects at all2 or1 if they have1 that their subjects are different from those of the didactic dialogues1 and are consequently unphilosophical4 ,now every one of the suppositions here mentioned is far from being true4 ---------------- ,the philosopher1 in thus varying his manner1 and diversifying his writings into these several kinds1 means not merely to entertain with their variety2 not to teach1 on different occasions1 with more or less plainness and perspicuity2 not yet to insinuate different degrees of certainty in the doctrines themselves3 but he takes this method1 as a consummate master of the art of composition in the dialogue-way of writing1 from the different characters of the speakers1 as from different elements in the frame of these dramatic dialogues1 or different ingredients in their mixture1 producing some peculiar genius and turn of temper1 as it were1 in each4 ,socrates indeed is in almost all of them the principal speaker3 but when he falls into the company of some arrogant sophist2 when the modest wisdom1 and clear science of the one1 are contrasted with the confident ignorance and blind opinionativeness of the other2 dispute and controversy must of course arise3 where the false pretender cannot fail of being either puzzled or confuted4 ,to puzzle him only is sufficient1 if there be no other persons present2 because such a man can never be confuted in his own opinion3 but when there is an audience round them1 in danger of being misled by sophistry into error1 then is the true philosopher to exert his utmost1 and the vain sophist to be convicted and exposed4 ,in some dialogues ,plato represents his great master mixing in conversation with young men of the best families in the commonwealth4 ,when these happen to have docile dispositions and fair minds1 then is occasion given to the philosopher to call forth#be the latent seeds of wisdom1 and to cultivate the noble plants with true doctrine1 in the affable and familiar way of joint inquiry4 ,to this is owing the inquisitive genius of such dialogues3 where1 by a seeming equality in the conversation1 the curiosity or zeal of the mere stranger is excited2 that of the disciple is encouraged2 and1 by proper questions1 the mind is aided and forwarded in the search of truth4 ----------------- #be ,we require exhortation1 that we may be led to true good2 dissuasion1 that we may be turned from things truly evil2 obstetrication1 that we may draw forth our unperverted conceptions2 and confutation1 that we may be purified from two-fold ignorance4 ----------------- ,at other times1 the philosophic hero of these dialogues is introduced in a higher character1 engaged in discourse with men of more improved understandings and enlightened minds4 ,at such seasons he has an opportunity of teaching in a more explicit manner1 and of discovering the reasons of things3 for to such an audience truth is due1 and all demonstrations#bf possible in the teaching it4 ,hence1 in the dialogues composed of these persons1 naturally arises the justly argumentative or demonstrative genius2 and this1 as we have before observed1 according to all the dialectic methods4 ----------------- #bf ,the ,platonists rightly observe1 that ,socrates1 in these cases1 makes use of demonstrative and just reasoning1 7,greek3 apodeiktikou72 whereas to the novice he is contented with arguments only probable1 7,greek3 pithanois72 and against the litigious sophist often employs such as are ,greek3 eristikoi2 puzzling and contentious4 ----------------- ,but when the doctrine to be taught admits not of demonstration2 of which kind is the doctrine of antiquities1 being only traditional1 and a matter of belief2 and the doctrine of laws1 being injunctional1 and the matter of obedience2 the air of authority is then assumed3 in the former cases1 the doctrine is traditionally handed down to others from the authority of ancient sages2 in the latter1 is magisterially pronounced with the authority of a legislator4#bg ----------------- #bg ,it is necessary to observe1 that in those dialogues in which ,socrates is indeed introduced1 but sustains an inferior part1 he is presented to our view as a learner1 and not as a teacher2 and this is the case in the ,parmenides and ,timaeus4 ,for by the former of these philosophers he is instructed in the most abtruse theological dogmas1 and by the latter in the whole of physiology4 ----------------- ,thus much for the manner in which the dialogues of ,plato are severally composed1 and the cast of genius given them in their composition4 ,the form under which they appear1 or the external character that marks them1 is of three sorts3 either purely dramatic1 like the dialogue of tragedy or comedy2 or purely narrative1 where a former conversation is supposed to be committed to writing1 and communicated to some absent friend2 or of the mixed kind1 like a narration in dramatic poems1 where is recited1 to some person present1 the story of things past4 ,having thus divided the dialogues of ,plato1 in respect of that inward form or composition1 which creates their genius2 and again1 with reference to that outward form1 which marks them1 like flowers and other vegetables1 with a certain character2 we are further to make a division of them1 with regard to their subject and their design2 beginning with their design1 or end1 because for the sake of this are all the subjects chosen4 ,the end of all the writings of ,plato is that1 which is the end of all true philosophy or wisdom1 the perfection and the happiness of man4 ,man therefore is the general subject2 and the first business of philosophy must be to inquire what is that being called man1 who is to be made happy2 and what is his nature1 in the perfection of which is placed his happiness4 ,as however1 in the preceding part of this ,introduction1 we have endeavored to give the outlines of ,plato's doctrine concerning man1 it is unnecessary in this place to say any thing further on that subject4 ,the dialogues of ,plato1 therefore1 with respect to their subjects1 may be divided into the speculative1 the practical1 and such as are of a mixed nature4 ,the subjects of these last are either general1 comprehending both the others2 or differential1 distinguishing them4 ,the general subject are either fundamental1 or final3 those of the fundamental kind are philosophy1 human nature1 the soul of man2 of the final kind are love1 beauty1 good4 ,the differential regard knowledge1 as it stands related to practice2 in which are considered two questions3 one of which is1 whether virtue is to he taught2 the other is1 whether error in the will depends on error in the judgment4 ,the subjects of the speculative dialogues relate either to words1 or to things4 ,of the former sort are etymology1 sophistry1 rhetoric1 poetry2 of the latter sort are science1 true being1 the principles of mind1 outward nature4 ,the practical subjects relate either to private conduct1 and the government of the mind over the whole man2 or to his duty towards others in his several relations2 or to the government of a civil state1 and the public conduct of a whole people4 ,under these three heads rank in order the particular subjects practical2 virtue in general1 sanctity1 temperance1 fortitude1 justice1 friendship1 patriotism1 piety2 the ruling mind in a civil government1 the frame and order of a state1 law in general1 and lastly1 those rules of government and of public conduct1 the civil laws4 ,thus1 for the sake of giving the reader a scientific1 that is a comprehensive1 and at the same time a distinct view of ,plato's writings1 we have attempted to exhibit to him1 their just and natural distinctions2 whether he chooses to consider them with regard to their inward form or essence1 their outward form or appearance1 their matter2 or their end3 that is1 in those more familiar terms1 we have used in this ,synopsis1 their genius1 their character1 their subject1 and their design4 ,and here it is requisite to observe1 that as it is the characteristic of the highest good to be universally beneficial1 though some things are benefitted by it more and others less1 in consequence of their greater or less aptitude to receive it2 in like manner the dialogues of ,plato are so largely stamped with the characters of sovereign good1 that they are calculated to benefit in a certain degree even those who are incapable of penetrating their profundity4 ,they can tame a savage sophist1 like ,thrasymachus in the ,republic2 humble the arrogance even of those who are ignorant of their ignorance2 make those to become proficients in political1 who will never arrive at theoretic virtue2 and1 in short1 like the illuminations of deity1 wherever there is any portion of aptitude in their recipients1 they purify1 irradiate1 and exalt4 ,after this general view of the dialogues of ,plato1 let us in the next place consider their preambles1 the digressions with which they abound1 and the character of the style in which they are written4 ,with respect to the first of these1 the preambles1 however superfluous they may at first sight appear1 they will be found on a closer inspection necessary to the design of the dialogues which they accompany4 ,thus the prefatory part of the ,timaeus unfolds1 in images agreeably to the ,pythagoric custom1 the theory of the world2 and the first part of the ,parmenides1 or the discussion of ideas1 is in fact merely a preamble to the second part1 or the speculation of the one2 to which however it is essentially preparatory4 ,hence1 as ,plutarch says1 when he speaks of ,plato's dialogue on the ,atlantic island3 ,these preambles are superb gates and magnificent courts with which he purposely embellishes his great edifices1 that nothing may be wanting to their beauty1 and that all may be equally splendid4 ,he acts1 as ,dacier well observes1 like a great prince1 who1 when he builds a sumptuous palace1 adorns 7in the language of ,pindar7 the vestibule with golden pillars4 ,for it is fit that what is first seen should be splendid and magnificent1 and should as it were perspicuously announce all that grandeur which afterwards presents itself to the view4 ,with respect to the frequent digressions in his dialogues1 these also1 when accurately examined1 will be found to be no less subservient to the leading design of the dialogues in which they are introduced2 at the same time that they afford a pleasing relaxation to the mind from the labor of severe investigation4 ,hence ,plato1 by the most happy and enchanting art1 contrives to lead the reader to the temple of ,truth through the delightful groves and valleys of the ,graces4 ,in short1 this circuitous course1 when attentively considered1 will be found to be the shortest road by which he could conduct the reader to the desired end3 for in accomplishing this it is necessary to regard not that road1 which is most straight in the nature of things1 or abstractedly considered1 but that which is most direct in the progressions of human understanding4 ,with respect to the style of ,plato1 though it forms in reality the most inconsiderable part of the merit of his writings1 style in all philosophical works being the last thing that should be attended to1 yet even in this ,plato may contend for the palm of excellence with the most renowned masters of diction4 ,hence we find that his style was the admiration of the finest writers of antiquity4 ,according to ,ammianus1 ,jupiter himself would not speak otherwise1 if he were to converse in the ,attic tongue4 ,aristotle considered his style as a medium between poetry and prose4 ,cicero no less praises him for the excellence of his diction than the profundity of his conceptions2 and ,longinus calls him with respect to his language1 the rival of ,homer4 ,hence he is considered by this prince of critics1 as deriving into himself abundant streams from the ,homeric fountain1 and is compared by him1 in his rivalship of ,homer1 to a new antagonist who enters the lists against one that is already the object of universal admiration4 ,notwithstanding this praise1 however1 ,plato has been accused1 as ,longinus informs us1 of being frequently hurried away as by a certain ,bacchic fury of words to immoderate and unpleasant metaphors1 and an allegoric magnificence of diction4 ,longinus excuses this by saying that whatever naturally excels in magnitude possesses very little of purity4 ,for that1 says he1 which is in every respect accurate is in danger of littleness4 ,he adds1 and may not this also be necessary1 that those of an abject and moderate genius1 because they never encounter danger1 nor aspire after the summit of excellence1 are for the most part without error and remain in security2 but that great things become insecure through their magnitude8 ,indeed it appears to me1 that whenever this exuberance1 this ,bacchic fury1 occurs in the diction of ,plato1 it is owing to the magnitude of the inspiring influence of deity with which he is then replete4 ,for that he sometimes wrote from divine inspiration is evident from his own confession in the ,phaedrus1 a great part of which is not so much like an orderly discourse as a dithyrambic poem4 ,such a style therefore1 as it is the progeny of divine mania1 which1 as ,plato justly observes1 is better than all human prudence1 spontaneously adapts itself to its producing cause1 imitates a supernatural power as far as this can be effected by words1 and thus necessarily becomes magnificent1 vehement1 and exuberant2 for such are the characteristics of its source4 ,all judges of composition however1 both ancient and modern1 are agreed that his style is in general graceful and pure2 and that it is sublime without being impetuous and rapid4 ,it is indeed no less harmonious than elevated1 no less accurate#bg than magnificent4 ,it combines the force of the greatest orators with the graces of the first of poets2 and in short2 is a river to which those justly celebrated lines of ,denham may be most pertinently applied3 ,tho' deep1 yet clear2 tho' gentle1 yet not dull2 ,strong without rage1 without o'erfowing full4 ----------------- #bg ,the reader will see1 from the notes on ,plato's dialogues1 and particularly from the notes on the ,parmenides and ,timaeus1 that the style of that philosopher possesses an accuracy which is not to be found in any modern writer2 an accuracy of such a wonderful nature1 that the words are exactly commensurate with the sense4 ,hence the reader who has happily penetrated his profundity finds1 with astonishment1 that another word could not have been added without being superfluous1 nor one word taken away without injuring the sense4 ,the same observation may also be applied to the style of ,aristotle4 ----------------- ,having thus considered the philosophy of ,plato1 given a general view of his writings1 and made some observations on his style1 it only now remains to speak of the following arrangement of his dialogues and translation of his works1 and then1 with a few appropriate observations1 to close this ,introduction4 ,as no accurate and scientific arrangement then of these dialogues has been transmitted to us from the ancients1 ,i was under the necessity of adopting an arrangement of my own1 which ,i trust is not unscientific1 however inferior it may be to that which was doubtless made1 though unfortunately lost1 by the latter interpreters of ,plato4 ,in my arrangement1 therefore1 ,i have imitated the order of the universe in which1 as ,i have already observed1 wholes precede parts1 and universals particulars4 ,hence ,i have placed those dialogues first which rank as wholes1 or have the relation of a system1 and afterwards those in which these systems are branch out into particulars4 ,thus1 after the ,first ,alcibiades1 which may be called1 and appears to have been generally considered by the ancients an introduction to the whole of ,plato's philosophy1 ,i have placed the ,republic and the ,laws1 which may be said to comprehend systematically the morals and politics of ,plato4 ,after these ,i have ranked the ,timaeus1 which contains the whole of his physiology1 and together with it the ,critias1 because of its connection with the ,timaeus4 ,the next in order is the ,parmenides1 which contains a system of his theology4 ,thus far this arrangement is conformable to the natural progress of the human mind in the acquisition of the sublimest knowledge2 the subsequent arrangement principally regards the order of things4 ,after the ,parmenides then1 the ,sophista1 ,phaedrus1 ,greater ,hippias1 and ,banquet1 follow1 which may be considered as so many lesser wholes subordinate to and comprehended in the ,parmenides1 which1 like the universe itself1 is a whole of wholes4 ,for in the ,sophista being itself is investigated1 in the ,banquet love itself1 and in the ,phaedrus beauty itself2 all which are intelligible forms1 and are consequently contained in the ,parmenides1 in which the whole extent of the intelligible is unfolded4 ,the ,greater ,hippias is classed with the ,phaedrus1 because in the latter the whole series of the beautiful is discussed1 and in the former that which subsists in soul4 ,after these follows the ,theaetetus1 in which science considered as subsisting in soul is investigated2 science itself1 according to its first subsistence1 having been previously celebrated by ,socrates in one part of the ,phaedrus4 ,the ,politicus and ,minos1 which follow next1 may be considered as ramifications from the ,laws2 and1 in short1 all the following dialogues either consider more particularly the dogmas which are systematically comprehended in those already enumerated1 or naturally flow from them as their original source4 ,as it did not however appear possible to arrange these dialogues which rank as parts in the same accurate order as those which we considered as whole1 it was thought better to class them either according to their agreement in one particular circumstance1 as the ,phaedo1 ,apology1 and ,crito1 all which relate to the death of ,socrates1 and as the ,meno and ,protagoras1 which relate to the question whether virtue can be taught2 or according to their agreement in character1 as the ,lesser ,hippias and ,euthydemus1 which are anatreptic1 and the ,theages1 ,laches1 and ,lysis1 which are maieutic dialogues4 ,the ,cratylus is ranked in the last place1 not so much because the subject of it is etymology1 as because a great part of it is deeply theological2 for by this arrangement1 after having ascended to all the divine orders and their ineffable principle in the ,parmenides1 and thence descended in a regular series to the human soul in the subsequent dialogues1 the reader is again led back to deity in this dialogue1 and thus imitates the order which all beings observe1 that of incessantly returning to the principles whence they flew4 ,after the dialogues#bh follow the ,epistles of ,plato1 which are in every respect worthy that prince of all true philosophers4 ,they are not only written with great elegance1 and occasionally with magnificence of diction1 but with all the becoming dignity of a mind conscious of its superior endowments1 and all the authority of a master in philosophy4 ,they are likewise replete with many admirable political observations1 and contain some of his most abstruse dogmas1 which though delivered enigmatically1 yet the manner in which they are delivered1 elucidates at the same time that it is elucidated by what is said of these dogmas in his more theological dialogues4 ----------------- #bh ,as ,i profess to give the reader a translation of the genuine works of ,plato only1 ,i have not translated the ,axiochus1 ,demodoeus1 ,sisyphus1 c4 as these are evidently spurious dialogues4 ----------------- ,with respect1 to the following translation1 it is necessary to observe1 in the first place1 than the numbers of legitimate dialogues of ,plato is fifty-five2 for though the ,republic forms but one treatise1 and the ,laws another1 yet the former consists of ten1 and the latter of twelve books1 and each of these books is a dialogue4 ,hence1 as there are thirty-three dialogues1 besides the ,laws and the ,republic1 fifty-five will1 as we have said1 be the amount of the whole4 ,of these fifty-five1 the nine following have been translated by ,mr4 ,sydenham2 viz4 the ,first and ,second ,alcibiades1 the ,greater and ,lesser ,hippias1 the ,banquet 7except the speech of ,alcibiades71 the ,philebus1 the ,meno1 the ,io1 and the ,rivals4#bi ,i have already observed1 and with deep regret1 that this excellent though unfortunate scholar died before he had made that proficiency in the philosophy of ,plato which might have been reasonably expected from so fair a beginning4 ,i personally knew him only in the decline of life1 when his mental powers were not only considerably impaired by age1 but greatly injured by calamity4 ,his life had been very stormy2 his circumstances1 for many years preceding his death1 were indigent2 his patrons were by no means liberal2 and his real friends were neither numerous nor affluent4 ,he began the study of ,plato1 as he himself informed me1 when he had considerably passed the meridian of life1 and with most unfortunate prejudices against his best disciples1 which ,i attempted to remove during my acquaintance with him1 and partly succeeded in the attempt2 but infirmity and death prevented its completion4 ,under such circumstances it was not to be expected that he would fathom the profundity of ,plato's conceptions1 and arrive at the summit of philosophic attainments4 ,i saw1 however1 that his talents and his natural disposition were such as might have ranked him among the best of ,plato's interpreters1 if he had not yielded to the pressure of calamity1 if he had not nourished such baneful prejudices1 and if he had not neglected philosophy in the early part of life4 ,had this happened1 my labors would have been considerably lessened1 or perhaps rendered entirely unnecessary1 and his name would have been transmitted to posterity with undecaying renown4 ,as this unfortunately did not happen1 ,i have been under the necessity of diligently examining and comparing with the original all those parts of the dialogues which he translated1 that are more deeply philosophical1 or that contain any thing of the theology of ,plato4 ,in these1 as might be expected1 ,i found him greatly deficient2 ,i found him sometimes mistaking the meaning through ignorance of ,plato's more sublime tenets1 and at other times perverting it1 in order to favor some opinions of his own4 ,his translation however of other parts which are not so abstruse is excellent4 ,in these he not only presents the reader faithfully with the matter1 but likewise with the genuine manner of ,plato4 ,the notes too which accompany the translation of these parts generally exhibit just criticism and extensive learning1 an elegant taste1 and a genius naturally philosophic4 ,of these notes ,i have preserved as much as was consistent with the limits and design of the following work4 ----------------- #bi ,in the notes on the above-mentioned nine dialogues1 those written by ,mr4 ,sydenham are signed ,s41 and those by myself ,t4 ----------------- ,of the translation of the ,republic by ,dr4 ,spens1 it is necessary to observe that a considerable part of it is very faithfully executed2 but that in the more abstruse parts it is inaccurate2 and that it every where abounds with ,scotticisms which offend an ,english ear1 and vulgarisms which are no less disgraceful to the translator than disgusting to the reader4 ,suffice it therefore to say of this version1 that ,i have adopted it wherever ,i found it could with propriety be adopted1 and given my own translation where it was otherwise4 ,of the ten dialogues translated by ,dacier1 ,i can say nothing with accuracy1 because ,i have no knowledge whatever of the ,french language2 but if any judgment may be formed of this work1 from a translation of it into ,english1 ,i will be bold to say that it is by no means literal1 and that he very frequently mistakes the sense of the original4 ,from this translation therefore ,i could derive but little assistance2 some however ,i have derived1 and that little ,i willingly acknowledge4 ,in translating the rest of ,plato's works1 and this1 as the reader may easily see1 form by far the greatest part of them1 ,i have had no assistance from any translation except that of ,ficinus1 the general excellency of which is well known to every student of ,plato1 arising not only from his possessing a knowledge of ,platonism superior to that of any translators that have followed him1 but likewise from his having made this translation from a very valuable manuscript in the ,medicean library1 which is now no longer to be found4 ,i have1 however1 availed myself of the learned labors of the editors of various dialogues of ,plato2 such as the edition of the ,rivals1 ,euthyphro1 ,apology1 ,crito1 and ,phaedo1 by ,forster2 of the ,first and ,second ,alcibiades and ,hipparchus1 by ,etwall2 of the ,meno1 ,first ,alcibiades1 ,phaedo and ,phaedrus1 printed at ,vienna1 #aghd2 of the ,cratylus and ,theaetetus1 by ,fischer2 of the ,republic1 by ,massey2 and of the ,euthydemus and ,gorgias1 by ,dr4 ,routh1 president of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford4 ,this last editor has enriched his edition of these two dialogues with very valuable and copious philological and critical notes1 in which he has displayed no less learning than judgment1 no less acuteness than taste4 ,he appears indeed to me to be one of the best and most modest of philologists2 and it is to be hoped that he will be imitated in what he has done by succeeding editors of ,plato's text4 ,if my translation had been made with an eye to the judgment of the many1 it would have been necessary to apologize for its literal exactness4 ,had ,i been anxious to gratify false taste with respect to composition1 ,i should doubtless have attended less to the precise meaning of the original1 have omitted almost all connective ,particles1 have divided long periods into a number of short ones1 and branched out the strong and deep river of ,plato's language into smooth-gliding1 shallow1 and feeble streams2 but as the present work was composed with the hope indeed of benefitting all1 but with an eye to the criticism solely of men of elevated souls1 ,i have endeavored not to lose a word of the original2 and yet at the same time have attempted to give the translation as much elegance as such verbal accuracy can be supposed capable of admitting4 ,i have also endeavored to preserve the manner as well as the matter of my author1 being fully persuaded that no translation deserves applause1 in which both these are not as much as possible preserved4 ,my principal object in this arduous undertaking has been to unfold all the abstruse and sublime dogmas of ,plato1 as they are found dispersed in his works4 ,minutely to unravel the art which he employs in the composition of all his dialogues1 and to do full justice to his meaning in every particular1 must be the task of some one who has more leisure1 and who is able to give the works of ,plato to the public on a more extensive plan4 ,in accomplishing this great object1 ,i have presented the reader in my notes with nearly the substance in ,english of all the following manuscript ,greek ,commentaries and ,scholia on ,plato2 viz4 of the ,commentaries of ,proclus on the ,parmenides and ,first ,alcibiades2 and of his ,scholia on the ,cratylus2 of the ,scholia of ,olympiodorus on the ,phaedo1 ,gorgias1 and ,philebus2 and of ,hermeas on the ,phoedrus4 ,to these are added very copious extracts from the manuscript of ,damascius1#cj ,peri ,archon1 and from the published works of ,proclus on the ,timeus1 ,republic1 and ,theology of ,plato4 ,of the four first of these manuscripts1 three of which are folio volumes1 ,i have complete copies taken with my own hand2 and of the copious extracts from the others1 those from ,olympiodorus on the ,gorgias were taken by me from the copy preserved in the ,british ,museum2 those from the same philosopher on the ,philebus1 and those from ,hermeas on the ,phaedrus1 and ,damascius ,peri ,archon1 from the copies in the ,bodleian library4 ----------------- #cj ,patricius was one of the very few in modern times who have been sensible of the great merit of these writings1 as is evident from the extract from the preface to his translation of ,proclus's ,theological ,elements4 7,ferrar4 #dto4 #aehc47 ,patricius1 prior to this1 enumerates the writings of ,proclus1 and they are included in his wish that all the manuscript ,greek commentaries on ,plato were made public4 ----------------- ,and here gratitude demands that ,i should publicly acknowledge the very handsome and liberal manner in which ,i was received by the ,university of ,oxford1 and by the principal librarian and sub-librarians of the ,bodleian library1 during the time that ,i made the above mentioned extracts4 ,in the first place ,i have to acknowledge the very polite attention which was paid to me by ,dr4 ,jackson1#ca dean of ,christ-church4 ,in the second place1 the liberty of attendance at the ,bodleian library1 and the accommodation which was there afforded me1 by the librarians of that excellent collection1 demand from me no small tribute of praise4 ,and1 above all1 the very liberal manner in which ,i was received by the fellows of ,new ,college1 with whom ,i resided for three weeks1 and from whom ,i experienced even ,grecian hospitality1 will1 ,i trust1 be as difficult a task for time to obliterate from my memory1 as it would be for me to express it as it deserves4 ----------------- #ca ,i was much pleased to find that this very respectable prelate is a great admirer of ,aristotle1 and that extracts from the ,commentaries of ,simplicius and ,ammonius on the ,categories of that philosopher1 are read by his orders in the college of which he is the head4 ----------------- ,with respect to the faults which ,i may have committed in this translation 7for ,i am not vain enough to suppose it is without fault71 ,i might plead as an excuse1 that the whole of it has been executed amidst severe endurance from bodily infirmity and indigent circumstances2 and that a very considerable part of it was accomplished amidst other ills of no common magnitude1 and other labors inimical to such an undertaking4 ,but whatever may be my errors1 ,i will not fly to calamity for an apology4 ,let it be my excuse that the mistakes ,i may have committed in lesser particulars1 have arisen from my eagerness to seize and promulgate those great truths in the philosophy and theology of ,plato1 which though they have been concealed for ages in oblivion1 have a subsistence coeval with the universe1 and will again be restored1 and flourish for very extended periods1 through all the infinite revolutions of time4 ,in the next place1 it is necessary to speak concerning the qualifications requisite in a legitimate student of the philosophy of ,plato1 previous to which ,i shall just notice the absurdity of supposing that a mere knowledge of the ,greek tongue1 however great that knowledge may be1 is alone sufficient to the understanding the sublime doctrines of ,plato2 for a man might as well think that he can understand ,archimedes without a knowledge of the elements of geometry1 merely because he can read him in the original4 ,those who entertain such an idle opinion1 would do well to meditate on the profound observation of ,heraclitus1 that polymathy does not teach intellect1 7,greek3 ,polymathic noon ou didaskei74 ,by a legitimate student1 then1 of the ,platonic philosophy1 ,i mean one who1 both from nature and education1 is properly qualified for such an arduous undertaking2 that is one who possesses a naturally good disposition2 is sagacious and acute1 and is inflamed with an ardent desire for the acquisition of wisdom and truth2 who from his childhood has been well instructed in the mathematical disciplines2 who1 besides this1 has spent whole days1 and frequently the greater part of the night1 in profound meditation2 and1 like one triumphantly sailing over a raging sea1 or skillfully piercing through an army of foes1 has successfully encountered an hostile multitude of doubts2--in short1 who has never considered wisdom as a thing of trifling estimation and easy access1 but as that which cannot be obtained without the most generous and severe endurance1 and the intrinsic worth of which surpasses all corporeal good1 far more than the ocean the fleeting bubble which floats on its surface4 ,to such as are destitute of these requisites1 who make the study of words their sole employment1 and the pursuit of wisdom but at best a secondary thing1 who expect to be wise by desultory application for an hour or two in a day1 after the fatigues of business1 after mixing with the base multitude of mankind1 laughing with the gay affecting airs of gravity with the serious1 tacitly assenting to every man's opinion1 however absurd1 and winking at folly however shameful and base--to such as these--and1 alas6 the world is full of such--the sublimest truths must appear to be nothing more than jargon and reverie1 the dreams of a distempered imagination1 or the ebullitions of fanatical faith4 ,but all this is by no means wonderful1 if we consider that two-fold ignorance is the disease of the many4 ,for they are not only ignorant with respect to the sublimest knowledge1 but they are even ignorant of their ignorance4 ,hence they never suspect their want of understanding1 but immediately reject a doctrine which appears at first sight absurd1 because it is too splendid for their bat-like eyes to behold4 ,or if they even yield their assent to its truth1 their very assent is the result of the same most dreadful disease of the soul4 ,for they will fancy1 says ,plato1 that they understand the highest truths1 when the very contrary is really the case4 ,i earnestly therefore entreat men of this description1 not to meddle with any of the profound speculations of the ,platonic philosophy1 for it is more dangerous to urge them to such an employment1 than to advise them to follow their sordid avocations with unwearied assiduity1 and toil for wealth with increasing alacrity and vigor2 as they will by this means give free scope to the base habits of their soul1 and sooner suffer that punishment which in such as these must always precede mental illumination1 and be the inevitable consequence of guilt4 ,it is well said indeed by ,lysis1 the ,pythagorean1 that to inculcate liberal speculations and discourses to those whose morals are turbid and confused1 is just as absurd as to pour pure and transparent water into a deep well full of mire and clay2 for he who does this will only disturb the mud1 and cause the pure water to become defiled4 ,the woods of such1 as the same author beautifully observes1 7that is the irrational or corporeal life71 in which these dire passions are nourished1 must first be purified with fire and sword1 and every kind of instrument 7that is1 through preparatory disciplines1 and the political virtues71 and reason must be freed from its slavery to the affections1 before any thing useful can be planted in these savage haunts4 ,let not such then presume to explore the regions of ,platonic philosophy4 ,the land is too pure to admit the sordid and the base4 ,the road which conducts to it is too intricate to be discovered by the unskillful and stupid1 and the journey is too long and laborious to be accomplished by the effeminate and the timid1 by the slave of passion and the dupe of opinion1 by the lover of sense and the despiser of truth4 ,the dangers and difficulties in the undertaking are such as can be sustained by none but the most hardy and accomplished adventurers2 and he who begins the journey without the strength of ,hercules1 or the wisdom and patience of ,ulysses1 must be destroyed by the wild beasts of the forest1 or perish in the storms of the ocean2 must suffer transmutation into a beast through the magic power of ,circe1 or be exiled for life by the detaining charm of ,calypso2 and in short must descend into ,hades1 and wander in its darkness1 without emerging from thence to the bright regions of the morning1 or be ruined by the deadly melody of the ,syren's song4 ,to the most skillful traveler1 who pursues the right road with an ardor which no toils can abate1 with a vigilance which no weariness can surprise into negligence1 and with virtue which no temptations can seduce1 it exhibits for many years the appearance of the ,ithaca of ,ulysses1 or the flying ,italy of ,a,eneas2 for we no sooner gain a glimpse of the pleasing land which is to be the end of our journey1 than it is suddenly ravished from our view1 and we still find ourselves at a distance from the beloved coast1 exposed to the fury of a stormy sea of doubts4 ,abandon then1 ye groveling souls1 the fruitless design6 ,pursue with avidity the beaten road which leads to popular honors and sordid gain1 but relinquish all thoughts of a voyage for which you are totally unprepared4 ,do you not perceive what a length of sea separates you from the royal coast8 ,a sea1 ,huge1 horrid1 vast1 where scarce in safety sails ,the best built ship1 though ,jove inspire the gales4 ,and may we not very justly ask you1 similar to the interrogation of ,calypso1 ,what ships have you1 what sailors to convey1 ,what oars to cut the long laborious way8 ,i shall only observe further1 that the life of ,plato1 by ,olympiodorus1 was prefixed to this translation1 in preference to that by ,diogenes ,laertius1 because the former is the production of a most eminent ,platonist1 and the latter of a mere historian1 who indiscriminately gave to the public whatever anecdotes he found in other authors4 ,if the reader combines this short sketch of the life of ,plato with what that philosopher says of himself in his #gth ,epistle1 he will be in possession of the most important particulars about him that can be obtained at present4 ,,explanations ,,of ,,certain ,,platonic ,,terms ,as some apology may be thought necessary for having introduced certain unusual words of ,greek origin1 ,i shall only observe1 that1 as all arts and sciences have certain appropriate terms peculiar to themselves1 philosophy1 which is the art of arts1 and science of sciences1 as being the mistress of both1 has certainly a prior and a far superior claim to this privilege4 ,i have not1 however1 introduced1 ,i believe1 any of these terms without at the same time sufficiently explaining them2 but1 lest the contrary should have taken place1 the following explanation of all such terms as ,i have been able to recollect1 and also of common words used by ,platonists in a peculiar sense1 is subjoined for the information of the reader4 ,anagogic1 ,greek3 anagogikos4 ,leading on high4 ,demiurgus1 ,greek3 demiourgos4 ,jupiter1 the artificer of the universe4 ,dianoetia4 ,this word is derived from ,greek3 dianoia1 or that power of the soul which reasons scientifically1 deriving the principles of its reasoning from intellect4 ,plato is so uncommonly accurate in his diction1 that this word is very seldom used by him in any other than its primary sense4 ,the ,divine1 ,greek3 to ,theion1 is being subsisting in conjunction with the one4 ,for all things1 except the one1 viz4 essence1 life1 and intellect1 are considered by ,plato as suspended from and secondary to the gods4 ,for the gods do not subsist in1 but prior to1 these1 which they also produce and connect1 but are not characterized by these4 ,in many places1 however1 ,plato calls the participants of the gods by the names of the gods4 ,for not only the ,athenian ,guest in the ,laws1 but also ,socrates in the ,phaedrus1 calls a divine soul a god4 ,for1 says he1 all the horses and charioteers of the gods are good1 c4 ,and afterwards1 still more clearly1 he adds1 ,and this is the life of the gods4 ,and not only this1 but he also denominates those nature gods that are always united to the gods1 and which1 in conjunction with them1 give completion to one series4 ,he also frequently calls daemons gods1 though1 according to essence1 they are secondary to and subsist about the gods4 ,for in the ,phaedrus1 ,timaeus1 and other dialogues1 he extends the appellation of gods as far as the daemons4 ,and what is still more paradoxical than all this1 he does not refuse to call some men gods2 as1 for instance1 the ,elean ,guest in the ,sophista4 ,from all this1 therefore1 we must infer that with respect to the word god1 one thing which is thus denominated is simply deity2 another is so according to union2 a third1 according to participation2 a fourth1 according to contact2 and a fifth1 according to similitude4 ,thus every superessential nature is primarily a god2 but every intellectual nature is so according to union4 ,and again1 every divine soul is a god according to participation2 but divine daemons are gods according to contact with the gods2 and the souls of men obtain this appellation through similitude4 ,each of these1 however1 except the first1 is as we have said1 rather divine than a god2 for the ,athenian ,guest in the ,laws1 calls intellect itself divine4 ,but that which is divine is secondary to the first deity1 in the same manner as the united is to the one2 that which is intellectual to intellect2 and that which is animated to soul4 ,indeed1 things more uniform and simple always precede1 and the series of beings ends in the one itself4 ,doxastic4 ,this word is derived from doxa1 opinion1 and signifies that which is apprehended by opinion1 or that power which is the extremity of the rational soul4 ,this power knows the universal in particulars1 as that every man is a rational animal2 but it knows not the dioti1 or why a thing is1 but only the oti1 or that it is4 ,the ,eternal1 ,greek3 ,to aionion1 that which has a never-ending subsistence1 without any connection with time2 or1 as ,plotinus profoundly defines it1 infinite life at once total and full4 ,that which is generated1 ,greek3 to geneton4 ,that which has not the whole of its essence or energy subsisting at once without temporal dispersion4 ,generation1 ,greek3 genesis4 ,an essence composite and multiform1 and conjoined with time4 ,this is the proper signification of the word2 but it is used symbolically by ,plato1 and also by theologists more ancient than ,plato1 for the sake of indication4 ,for as ,proclus beautifully observes 7in ,,ms4 ,comment in ,parmenidem71 ,fables call the ineffable unfolding into light through causes1 generation4 ,hence1 he adds in the ,orphic writings1 the first cause is denominated time2 for where there is generation1 according to its proper signification1 there also there is time4 ,a ,guest1 ,greek3 ,xenos4 ,this word1 in its more ample signification in the ,greek1 denotes a stranger1 but properly implies one who receives another1 or is himself received at an entertainment4 ,in the following dialogues1 therefore1 wherever one of the speakers is introduced as a ,xenos1 ,i have translated this word guest1 as being more conformable to the genius of ,plato's dialogues1 which may be justly called rich mental banquets1 and consequently the speakers in them may be considered as so many guests4 ,hence in the ,timaeus1 the persons of that dialogue are expressly spoken of as guests4 ,hyparxis1 ,greek3 uparxis4 ,the first principle or foundation1 as it were1 of the essence of a thing4 ,hence also1 it is the summit of essence4 ,idiom1 ,greek3 ,idioma4 ,the characteristic peculiarity of a thing4 ,the ,immortal1 ,greek3 ,to athanaton4 ,according to ,plato1 there are many orders of immortality1 pervading from on high to the last of things2 and the ultimate echo1 as it were1 of immorality is seen in the perpetuity of the mundane wholes1 which according to the doctrine of the ,elean ,guest in the ,politicus1 they participate from the ,father of the universe4 ,for both the being and the life of every body depend on another cause2 since body is not itself naturally adapted to connect1 or adorn1 or preserve itself4 ,but the immortality of partial souls1 such as ours1 is more manifest and more perfect than this of the perpetual bodies in the universe2 as is evident from the many demonstrations which are given of it in the ,phaedo1 and in the #ajth book of the ,republic4 ,for the immortality of partial souls has a more principal subsistence1 as possessing in itself the cause of eternal permanency4 ,but prior to both these is the immortality of daemons2 for these neither verge to mortality1 nor are they filled with the nature of things which are generated and corrupted4 ,more venerable1 however1 than these1 and essentially transcending them1 is the immortality of divine souls1 which are primarily self-motive1 and contain the fountains and principles of the life which is attributed about bodies1 and through which bodies participate of renewed immortality4 ,and prior to all these is the immortality of the gods3 for ,diotima in the ,banquet does not ascribe an immortality of this kind to demons4 ,hence such an immortality as this is separate and exempt from wholes4 ,for1 together with the immortality of the gods1 eternity subsists1 which is the fountain of all immortality and life1 as well that life which is perpetual1 as that which is dissipated into nonentity4 ,in short1 therefore1 the divine immortal is that which is generative and connective of perpetual life4 ,for it is not immortal1 as participating of life1 but as supplying divine life1 and deifying life itself4 ,imparticipable1 ,greek3 ,to amethekton4 ,that which is not consubsistent with an inferior nature4 ,thus imparticipable intellect is an intellect which is not consubsistent with soul4 ,intellectual ,projection1 ,greek3 noera epibole4 ,as the perception of intellect is immediate1 being a darting forth1 as it were1 directly to its proper objects1 this direct intuition is expressed by the term projection4 ,the ,intelligible1 ,greek3 ,to noeton4 ,this word in ,plato and ,platonic writers has a various signification3 for1 in the first place1 whatever is exempt from sensibles1 and has its essence separate from them1 is said to be intelligible1 and in this sense soul is intelligible4 ,in the second place1 intellect1 which is prior to soul1 is intelligible4 ,in the third place1 that which is more ancient than intellect1 which replenishes intelligence and is essentially perfective of it1 is called intelligible2 and this is the intelligible which ,timaeus in ,plato places in the order of a paradigm1 prior to the demiurgic intellect and intellectual energy4 ,but beyond these is the divine intelligible1 which is defined according to divine union and hyparxis4 ,for this is intelligible as the object of desire to intellect1 as giving perfection to and containing it1 and as the completion of being4 ,the highest intelligible1 therefore1 is that which is the hyparxis of the gods2 the second1 that which is true being1 and the first essence2 the third1 intellect1 and all intellectual life2 and the fourth1 the order belonging to soul4 ,logismos1 reasoning4 ,when applied to divinity as by ,plato in the ,timaeus1 signifies a distributive cause of things4 ,on account of which2 with reference to which2 through which2 according to which1 from which2 or in which2 viz4 ,greek3 di o1 uph' ou1 di ou1 kath' o1 ex ou4 ,by the first of these terms1 ,plato is accustomed to denominate the final cause2 by the second the paradigmatic2 by the third1 the demiurgic2 by the fourth1 the instrumental2 by the fifth1 form2 and by the sixth1 matter4 ,orectic4 ,this word is derived from ,greek3 orexis1 appetite4 ,paradigm1 ,greek3 paradeigma4 ,a pattern1 or that with reference to which a thing is made4 ,the perpetual1 ,greek3 to aidion4 ,that which subsists forever1 but through a connection with time4 ,a ,politician1 ,greek3 politikos4 ,this word1 as ,mr4 ,sydenham justly observes in his notes in the ,rivals1 is of a very large and extensive import as used by ,plato1 and the other ancient writers on politics3 for it includes all those statesmen or politicians in aristocracies and democracies1 who were1 either for life1 or for a certain time1 invested with the whole or a part of kingly authority1 and the power thereto belonging4 ,see the ,politicus4 ,prudence1 ,greek3 ,phronesis4 ,this word frequently means in ,plato and ,platonic writers1 the habit of discerning what is good in all moral actions1 and frequently signifies intelligence1 or intellectual ,perception4 ,the following admirable explanation of this word is given by ,jamblichus ,prudence having a precedaneous subsistence1 receives its generation from a pure and perfect intellect4 ,hence it looks to intellect itself1 is perfected by it1 and has this as the measure and most beautiful paradigm of all its energies4 ,if also we have any communion with the gods1 it is especially effected by this virtue2 and through this we are in the highest degree assimilated to them4 ,the knowledge too of such things as are good1 profitable1 and beautiful1 and of the contraries to these1 is obtained by this virtue2 and the judgment and correction of works proper to be done are by this directed4 ,and in short it is a certain governing leader of men1 and of the whole arrangement of their nature2 and referring cities and houses1 and the particular life1 of every one to a divine paradigm1 it forms them according to the best similitude2 obliterating some things and purifying others4 ,so that prudence renders its possessors similar to divinity4 ,jamblic4 apud4 ,stob4 p4 #ada4 ,psychical1 ,greek3 psychikos4 ,pertaining to soul4 ,science4 ,this word is sometimes defined by ,plato to be that which assigns the causes of things2 sometimes to be that the subjects of which have a perfectly stable essence2 and together with this1 he conjoins the assignation of cause from reasoning4 ,sometimes again he defines it to be that the principles of which are not hypotheses2 and1 according to this definition1 he asserts that there is one science which ascends as far as to the principle of things4 ,for this science considers that which is truly the principle as unhypothetic1 has for its subject true being1 and produces its reasonings from cause4 ,according to the second definition1 he calls dianoetic knowledge science2 but according to the first alone1 he assigns to physiology the appellation of science4 ,the telestic art4 ,the art pertaining to mystic ceremonies4 ,theurgic4 ,this word is derived from ,greek3 ,theourgia1 or that religious operation which deifies him by whom it is performed as much as is possible to man4 ,truth1 ,greek3 aletheia4 ,plato1 following ancient theologists1 considers truth multifariously4 ,hence1 according to his doctrine1 the highest truth is characterized by unity1 and is the light proceeding from the good1 which imparts purity1 as he says in the ,philebus1 and union1 as he says in the ,republic1 to intelligibles4 ,the truth which is next to this in dignity is that which proceeds from intelligibles1 and illuminates the intellectual orders1 and which an essence unfigured1 uncolored1 and without contact1 first receives1 where also the plain of truth is situated1 as it is written in the ,phaedrus4 ,the third kind of truth is1 that which is connascent with souls1 and which through intelligence comes into contact with true being4 ,for the psychical light is the third1 from the intelligible2 intellectual deriving its plenitude from intelligible light1 and the psychical from the intellectual4 ,and the last kind of truth is that which is full of error and inaccuracy through sense1 and the instability of its object4 ,for a material nature is perpetually flowing1 and is not naturally adapted to abide even for a moment4 ,the following beautiful description of the third kind of truth1 or that which subsists in souls1 is given by ,jamblichus3 ,truth1 as the name implies1 makest a conversion about the gods and their incorporeal energy2 but1 doxastic imitation1 which1 as ,plato says1 is fabricative of images1 wanders about that which is deprived of divinity and is dark4 ,and the former indeed receives its perfection in intelligible and divine forms1 and real beings which have a perpetual sameness of subsistence2 but the latter looks to that which is formless1 and non-being1 and which has a various subsistence2 and1 about this it's visive power is blunted4 ,the former contemplates that which is1 but the latter assumes such a form as appears to the many4 ,hence the former associates with intellect1 and increases the intellectual nature which we contain2 but the latter1 from looking to that which always seems to be1 hunts after folly and deceives4 ,jamblic4 apud ,stob4 p4 #acf4 ,the unical1 ,greek3 to niaion4 ,that which is characterized by unity4